Download pdf - Small-Scale Poultry Processing

By Anne FanaticoNCAT Agriculture Specialist

May 2003

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IntrIntrIntrIntrIntroductionoductionoductionoductionoductionA growing number of small producers are rais-

ing poultry outdoors on pasture, processing the birdson-farm, and selling the meat directly to customersat the farm or at a farmers’ market. Many statesallow up to 1,000 birds to be processed on a farmeach year and sold directly to consumers with noinspection. Some of these small producers are go-ing further—building government-licensed process-ing plants to supply regional or niche markets. Spe-cialty “religious kill” is often done in small plants.“Kosher” is the term for Jewish slaughter and“halaal” for Muslim slaughter.

Access to processing is a critical issue for small producers. Consolidation in the meat process-ing industry has left very few small plants that will do custom poultry processing. (Large plantsgenerally don’t process for small producers; they can’t keeptrack of a small batch of birds and can’t make money on small-volume orders.)

This publication covers small-scale processing, both on-farm and in small plants. Relevant information on large-scaleprocessing is also included for comparison, to provide con-text, and because small processors need to have some under-standing of how large-scale processing works.

This publication was developed by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology (NCAT)(http://www.ncat.org) for HeiferInternational (http://www.heifer.org)with funds from Southern Region SARE.

Distribution is provided free of charge to the publicthrough NCAT’s ATTRA Project (http://www.attra.ncat.org), the National Sustainable AgricultureInformation Service.

Related ATTRA publicationsSustainable Poultry: Production OverviewGrowing Your Range Poultry Business:An Entrepreneur’s Toolbox

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SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PROCESSINGPAGE 2

TTTTTable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................. 1Table 1. Comparison of types of processing................................ 2

Pre-slaughter ............................................................................... 3Immobilizing, Killing, and Bleeding ................................................. 4Feather Removal ........................................................................... 6

Table 2. Scalding ..................................................................... 7Removal of Head, Oil Glands, and Feet ........................................... 9Evisceration ................................................................................. 9Washing the Carcass ...................................................................10Chilling......................................................................................10Cut-up, Deboning, and Further Processing....................................13Aging ........................................................................................14Packaging ..................................................................................14Storage .....................................................................................15Delivery and Distribution.............................................................16Clean-up ...................................................................................16Waste Management ....................................................................16

Table 3. Processing Plant Waste Loads per 1000 Chickens ........17Equipment and Supplies ..............................................................18Processing Diverse Species..........................................................19Batch vs. Continuous Processing ..................................................19Processing Rate ..........................................................................19Processing Setup ........................................................................20Economics .................................................................................23Resources ..................................................................................23References .................................................................................24

Appendix A. South Central New York RC&D MPU Layout .........29Appendix B. Kentucky MPU Layout..........................................35Appendix C. Small Plant Work Areas and Design ......................36Attachment ............................................................................38

SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PROCESSING PAGE 3

During the first part of the 20th century, poul-try was sold live to consumers who did their ownprocessing. In the 1930s, only the blood and feath-ers were removed (“New York dressed”). Asconsumers demanded more convenience, themarket grew for eviscerated or ready-to-cook(RTC) birds.

Producing ready-to-cook poultry involves:• Pre-slaughter: catching and transport• Immobilizing, killing, and bleeding• Feather removal: scalding, picking• Removal of head, oil glands, and feet• Evisceration• Chilling• Cut-up, deboning, and further processing• Aging• Packaging• Storage• Distribution

Pre-slaughterBroilers are usually processed at 4.5 lbs. live

weight. Feed is withheld for 8 to 12 hours beforeslaughter to reduce the amount of feed in the gut

Table 1. Comparison of types of processingOn-farm

Outdoor or shed facilityManual

Less than $15,000Family

50-100 birds per daySeasonal; 1-30 pro-

cessing days per year

Product sold fresh,sometimes frozen;

whole birds

Independent operation;labor-intensive; low-

risk; usually non-inspected, direct sales

Small2,000 to 3,000 sq. ft.Manual/MechanicalLess than $500,000

Family/hired200-5,000 birds per daySeasonal or year-round;50-plus processing days

per year

Fresh and frozen, wholeand parts

Independent or part of acollaborative group;

requires good marketsand grower commitments

Large150,000 sq. ft.

Fully automated$25,000,000

Hired250,000 birds per dayYear-round; process

daily

Mainly cut-up, soldfresh, further-pro-

cessed

Part of an integratedoperation including

grow-out, processing,and marketing

SizeEquipment

CostLabor

CapacityOperation

Marketing

Comments

and the possibility of tearing it during process-ing, which would cause fecal contamination ofthe carcass. Withholding the feed too long willresult in watery guts that leak.

CCCCCAAAAATTTTTCHINGCHINGCHINGCHINGCHING ANDANDANDANDAND LOADINGLOADINGLOADINGLOADINGLOADINGLarge producers harvest all their birds at once

(all-in, all-out). Small producers often “skim” byharvesting larger birds and leaving smaller onesto grow. Birds are best caught at night or earlyin the morning when they are calm. For smallproducers, picking birds up individually by thesides is the best way to minimize stress and pre-vent injury. Of course, this is not feasible whenyou’re dealing with thousands of birds (1). Inlarge-scale production, chickens are caught bygrabbing both legs, just above the feet. No morethan three birds should be carried in one hand.Crews of 10 people catch and crate birds at therate of 10,000 per hour, bruising up to 25% ofthem (1). In Europe, automatic harvesting ma-chinery is increasingly used in large operations,because it is considered more humane than therough treatment by catchers who handle severalbirds at once.

Transport crates are wooden or plastic. Atypical crate can hold about 8 birds in the sum-mer and 10 in the winter, depending on their sizeand on the weather. The crates usually have a


small opening, to help prevent escape duringloading, but a small opening also increases thechance of physical injury to wings. Crowding ofbirds in crates is another welfare issue.

Kuhl Co. (2) and Brower Co. (3) sell trans-port crates. Used crates are sometimes availableat lower prices. Small producers sometimesmake their own wire crates from welded wiremesh and clips.

Once the birds reach the processing facility,it is important to keep them comfortable in theholding area. Scheduling arrival at the plant canreduce waiting time. On-farm processors usu-ally hold crated birds under trees or other shade.

The conventional industry typically producesbirds within one hour of the processing plant.With two hours of travel, shrinkage or weightloss is about 1% (4). In Europe, special modulesare used on transport trucks for even air flowand good ventilation. Companies are fined forarriving with dead birds. Large processors keepcrated birds in a holding shed with fans and mis-ters to keep them cool.

Care must be taken when unloading the birdsfrom the crates to prevent bruises and brokenbones. On-farm and small plants unload birdsby hand. At large plants, broilers are unloadedonto conveyor belts. Transport crates should bewashed after each use.

Catching, loading, transporting, and unload-ing expose birds to new environments and newsources of stress. This can negatively affect meatquality (see Aging section). During hauling, inparticular, birds have to deal with heat or cold,feed and water withdrawal, motion, vibration,noise, and social disruption (1).

Immobilizing, Killing,Immobilizing, Killing,Immobilizing, Killing,Immobilizing, Killing,Immobilizing, Killing,and Bleedingand Bleedingand Bleedingand Bleedingand Bleeding

Small processors usually place birds in fun-nel-shaped kill cones after removing them fromcrates; large plants hang them on shackles andstun them before killing.

An overhead track is used to move carcassesthrough a plant. Keeping birds on-line through-out killing and dressing reduces labor sincethere is no handling. In many small plants,you just push the shackle along; in largeplants, the track is motorized.

For on-farm processing, stainless steel killcones, wrapped metal, or traffic cones are com-monly used. A bucket or jug with a hole screwedto a board will also work. Birds are not stunnedbefore killing and will jerk a lot during bleeding.Cones should be the proper size, and the bird’swings folded down when inserted, to prevent thebird from flapping its wings or backing out ofthe cone. Wing flapping can cause hemorrhages

TTTTTRANSPORRANSPORRANSPORRANSPORRANSPORTTTTT, , , , , HOLDINGHOLDINGHOLDINGHOLDINGHOLDING, , , , , ANDANDANDANDAND

UNLOADINGUNLOADINGUNLOADINGUNLOADINGUNLOADINGAvoid holding birds in crates for too long or

transporting them when the weather is too hot,cold, or wet. With on-farm processing, there islittle or no travel time. If you have to transportin cold, wet weather, be sure to cover the birds—small producers typically cover the crates with atarp.

You will need a full-size pick-up or largertruck—200 birds in 25 crates weigh about 1250pounds. For more birds, you will need a trailer.If you need to transport 1000 birds at a time, you’llneed a special vehicle such as a bob truck.

Catching andtransport can

be stressful forthe birds.

Birds are crated and transported toprocessing in this trailer.


in the muscle and broken bones (1). In largeplants, birds are hung on shackles in a dark roomto help calm them and ease handling. Speciallighting, such as blue, will also keep them calmand prevent flapping and injury (1).

There are several ways of cutting blood ves-sels in poultry, the most common killing method.In the conventional industry, the carotid arteriesand the jugular veins are cut on both sides of theneck by a deep cut in the front. In kosher andhalaal slaughter, only one side of the neck is cut,so the birds bleed more slowly. The spinal cordshould not be cut (as when the head is cut off),because the feathers “set” and are hard to pick(5). The esophagus should also not be cut, toprevent microbial contamination from leakage.

vides a uniform heartbeat for better bleeding, andrelaxes the feather follicles for easier picking (7).Furthermore, stunning is considered more hu-mane than not stunning. U.S. law requires stun-ning of other livestock, though not of poultry.

In large plants, stunning works as follows.The heads of the birds are dipped into a salinebath with an electric current, rendering them tem-porarily unconscious (1–2 minutes—enough timefor cutting and bleeding them to death) (7). Thecurrent is low-voltage and low-amperage (about20 volts, depending on bird size, for 3–5 seconds;the amperage is 10–12 mA per bird) (7).

In Europe, stunning of poultry is required bylaw, and the stun, administered at higher volt-age and amperage, is irreversible—birds cannotrecover. Another method of stunning, more com-mon in Europe than in the U.S., uses carbon di-oxide or argon gas to anesthetize the bird. Gasstunning is expensive, but is useful if you areprocessing a variety of birds, since it can be diffi-cult to adjust an electric stun for different spe-cies.

There are relationships between stunning,killing, muscle metabolism, and meat quality.These interactions have been studied mostly withstunned birds killed in shackles, since that is thetypical practice in large plants. Less is knownabout the effects on meat quality of killing incones with no stunning.

BBBBBLEEDINGLEEDINGLEEDINGLEEDINGLEEDINGSmall processors usually believe that the

bleed-out is more thorough with no stunning.About 35–50% of the blood comes out of stunnedbirds, with the rest remaining mainly in the or-gans (1). Bleeding takes 1.5 to 3 minutes (7).According to industry thought, if the bird is notstunned, the bleed-out is slower and not as com-plete, because the bird is struggling and its or-gans are using blood. Maximum drainage ofblood is desirable so there won’t be dark spotson the meat, especially on wing veins.

BBBBBLOODLOODLOODLOODLOOD RECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERYOn the farm, blood is collected in a bucket or

trough and used in composting; however, on alarge scale, blood is a wastewater pollutant sinceit contains a lot of organic matter. On a shackleline, blood can be collected in a blood tunnel thatreduces splashing.

SSSSSTUNNINGTUNNINGTUNNINGTUNNINGTUNNINGStunning is not used in on-farm processing

and is only sometimes used in small plants, whereit is often impractical. Small-scale processorAaron Silverman (6) does not stun. “I don’t likethe idea of my employees using an electricalimplement in a wet environment.” According toSilverman, if you do not stun, you should kill incones to restrain the bird from convulsions andwing flapping. In some specialty religious pro-cessing, such as kosher and halaal, stunning isnot permitted. However, stunning is very help-ful when working with turkeys or geese becauseof their larger size. When using a stun gun, it iscritical to set it at the correct voltage—110 volts.If you do not adjust the stun correctly, birds willbe over- or under-stunned. Over-stunning re-sults in hemorrhages and broken bones.

Stunning is the norm at large plants. It im-mobilizes the birds for the killing machine, pro-

Making the cut.


FFFFFeather Removaleather Removaleather Removaleather Removaleather RemovalSSSSSCALDINGCALDINGCALDINGCALDINGCALDING

Small processors remove the birds from thekilling cones for scalding. In large plants, thebirds stay on the shackles.

Birds are scalded (immersed in hot water) toloosen the feathers. Heat breaks down the pro-tein holding the feathers in place (5). Scalding isvery temperature-sensitive.

In the U.S., a hard scald is used by small andlarge processors alike. It loosens the outerlayer of skin, providing a better coating adhe-sion for fried foods (important for further-pro-cessing). After a hard scald, the skin must bekept moist and covered or it will discolor. Avery hard scald is needed for waterfowl be-cause their feathers are harder to loosen.

In Europe, soft-scalding is more commonand used in conjunction with air-chilling (seethe Air-chilling section below). The Label Rougeprogram in France, which focuses on gourmetmeat quality, requires a soft scald. The skinremains intact and skin color is retained; how-ever, picking is more difficult.

Scalding increases the body temperatureof the carcass. In kosher processing, the birdis not scalded because it would partially cookthe meat. As a result, the birds are harder topick.

On-farm processors use a single tank of hotwater, usually scalding one to four birds at a time.Labor is saved when a mechanism such as a bas-ket or arm dunks several birds together. In smallplants, scalders with such a mechanism can handle12 birds at once. Some on-farm processors adddish soap to the scald water to help it better pen-etrate the feathers and facilitate picking; others

do not find this necessary.It can take a while to heat the

water in a small scalder to the righttemperature, and it can be tricky tomaintain that temperature, especiallywhen fresh water is added. Most on-farm processors don’t replace thewater during processing for thesereasons. However, this can lead toanother problem—the water gets toodirty. Some on-farm processors solvethe dilemma by using two scaldersat a time, rotating them as one reachesthe correct temperature. RobertPlamondon in Oregon uses a waterheater so he can replace the scalderwater as often as needed. “Whenyou have to wait a half-hour for thescalder to heat up, there is a tempta-tion to scald more birds than is wise”(8). Bigger scalders have an overflow

to add fresh water continuously.Additional precautionary measures can re-

duce filth in the scalder. Wet birds in the fieldcan pick up manure on the skin and feathers andthis material can end up in the scalder. Large

Table 2. ScaldingTypes of

ScaldWaterfowl(very hard)

Hard

No Man’sLand

Soft

Temperature160-180°F

138-148°F

130-138°F

123-130°F

Length oftime30-60

seconds30-75

seconds

90-120seconds

CommentsNeeded forwaterfowl

Removes outerlayer of skin

Avoid: too hot tokeep skin intactbut too low to

remove epidermisKeeps skin intact

(Adapted from Tanner, James Jerrel. 1970. A WastewaterCharacterization of the Poultry Processing Industry. Master’s thesis,

University of Arkansas. p. 20.)

Aaron Silverman’s scalder (foreground) and picker handleabout 12 birds at a time.


plants may use a bird scrubber (large rotatingbrushes on either side of the bird) and also spraythe birds with chlorinated water before puttingthem in the scalder.

While small processors use a single-stage,static tank, large plants use long multiple tanksfor multi-stage scalding. The tanks vary in tem-perature—the first is kept at a lower tempera-ture since it can take 2 minutes for the track tocarry the birds through. In that time, they wouldcook at 134° F. The tanks also have a countercur-rent flow of water, which produces a dirty-to-clean gradient. The scald water flows in the op-posite direction of the birds, so they are continu-ally moving to cleaner water. Overflow adds freshwater continuously.

Water for processingIt is important to have an adequate supplyof potable water for processing. If you havewell water, it needs to meet drinking stan-dards and should be tested. If the rate ofwater flow on your farm is slow, you mayneed to add a reservoir tank. RobertPlamondon put a sealed 1500-gallon plas-tic tank on a concrete slab close to his well.(He lives in a mild climate and does not havea freezing problem in winter or a heatingproblem in summer.) “The well pump pourswater into the top of the tank, and a secondpump (a jet pump) takes water out of thebottom of the tank” (9). He shock-chlori-nates occasionally and flushes residues outof the bottom (8). He bought the tank fromSnyder Industries, Inc. (10).

PPPPPICKINGICKINGICKINGICKINGICKINGThe quality of the pick is related to the scald.

If the scald water was too cool, the feathers won’tloosen; if it was too hot, the skin will tear in thepicker. But if it was just right, the feathers usu-ally come out easily and can even be removed byhand. However, hand picking is time-consum-ing. If you are planning to process very manybirds, you will need a mechanical picker. Re-moving the feathers by abrasion, these machinescan pick a bird clean in about 30 seconds (andwill sometimes break the wings). Some on-farmprocessors skin the birds instead of removing thefeathers. A drum picker—a cylinder with rubberfingers around the exterior—defeathers one bird

at a time. The operator holds the bird above thecylinder, rotating it as the cylinder spins and picksoff feathers. Drum pickers come in table-top orfree-standing models. A tub or batch picker is arotating tub with rubber fingers mounted on theinside walls; it can handle 2–12 birds at a time.Small processors carry the birds to the picker.Large plants use continuous, in-line pickers thatlook like a tunnel with rubber fingers. Birds passthrough the tunnel on shackles.

Turkeys and older laying hens are harder todefeather, and waterfowl feathers are especiallyhard to remove. Pinfeathers—immature feathersstill in the feather shaft—can be hard to removemechanically. Wax for removing pinfeathers isavailable from Pickwick/Zesco (11). “Pinning”is the removal of pinfeathers by hand. “Singe-ing” involves passing the bird through a flame toburn small hair-like feathers. Some on-farm pro-cessors use a propane torch to burn them off,being careful not to burn the skin. The feathersof colored birds may leave spots of pigmenta-tion on the skin. Commercial poultry breeds havewhite feathers that do not leave stains. Consum-ers in the U.S. are accustomed to a carcass with aclean, unspeckled appearance.

Feathers areremoved by the

abrasive action ofrubber fingers in

this tub-stylepicker.

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A producer is trained to use a drum picker.


SSSSSCALDINGCALDINGCALDINGCALDINGCALDING ANDANDANDANDAND PICKINGPICKINGPICKINGPICKINGPICKING EQUIPMENTEQUIPMENTEQUIPMENTEQUIPMENTEQUIPMENTThe companies Pickwick/Zesco (11), Brower

(3), and Ashley (12) have supplied small-scalepoultry processing equipment for many years.Small scalders (one bird at a time) cost less than$200 and small pickers less than $400. These com-panies also offer many larger models. A 12- to16-bird scalder costs about $10,000.

Some home businesses have emerged that sellrelatively inexpensive processing equipment foron-farm processors.• Kenneth King of JAKO, Inc. (13) sells a rela-

tively low-cost scalder and tub picker of hisown design. Each piece costs $1,700, com-pared to about $3,000 each for comparableequipment from conventional suppliers. Thepicker has a plastic barrel. JAKO also sells asmall table-top picker (Lil’ Pick) powered bya hand drill for $125.

• Eli M. Reiff of Poultry Man (14) has equip-ment made in a local farm shop. He offers arotary scalder for $1,895 and a tub picker for$1,395. He says comparable equipment sellsfor $6,000. He also offers a smaller picker for$695.

• David Schaeffer (15) has developed theFeatherman Jr., which picks three chickensor one turkey. It costs $715 with the motor (1hp 115 Volt Dayton) installed and $520 withno motor. Schaeffer recommends pairing hispicker with the Ashley M-38 scalder (40,000BTU, 38 gallon tank, automatic temperaturecontrol, $1250).

• Rob Bauman of R & R Pluckers (16) buildspickers.

Note: Prices may have changed.According to on-farm processor Jenny Drake,

“I KNOW the stuff is expensive, but you willkick yourself over and over if you don’t get equip-ment designed for the scale of operation. We bitthe bullet and bought JAKO equipment, and ithas been worth every penny.”

Small processors can look for used equipmentfrom sources such as Grit, the newsletter of theAmerican Pastured Poultry Producers Associa-tion (17), or from Tom Neuberger of South Da-kota Poultry Headquarters (18), but availabilityis limited. There may be old poultry processingequipment in your area from small plants of thepast. Large plants in your area that are remodel-ing can be a source of used equipment. Large

companies have graveyards with used equip-ment, some being turned into scrap metal. Keepin mind that while used equipment can help youcut costs, it may not meet the specifications yourfacility requires.

Homemade or Modified EquipmentMaking your own equipment is another wayto lower costs, but consider the time requiredto build or find parts. Again, make sure thedesign and materials meet the specificationsyou require. But be forewarned that home-made equipment is not likely to meet federalor state meat inspection requirements.Homemade scalders: When first starting out,some small-scale producers use a largestockpot in the backyard heated with a fire.On-farm processors have also used propaneburners (from outdoor turkey fryers), water-bath pots made for canning, and hospital ster-ilizers (common before the advent of the au-toclave). A homemade scalder can be madewith a utility sink, a heating element, and athermostat for about $50 (19). On-farm pro-cessors also make large insulated scaldersfrom old electric or propane water heaters.Some even have a dunker. It is especiallyimportant to use thermometers with home-made scalders to ensure a constant tempera-ture.For those making homemade equipment, itis very important to be aware of the dangerof electrocution. Scalders and pickers areused around water, which makes improperlyconnected electrical parts even more dan-gerous. Important safeguards include usinga competent electrician, following electricalcode, installing ground fault circuit interrupt-ers (GFIs), and making sure the power cordis of sufficient gauge to handle the current.Gas-powered water heaters are also used,but there is an explosion risk.Homemade pickers: Many have convertedold washing machines or plastic 55-gallondrum into pickers. On-farm processor HerrickKimball has written Anyone Can Build a Tub-Style Mechanical Chicken Plucker (20). Heestimates that this type of picker can be builtfor $500—much less than the typical $2,000.He also moderates a listserver called

Continued on page 9


whizbangchickenpluckers, accessible at<http://groups.yahoo.com>. Photographs areavailable. JAKO (13) and Stromberg’s (21)sell picker fingers for about $1 each.For internet pictures of a scalder being built,see Paul Helbert’s (22) webpage <http://home.rica.net/phelbert/tub.html>.

Removal of Head, OilRemoval of Head, OilRemoval of Head, OilRemoval of Head, OilRemoval of Head, OilGlands, and FGlands, and FGlands, and FGlands, and FGlands, and Feeteeteeteeteet

After feather removal, the heads, oil glands,and feet are removed. On-farm and small pro-cessors usually cut the head off; large plants havemachines that pull heads off so that the esopha-gus is also removed.

Birds preen their feathers with an oil glandlocated on top of the tail. It is almost 1% of thecarcass, but because of its odor and taste it isremoved. Asian markets may prefer a carcasswith the oil gland intact; government regulationspermit it to remain under religious kill exemp-tions.

The feet are removed at the knee joint. Insmall plants, birds are put on evisceration shack-les after scalding and picking. In large plants,after the feet are removed, the birds are rehungon the shackles. When birds are first hung, it iseasiest to hang them by the feet, but duringrehanging, they are hung by the knee joint. Thisprocess also keeps the dirtier kill shackles sepa-rate from the cleaner evisceration shackles. Onekill line feeds several evisceration lines, since evis-ceration is relatively slow. In a small plant, nineshackles per minute is a good rate during evis-ceration (6).

EviscerationEviscerationEviscerationEviscerationEviscerationTo eviscerate manually, cut around the vent,

open the body, and draw out the organs. Re-move inedible viscera or guts (intestines, esopha-gus, spleen, reproductive organs, lungs). Loosenthe crop so it will come out with the guts. Thekidneys remain inside because they are hard toremove.

Instead of shackles, on-farm processors usu-ally eviscerate on a flat surface, (stainless steel

for easy cleaning or a disposable plastic sheet).However, some on-farm processors use an indi-vidual shackle on a rack or stand, available fromNeuberger (18). According to small-plant pro-cessor Luke Elliott (23), it is easier and cleaner toeviscerate on shackles.

On-farm processors and small plants eviscer-ate manually with scissors, knife, or a handheldvent-cutter gun with a circular blade, and drawout the guts by hand. Large plants use auto-mated machines that scoop out the guts; high-speed lines eviscerate 2,000–8,000 birds per hour(1). These automated lines are usually designedfor one species, and uniformity in size is veryimportant for proper operation.

For state and federal inspection, the guts usu-ally remain attached. They can be separated butmust remain alongside the bird so that the in-spector can see both the inside and outside ofthe bird as they look for disease or other prob-lems. Inspection requires bright light, ahandwashing station, and places to put suspectbirds and condemned birds (1). A mirror on thebackside of the bird allows the inspector to ex-amine it without touching.

If the gut is torn, microbial contamination willoccur. One gram of gut content can carry a bil-lion bacteria (1). In some countries a spill resultsin the whole bird being condemned; in other coun-tries, including the U.S., washing is permitted.Small plants use spray bottles of chlorinated wa-ter to clean off fecal contents. In large plants inthe U.S., 2.5% of birds are condemned becauseof contamination. (A torn crop is also a source ofcontamination.) It is unknown how often the in-testines tear during manual evisceration.Silverman (6) can go all day at his 500-bird/dayplant without a tear. Proper feed withdrawal

Continued from page 8

Eviscerating ina small plant.


before processing will help reduce tears; whenthe gut is full, it tears more easily.

The edible viscera or giblets (heart, liver, andgizzard) are collected. On-farm and small-plantprocessors peel the gizzards by hand. Many smallprocessors simply discard the giblets. The lungscan be scraped out with a lung puller or ahandheld gun used with a vacuum. Large plantsautomate harvesting of edible viscera and re-moval of lungs.

A pile-up of feathers and viscera can be aproblem when processing a lot of birds. Somesmall plants have systems that expel the feathersfrom the picker to an outside container. Gutsare collected in a trough and hauled away fromthe area in barrels. These are called “non-flow-away” systems. “Flow-away” systems in largerplants use water to continually remove feathersand guts.

New York dressedCarcasses are sold with the guts in—“NewYork dressed”—mainly to ethnic markets. Inthe past, all poultry was sold like this in theU.S.; the USDA still permits it under specialtyreligious-kill exemptions.

WWWWWashing the Carashing the Carashing the Carashing the Carashing the CarcasscasscasscasscassWashing can occur at different points in the

slaughter process. The most common point isbefore chilling, when the carcass is washed in-side and out. On-farm processors usually usehoses to wash. Small and large plants use food-grade hoses and sprayers. Large plants use ad-ditives to the water, such as chlorine, to reducebacteria.

ChillingChillingChillingChillingChillingThe carcass temperature must be lowered

quickly to prevent microbial growth. The USDArequires that the temperature of the carcass belowered to 40° F within 4 hours (for 4-lb broil-ers), 6 hours (4- to 8-lb), and 8 hours (greaterthan 8 lbs or turkey) (5). Soaking the carcass inchilled water is the most common method of chill-ing poultry in the U.S.

According to Luke Elliott, “The temperatureshould be taken in the breast of the bird with aprobe-type thermometer. Get a good thermom-

eter (less than $20.00) that can be calibrated. Ther-mometers are calibrated to 32° F by placing theprobe in a glass of ice water. Before my experi-ence in the plant, I always just took the watertemp and that does not give a good representa-tion of the bird temp. We normally tested threebirds out of the tank and tested the ones thatwent in last” (23).

On-farm processors use large plastic tubsfilled with cold water and ice. Sometimes theyhave two tubs, using the first to remove the ini-tial body heat and the second to chill the carcass.Carcasses usually stay in the water for about onehour. Small-plant processors use food-gradeplastic or stainless steel bins filled with ice—aslush forms as the ice melts. The drainage holesin the bottom can be opened and the waterdrained out, leaving only ice, according to Elliott(23). “A bin size that holds 50 to 100 birds allowsan hour’s worth of processing to chill while birdsprocessed later can go into a separate tank. Thisis also an easy-size bin to move when full” (23).

Ice is an important supply issue for on-farmand small processors. “More than 5-pound bagsof ice will be needed,” as one on-farm processorputs it. A rule of thumb is one pound of ice perpound of meat. In a small plant designed for 500birds per day, 2000 lbs. of ice would be required.An ice machine with a bin capacity of 1800 lbscosts about $5,000 and has a recovery of 900pounds per day. In order to process on consecu-tive days, a second ice maker would need to bemounted on the bin to allow sufficient recovery(23). One maker of ice machines is the A-1 Re-frigeration Company (24). Crushed ice is moreefficient than cubed ice, which always has pock-ets of warmth.

An ice slush chill in a large bin.


Some on-farm processors use dairy equip-ment—bulk milk coolers with stainless steeltanks—for chilling carcasses. The tanknever gets below 32 degrees, and a sub-mersible fountain pump keeps the water cir-culating to ensure that chickens don’t freezeto the bottom. Missouri producer Kip Glassdescribes his dairy equipment:

I purchased a used 250-gallon bulk milk coolerfor $400...We don’t have to buy ice, store ice,or worry about the high maintenance demandsof an ice machine…We have done so far thisyear over 2000 broilers, and I know if we hadto have bought the ice it would have been a lotmore than a $1000 dollars for the 2500 birdswe are doing. Figure 2500 birds at 4 lbs., ata 1 lb. of ice per pound of bird. That would be10,000# of ice. At $1.00 per 10#, you do themath.We fill it up the night before processing, let itrun, for approx. 4 hours to chill our water downto 36 degrees. Start processing the next morn-ing and let it maintain the temp. all morningthrough processing, and all afternoon throughcustomer pickup. Being it’s insulated it doesn’trun much to maintain that temp (25).

Water chilling is used in large plants. Car-casses are removed from shackles and put in largechill tanks filled with cold water. About one-halfgallon of water is required per carcass for theinitial tank of water (make-up water). Some chill-ers hold more than 300,000 gallons of water. Theyare either a through-flow type with paddles orrakes, or a counter-current-type with augers tomove birds. The water is cooled to 32 to 39° F bya heat exchanger.

First the carcasses are placed in a pre-chillerto cool them down gradually. The carcasses arewarm (107° F) when they enter the prechiller (55-60° F), where they stay for 15 minutes. The car-casses are then moved to the chiller tank (32° F)and kept there for 45 minutes. Counter-currentsare used so the carcass moves continually tocolder, cleaner water. An overflow continuallyreplaces water with clean water (1/2 gallon foreach bird coming in). Air bubbles agitate thewater to improve heat exchange.

Cold shorteningCold shortening is not a big problem with poul-try since they have a fast rigor mortis process(1–3 hours after death) (1). Large animalshave a slower rigor process and thereforemore problems with cold shortening. Theo-retically, if you dunk a warm, freshly processedbird in 32° F water, the muscles will contract,resulting in tough meat; however, small pro-cessors who practice this type of chilling donot report a problem with tough meat and pre-fer to reduce temperature quickly.

Water uptakeGradual temperature reduction results in wa-ter uptake by the carcass. Most of this wateris absorbed by the skin; not much goes intothe meat. The cold water in the chiller sealsthe water gained during cooling into the car-cass by closing the skin pores. The USDApermits poultry to contain 8–12% water whensold. This regulation was developed in thepast to compensate processors when excesswater dripped out of packages and was lostduring marketing. Nowadays, poultry meat isallowed to have 8% water in tray packs and12% in bulk packaging, but broilers typicallycontain 6% water (7). It is obviously an ad-vantage to poultry companies to have highmoisture in their products since it increasesthe weight—and the products are sold byweight. However, new regulations will requirethe moisture level to be printed on the label.

Small processors put the carcass directly intoan ice slush (32° F). Although, theoretically, coldshortening can occur, the skin pores close fromthe cold, reducing water uptake. Most small pro-cessors report only about 1 to 4% water uptake.In large plants, the chill water has chlorine added.Most small processors simply use city water ortreated well water with negligible chlorine. Somebelieve that preventing a high uptake of chlori-nated water can improve the quality and taste ofpoultry meat. Low uptake of water is an impor-tant distinction in the marketplace for on-farmand small processors.


AAAAAIRIRIRIRIR-----CHILLINGCHILLINGCHILLINGCHILLINGCHILLINGAir-chilling of poultry is commonly practiced

in Europe, Canada, and Brazil, and was once com-mon in the U.S., where air-chilling is still the normfor beef, pork, and lamb. Air-chilling takes longerthan water chilling, usually at least two hours.

Air-chilling takes place in an insulated roomor tunnel in which the temperature is kept be-tween 20 and 35° F by coolers in the ceiling (7).Air is blown from nozzles directly into the cavityof each bird or around it. An overhead trackconveys the carcasses into the room. It saveslabor to keep the birds on the shackles for chill-ing since there is no need to handle them, butsometimes they are removed and put in basketsor on racks. To prevent an upper layer of car-casses from dripping on a lower layer, the birdsare usually not stacked. Heightened humidityor a water spray prevents the carcass from dry-ing out. Evaporative chilling is a type of air-chillin which water is sprayed on the carcass; waterabsorbs heat during evaporation.

Air-chilling equipment requires more spaceand uses more energy than water-chilling equip-ment, and costs more. However, water use islow. Both types of chilling are effective and thechoice depends on water availability, the mar-ket, etc. (1). Air-chilled poultry is usually soldfresh. Birds that are air-chilled should be soft-scalded—if they are hard-scalded, the meat maydiscolor.

There is no water uptake with air chilling. Infact, there is water loss of 2–4%, and the outer

skin is drier (7). Since air chill does not promotecold shortening as much as water does, a gradualtemperature reduction is not as important. Birdsencounter cold air in the first stage of enteringthe chiller (19 to 23° F). In the second stage, theair is warmer (25 to 30° F) (26).

There are currently only three air-chill poul-try plants in the U.S.: MBA Poultry (SmartChicken) (27) in Tecumseh, Nebraska, MaverickRanch Natural Meats in Denver, Colorado, andKadejan in Glenwood, Minnesota. Other plantsare in the planning stages. In Canada, MapleleafFoods (28) has an air-chill plant.

Air-chill equipment is available from the fol-lowing companies: Linco (29), Stork (30), andMeyn (31). The equipment is made in Hollandand Denmark and shipped to the US. These com-panies can work with clients on the particularspecifications desired, including size and scale.Shelly McKee (32) is a poultry-products scientistat Auburn University with expertise in air-chill-ing.

Chan Zuber at Pickwick/Zesco (11) can as-sist small processors who are interested in de-veloping air-chill layouts with American equip-ment. Refrigerated rooms can be assembled frominsulated panels, or used coolers can be boughtfrom restaurant supply companies at reasonableprices. Pickwick-Zesco has a rack for air-chillingpoultry that prevents the birds from dripping oneach other.

Small poultry growers in the UK use 40-ft.refrigerated trucks for air-chill. The trucks mustbe fitted with racks, but they already have blow-

ers. Some growers remove the wheelsfor a stationary set-up; others keep thetrucks mobile. One producer reportskeeping the temperature at 34° F andlowering the temperature of 500 chick-ens to 36° F in 3 hours. He does notspray water on the birds to increase hu-midity. A seasonal duck-processing fa-cility in Arkansas bought a used 8’ x18’ refrigerated truck for $3,000 and canrun it for $175 per month in utility costs.Other types of refrigerated vehicles canalso be used. For example, refriger-ated containers for ocean transporthold potential for air-chill. Some areplug-in and some rely on diesel gen-erators. TRS Containers (33) is a com-pany that specializes in convertingshipping containers to different uses.

Birds are air-chilled on racks in an insulatedroom with fans in France.


Cut-up,Cut-up,Cut-up,Cut-up,Cut-up,Deboning,Deboning,Deboning,Deboning,Deboning,

andandandandandFFFFFurtherurtherurtherurtherurther

PrPrPrPrProcessingocessingocessingocessingocessingCCCCCUTUTUTUTUT-----UPUPUPUPUP

On-farm proces-sors generally sell car-casses whole—they do not offer cut-up. In a smallplant, about 16 to 30% of the birds need to becut-up because of bruises, broken bones in thepicker, etc (23). U.S. customers are very accus-tomed to the convenience of cut-up poultry andparts. In the industry, about 70% of poultry issold as parts or further processed. Boneless, skin-less breasts are a particularly popular product,and dark meat is exported overseas. Large plantsuse automated equipment to cut-up, while smallprocessors cut-up manually or use a saw.

Cut-up includes removal of the wings, legs,and front halves (breast). Whole legs and legquarters can be cut into thighs and drumsticks.Common cut-up configurations consist of eightpieces (wings, breasts, thighs, drumsticks). Thewings can also be cut into drumettes. The re-maining racks are a by-product (e.g., soup stock,pet food, waste).

DDDDDEBONINGEBONINGEBONINGEBONINGEBONINGSmall plants that debone manually place the

whole bird on a cone and cut off the wings, breast,

and legs. Breasts and thighs are commonlydeboned in large plants with automated equip-ment. Meat should not be deboned for at least 4hours, since rigor mortis is occurring, anddeboning early would toughen the meat. (Seethe Aging section below.)

FFFFFURTHERURTHERURTHERURTHERURTHER PROCESSINGPROCESSINGPROCESSINGPROCESSINGPROCESSING

While the slaughter areas in large plants arekept at about 65–80°F, the temperature is50°F or lower in further-processing areas.The cooler and the shipping dock are 34°For lower.

“Further processing” includes not only cut-up and deboned, but also portioned, formed,cooked, cured, smoked, and brined products.Further processing seems like another world formost small processors today, but in the future itmay be an important value-adding option forthem. It’s important to note that further pro-cessing requires government inspection.

Portioning and sizing are important in theconventional industry, since many restaurantsonly want to buy uniform portions of meat.

Formed products are made by reducing theparticle size of the meat, adding ingredients forflavor or functionality, tumbling to increasepenetration of brine, and forming with a stufferor mold. Some products are also coated withbreading and cooked. Formed products includethe following:• Whole (deli rolls and loafs); these have pieces

that can still be recognized as meat.• Comminuted (chicken nuggets, patties); the

pieces of meat have been chopped and aresmaller; breast meat or deboned meat andskin are used.

• Emulsified (hot dog, bologna, sausages); thepieces of meat are very small and, whenmixed with fat and water, may not be recog-nizable as meat (7).Curing and smoking are ancient ways of pre-

serving meat that also contribute to flavor. Cur-ing uses nitrites as a preservative. Smoking canbe done without nitrites. Some small proces-sors brine poultry. According to small processorBrandon Sussman,“while some salt and sugaris inevitably retained in the brining process, thereason for brining is to improve moisture reten-tion and meat texture, not to 'enhance flavor'. Ibelieve that there is a certain amount of bloodstripping as well, though I try very hard to get aA cone line in France for manual deboning.

YieldsAverage yields for poul-try carcasses withoutthe feathers, blood, andviscera:•75% for broilers with

giblets•65% for broilers with-

out giblets•78% turkeys with gib-

lets (due to the largerneck)


good bleed out when killing.” For home use,Sussman uses “1/4 cup Kosher salt + 1/4 cupwhite sugar to each quart of cold water…1 hourper pound up to 8 hours” (34). On-farm brining isusually done during chilling, but can also be donein the refrigerator. In kosher processing, the meatis salted to draw out all visible blood, becausethe Jewish dietary laws prohibit the eating of blood.

AgingAgingAgingAgingAgingTenderness is directly related to aging. Poul-

try meat needs to age for at least four hours be-fore it is eaten or frozen, or it will be tough. Thisis because of rigor mortis—a temporary tough-ening—which is part of the process of muscledeath, the natural biochemical process that con-verts the muscle to meat. Although the bird isdead, there is still energy in the muscle. Themuscle cells continue metabolizing until this en-ergy is used up, switching from aerobic metabo-lism to the less efficient anaerobic (without oxy-gen). Rigor mortis does not set in immediatelyafter slaughter, but gradually as the muscles de-plete their energy stores. “Cross bridges” formwithin the muscle structure, and the muscle can-not be extended. After a while, the muscle struc-ture starts breaking down and the muscle be-comes flexible again (1).

Rigor mortis is relatively brief in poultry; it islargely complete in 4 hours in chickens (6 to 8hours in turkeys). Rigor is not fully complete for24 hours, but tenderness only increases margin-ally after the initial 4 hours. According to LukeElliott, “We normally advised people who boughtbirds on the day of processing to wait 24 hoursbefore eating the bird” (23).

Rigor is dependent on temperature: atwarmer temperatures, it occurs more quickly.However, carcass temperature must be kept lowenough to prevent microbial growth.

Meat Quality BiochemistryMeat quality is affected by any stress thebird experiences during catching, loading,transport, unloading, and immobilization be-fore slaughter. After death, when energymetabolism switches from aerobic to anaero-bic, lactic acid will accumulate in the muscleuntil the glycogen (stored energy) is depletedor the pH becomes too low for enzymes towork (1). Animals that were stressed be-

fore slaughter will have little glycogen in themuscles. The limited production of lacticacid and high ultimate pH that result makethe meat dark, firm, and dry (1). On the otherextreme, the pH can drop quickly and pro-duce pale, soft, exudative meat.

PackagingPackagingPackagingPackagingPackagingAfter the carcass is properly chilled, it is

ready to be packed. Elliott recommends swiftpacking in a cool room once you take the birdsoff ice, to get them packed and into proper stor-age before they warm up.

On-farm processors usually don’t have to re-frigerate or deliver. They sell their birds fresh,immediately after slaughter, to customers whocome to the farm to pick them up. They usuallyput the chicken in a plastic bag, close it with atwist-tie, and weigh the package. Labeling maybe as simple as as marking the weight with a“Sharpie” marker on the outside of the bag. Con-sumers of fresh poultry must eat or freeze thebirds within six days.

Bags are available from Koch (35), FreundContainer (36), and Brower (3). Try asking for asample of bags your first season, before buyingin bulk.

Small processors also package in individualbags, but they usually shrink-wrap them. Dip-

ping the bagged birds in hot water will causethe shrink-wrap to contract, removing the air.Cryovac Sealed Air Corporation (37) sells bagsthat shrink when exposed to heat. According toElliott, “Minimum orders are 4,000 bags unlessyou ask for overstocks” (23). Another way toremove air is by vacuum.

A clip machine to close the bag costs about

Special bags shrink when dippedSpecial bags shrink when dippedSpecial bags shrink when dippedSpecial bags shrink when dippedSpecial bags shrink when dippedin hot waterin hot waterin hot waterin hot waterin hot water, removing air fr, removing air fr, removing air fr, removing air fr, removing air from theom theom theom theom the

package.package.package.package.package.


$650 and speeds up packing. Kuhl Corp. (2)sells a smaller hand-held clipper. According to

Elliott, ”Tipper Tie, a good packing machine thatpulls a vacuum and drops a clip on the bag andcuts off the excess bag, can be purchased foraround $5,000” (23). Expensive vacuum bag-ging machines can cost up to $60,000 and arenot necessary for most small processors. Theshelf life of vacuum-packed poultry is usually5–12 days (1).

In addition to individual packaging, smallprocessors also pack birds on ice in plastic cratesthat the customers return.

Dry tray packs—good for retail trade (in dis-play cases)—may be an option for small proces-sors. The bird is placed on a pad in a styrofoam

tray, which is wrapped with plastic film andheat-sealed. Brower Company sells a single-rolltray-wrap machine. However, this type of pack-aging is not suitable for freezing (23).

Scales that print out a label when the pack-age is weighed are available from companies likeBerkel Co. (38). Get labels designed for coolerand freezer use so they won’t fall off.

In large plants, meat is packaged in dry traypacks or bulk ice packs. Birds are usually sold

fresh.• Dry tray packs: The meat is packed on

overwrapped trays. Only the top quarter inchof meat is frozen (“crust frozen”) to help in-sulate the product. Shelf life is 21 days (whenstored at 28° F).

• Bulk ice packs: Meat that is destined for whole-sale and restaurants is packed in boxes of 40and 70 pounds with ice on top. There aredrainage holes in the boxes. The shelf life is7 days (when stored at less than 39° F). Modi-fied atmosphere packaging (MAP) may beused in large plants to increase shelf life. Bulkpackaging may use CO2 snow to increaseshelf life to 14–21 days and eliminate the nui-sance of water dripping. However, CO2 canbe a hazard to work with. Other gases suchas N2 and O2 are used with a vaccum andback flush to increase shelf life up to 28 days(stored at 28-32 F) (7).

StorageStorageStorageStorageStorage

On-farm processors store the carcasses fortheir customers in refrigerators or freezers. Ifstorage is limited, it is best not to slaughter toomany birds at a time. Loading birds that havenot chilled to 40° F in your refrigerator or freezermay drive up the temperature and allow microbesto grow on the carcass. One option is to rentfreezer space at another location.

FFFFFREEZINGREEZINGREEZINGREEZINGREEZING

Packages and plastic crates

This scaleprints a label

with theweight

Product beingheld on racks ina small plant’s

cooler.


Although U.S. consumers are accustomedto buying poultry fresh—80% of poultry is soldfresh (5)—freezing will extend the shelf life.Meat does not freeze until it gets below 28° Fbecause of its salt content, which suppresses thefreezing point. Poultry meat kept above 26° Fcan still be marketed as fresh (5).

Frozen poultry will stay flavorful for about 6months, but after that it may become rancid.Don’t store poultry for more than 12 months(1). Freezing does not kill all the microbes; somewill survive and grow after thawing.

Storage recommendations:• At 10° F, limit storage to 2 months.• At -0.4° F, limit storage to 4 months.• At -11° F, limit storage to 8 months.• At -22° F, limit storage to 10 months (1).

The rate of freezing affects the meat:• Slow freezing (3–72 hours) results in large ice

crystals, which damage cells and membranes.Upon thaw, there is more drip loss.

• Fast freezing, which lowers temperature to -22° F in 30 minutes, results in small crystals(1).

Methods of freezing poultry include:• Still air is a slow method used by home freez-

ers.• Blast freezing uses cold air circulated by fans

for rapid air movement. The industry usesblast freezing to form a frozen crust on a prod-uct to insulate it.

• Liquid immersion or spray: the product is im-mersed in a freezing liquid (1).The packaging material used for frozen meat

should be strong, because the meat will dehy-drate and get freezer burn if exposed to cold air(1). Some bags are made for cooler use and somefor freezer use. One on-farm processor recom-mends a bag of at least .002 mil thickness (39).The material should be moisture-proof andstretchable so that it will cling to the meat (1). Ifmeat will be frozen for a long time, it is better tovacuum-pack it. This removes the insulating air,makes a skintight package, and prevents waterevaporation and ice formation inside. Removingthe oxygen also helps reduce oxidation and ran-cidity (1).

Bone darkening is sometimes seen in youngchickens after freezing. “This shows as a dark/bloody appearance of the tips of the bones andmuscle areas close to bone. Myoglobin squeezedout from the bone marrow, through the relativelyporous bone structure of young chicken, duringthe freezing process causes this” (1). It is usu-ally seen around the leg, thigh, and wing bones,and is unappealing to consumers (1).

DeliverDeliverDeliverDeliverDelivery andy andy andy andy andDistributionDistributionDistributionDistributionDistribution

For on-farm processing, there is usually nodelivery: customers come to the farm. However,some producers deliver to farmers’ markets orother places in iced coolers. Small plants mayhave a refrigerated truck or trailer.

Clean-upClean-upClean-upClean-upClean-upOn-farm processors usually clean with water

hoses, using hot water and soap, followed by awater rinse and a sanitizing rinse. Small and largeplants clean with pressure washers. When pro-cessing under inspection, written sanitation pro-cedures are required.

WWWWWaste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste ManagementWaste from processing includes offal, feath-

ers, and blood. On-farm processors usually com-post their waste. ATTRA’s Farm-Scale Compostingpublication provides a list of information re-sources and suppliers.

Small plants usually pay rendering compa-nies to pick up barrels of waste, often at a flatrate (the same price whether they pick up onebarrel or several). Because of the high expense,some processors are considering switching tolarge-scale composting or to incineration.

Small processors are also exploring ways tomarket the waste as natural pet food, raw orcooked. There are websites such as <http://www.willowglen.com/barf.htm> that describefeeding dogs “Bones And Raw Food” (BARF).Large plants usually render wastes, turning theminto a by-product such as pet food or meat- andbonemeal for livestock or fish.

WWWWWASTEWASTEWASTEWASTEWASTEWAAAAATERTERTERTERTER


A lot of water is used in processing, espe-cially for scalding, washing carcasses, chilling, andclean up. Large plants use about eight gallonsper bird. The wastewater “cannot simply be dis-charged into lakes and rivers because of the rela-tively high content of organic matter such as pro-tein and fat and the microorganisms present” (1).

On-farm processors often apply the waste-water to a garden. Small-plant processors maydischarge into a municipal sewage system, but amunicipality can charge high fees for treating wa-ter with a lot of organic matter. Some initial treat-ment at the plant will lower this cost. In fact,most large plants—and some small ones—haveextensive water-treatment facilities. At largeplants, water and its associated treatment aswaste costs $5.00 per 1,000 gallons (5).

Methods for measuring the contents of waste-water include:• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) measures

the amount of oxygen con-sumed by microbes as theydigest organics in wastewa-ter. This measurement re-quires five days to complete.If wastewater entering a riveror lake had a high BOD, mi-crobes would rapidly depletethe oxygen, and fish and otheraquatic life would not haveenough oxygen to live.

• Chemical oxygen demand(COD) is a similar test thattakes only a few hours.

• Suspended solids (SS) measures nonfilterable

residue, like fats and fine solids.• FOG: Fat, oil, and grease content is determined

by extracting the FOG from wastewaterwith an organic solvent (5).There are standard lab procedures for making

these wastewater measurements.How dirty is the wastewater in a small plant?

The chart below indicates the amount of BOD andSS typical for plants in 1962—a time when there werestill many small plants. Two important questionsshould be considered.• Is the blood recovered? Blood has high pollu-

tion potential (15 lbs BOD per 1,000 birds)(40). Therefore, most plants try to recover orcatch as much blood as possible, so it doesnot become part of the wastewater.

• Does the plant have a flow-away system? Flow-away systems use large amounts of water toremove feathers or offal.

WWWWWASTEWASTEWASTEWASTEWASTEWAAAAATERTERTERTERTER

TTTTTREAREAREAREAREATMENTTMENTTMENTTMENTTMENTTreating wastewater starts

with screening out big chunksand ends with the breakdownof dissolved organic matter bymicroorganisms. Treatmentmethods must be able tohandle fluctuations in wasteload, which can vary depend-ing on what is occurring in theplant (e.g., slaughter, clean-up, or downtime). Treatment

also takes into consideration the use of cleaningagents in the plant.

Preliminary treatment removeslarge particles by screening.

Primary treatment removes smallparticles suspended in the water. Fatsand fine solids are removed by meansof fat traps or dissolved air flotation.

• Fat traps work on the prin-ciple of gravity separation ina flow-through tank. Heavysolids (dirt, crop content)settle out on the bottom,while fat and fine solids riseto the surface. A moving beltwith paddles scrapes the sol-ids off the bottom, movingthem to a collection area.

Table 3. Processing PlantWaste Loads per 1000 Chickens

Type of PlantFlow-away With blood recovery All blood wastedNon-flow-away With blood recovery All blood wasted

Wastewaterin gallons

7000

4500

BOD, lbs

2541

2335

Suspendedsolids, lbs

1323

1221

As cited in Tanner, James Jerrel. 1970. A WastewaterCharacterization of the Poultry Processing Industry.

Master’s thesis, University of Arkansas. p. 20.

The access to an underground fattrap in a small plant.


The solids are then removedby pump. Floating materialis skimmed off the top with acontinuous-skimming device(1).

• Dissolved air flotation uses micro-bubbles to speed the rise of light-weight particles to the surface—the bubbles attach themselves tothe suspended material and lift it.Chemicals can be added to makethe process more efficient.

BOD is reduced by 30% in primary treat-ment. Energy costs are low since gravity andflotation do much of the work (1).

After primary treatment, the wastewater iseither discharged onto land (“land treatment”)or given secondary treatment. Land treatmentrequires large tracts of land, but has several ad-vantages: both plant nutrients and water are re-cycled, surplus nutrients can be removed bycrops, and the methods used—irrigation, over-land flow, and high-rate percolation—are rela-tively inexpensive to install and operate. Landtreatment may not be an option near urban areasbecause of odor and drift (40).

Secondary treatment puts biology to work—microorganisms break down the organic mattersuspended in the water. The result is the growthof microorganisms and production of gases suchas carbon dioxide. Biological treatment is usedbecause it is easier and cheaper to filter out themicroorganisms than the suspended organic mat-ter (1). Biological treatment can be aerobic oranaerobic.• Aerobic lagoons rely on microorganisms that

use oxygen, so these lagoons use mechanicalaerators to help keep oxygen in the water.The lagoons are usually 10 ft deep. The totalBOD reduction is 70–90%. The solid sludgecan later be removed in a polishing pond.

• Anaerobic lagoons do not use oxygen. Fermen-tation produces methane and carbon dioxide(as in a cow’s rumen). Anaerobic lagoonscost less because mechanical aerators are notrequired. BOD is reduced by 60 to 80% in 1to 3 weeks (when temperature is greater than72° F).Another form of biological treatment is a

“trickling filter.” Wastewater is aerated as itpasses over a large surface area (rocks or other

materials).Tertiary treatment removes odors and color

from the water. Sand and coal filters are com-monly used.

Disinfection, using chlorine and hydrogenperoxide to kill pathogens, is the last stage oftreatment. The wastewater is then discharged,either into a stream or sewer or onto land.

Sludge from biological treatment is most of-ten buried at landfills, spread on land, or driedand incinerated (40). It can also be composted(1).

When planning waste management, it is criti-cal to be aware of federal, state and county regu-lations regarding waste disposal.

Equipment and SuppliesEquipment and SuppliesEquipment and SuppliesEquipment and SuppliesEquipment and SuppliesSince birds are small, processing them

doesn’t require a saw, track, or other heavy-duty equipment needed for slaughtering largeranimals. Equipment used by on-farm proces-sors includes poultry crates, killing cones,scalder, thermometer, picker, stainless steel evis-cerating tables or shackles, and a chill tank.Plastics, including the water hoses, should befood-grade. Many sources of this equipmenthave already been discussed.

Large-scale plants use costly automatedequipment that is highly specialized. Industrymagazines list equipment suppliers. An Internetsearch for poultry processing equipment will alsoyield suppliers and prices. Information on usedequipment is available at the Equipment Ex-change Company of America, Inc. (41). An ex-cellent opportunity to view automated equipmentis at the annual International Poultry Exhibitionin Atlanta; information is available through theU.S. Poultry and Egg Association (42).

Small equipment and supplies includesanitizers, brushes, soap, paper towels, buckets,pans, brooms, mops, knives, pinning knives, lungpuller, ice, scales, bags, staples, clips, plasticgloves, metal mesh gloves, hair nets, aprons, rub-ber boots, etc. Koch Supplies (35) sells many ofthese items.

On-farm processor Karen Black in Oregon hasthis to say about knives:

I use a Heinkel paring knife (about 2" long


with a reverse curve) for killing, and a 3"knife for eviscerating. I really like theHeinkel’s because they are stainless, hold anedge well, and have a good grip that doesn’tslip in my wet hand. They are prettyexpensive, and I’m sure there are less-expensive knives that do a fine job.

I also bought a Chef’s Choice electric sharp-ener, and now all my work knives are keptsharp (a steel at my worktable keeps the edgehoned while I work). It’s gotten to the pointwhere I can feel when the knife needs a littlesteeling.

Here’s a website that has a lot of useful informa-tion about sharpening knives: http://www.ameritech.net/users/knives/index.htm (43).

PrPrPrPrProcessing Diverseocessing Diverseocessing Diverseocessing Diverseocessing DiverseSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpecies

Because they slaughter manually, on-farm andsmall-plant processors can handle a wide varietyof poultry. In addition to broilers, they may pro-cess large roasters and stew hens and small Cor-nish game hens, or other poultry species, such asturkeys, ducks, geese, quail, squab, guineafowl,and pheasant. In contrast, large plants cannothandle much diversity because their automatedequipment fits one size only. Large plants mayhave two separate lines: for example, large birds(6.5 lbs) for further processing and small (3.4 lb)birds for fast-food restaurants.

Turkeys vary widely in size, from small hens

weighing 17 lbs. to big toms weighing over 40lbs. The range in weight is so great that turkeyprocessing is usually not automated, even in largeplants. Turkeys are also very heavy, an impor-tant consideration for manual slaughter, especiallyif you do not have an overhead track. Feathersand crops are harder to remove, and more ice isrequired.

Processing plants in France that participatein the Label Rouge program may process a num-ber of types of products. For example, FermierLandes processes chicken, guineafowl, squab,cockrels, and rabbits, as well as capons and tur-keys for Christmas. The birds are processed indifferent ways: ready-to-cook, efilee, or feet andhead left on. Efilee is a specialty dressing; thebird is eviscerated but the crop is left in. Thefeet and heads are often left on the carcasses ofspecialty poultry so that customers can verifythe color of the shanks and feathers. Eventhough Fermier Landes is a large plant, they puttogether small orders and do custom process-ing.

Multispecies processingIn Kansas, Diana Endicott (44) processesbeef, pork, and poultry in the same plant.She says it can be difficult to “cash-flow” aplant on poultry alone. Endicott keeps theproducts separate by processing on differ-ent days and using separate equipment,aprons, etc. Rabbits and specialty poultryare sometimes processed in the same plant.Keep in mind that regulators in your statemay not allow—or may just be unfamiliarwith—multispecies processing.

Batch vs. ContinuousBatch vs. ContinuousBatch vs. ContinuousBatch vs. ContinuousBatch vs. ContinuousPrPrPrPrProcessingocessingocessingocessingocessing

Birds are processed in batches during manualprocessing on the farm and at small plants. Pro-cessors usually do one activity at a time. Forexample, all the birds may be killed, eviscerated,and chilled during the first hours of operation,and packaged during the last hours. Workersusually perform a variety of duties. On the otherhand, large plants use automated, in-line equip-ment for continuous processing, killing birdsthroughout the day. Workers usually perform

Plants may process a diversity ofspecies in France.


only one duty over and over.

PrPrPrPrProcessing Rocessing Rocessing Rocessing Rocessing RateateateateateThe rate of processing depends on the work-

ers, the equipment, and the set-up. The work-ers’ level of proficiency is especially important.Eviscerating is usually the most time-consum-ing part of manual processing, but an experi-enced worker can eviscerate two birds perminute. Manual cut-up and deboning requiresskilled labor.

The type of equipment you buy depends onyour chore cycle: whether you process a fewbirds often or a lot of birds infrequently. How-ever, if the scalder is too small, it will cause abottleneck down the line.

There are other limiting factors. If your over-head track is not motorized, the speed at whichthe plant operates will be no more than the speedof the slowest person. Is your cooler or freezerlarge enough to allow you to process daily? Canyou empty it daily? Set-up is discussed in thenext section.

Typical processing rates:• Working alone with minimal equipment: 6

birds per person per hour.• Using equipment that handles at least 4 birds

at a time: 15 birds per person per hour.Good layout, design, and standard operating

procedures in a small plant can improve effi-ciency.

Tip: The rates for equipment are sometimesgiven in terms of eviscerating speed. When evalu-ating processing rates, find out what the estimateincludes. Is it for evisceration only, “kill-to-chill,”or does it also include set-up, packing, storing,clean up, and paperwork time? The numbersabove include all of these.

When processing turkeys on-farm, MarceyNameth found that although the evisceration timewas comparable to that for chickens, “everythingelse was slower.” Her scalding and picking equip-ment could handle 12 to 16 broilers in one batchbut only two turkeys. She could process only one-third the number of turkeys compared to broil-ers. “I found turkeys to be exhausting work. Atleast this year I wasn’t shredded by their feet—last year my shirts were torn to pieces.”

Processing poultry can be hard work. RobertPlamondon has this to say about on-farm pro-cessing: “Exhaustion at the end of a processing

day is not a sign of commitment and a goodwork ethic; it’s a symptom of bad management.Heroic efforts aren’t called for except in a crisis.Processing day shouldn’t be a crisis – it shouldbe something to look forward to (45).”

PrPrPrPrProcessing Setupocessing Setupocessing Setupocessing Setupocessing SetupProcessing can be done on-farm, at a live

market in a city, in a mobile processing unit, orin a processing plant.

OOOOONNNNN-----FFFFFARMARMARMARMARM S S S S SETUPETUPETUPETUPETUPOn-farm processors usually work outdoors,

under a tree or in a shed. They use existing out-buildings or build a dedicated area, often just aconcrete pad with a shed roof. These are gen-erally not enclosed areas and are rarely screenedto keep out insects.

An on-farm processing setup usually in-cludes a combination of new, used, and home-made equipment. Costs range from $100 to $500for minimal equipment up to $4000 for a spe-cialty line such as the one offered by Brower for

A typical on-farmprocessing setup.

An on-farm setup with a concrete padand shed roof.


pastured poultry production. According to TimShell, “A 100 bird/hour scalder can be built forless than $100. A two-bird picker is less than$1000, used stainless steel tables and chill vatsare cheap at second hand restaurant supplydumps. You can get set up very well in pro-cessing for $2000 if you already have the shed onthe farm to process in (46).” Crews are anywherefrom one to six people.

Upgrading equipment is a common strategyfor on-farm processors. Many start out with mini-mal equipment, sell it, and buy a better set ofequipment. It is usually not difficult to resell

used equipment.On-farm facilities have limitations. The facil-

ity lies unused for several months of the year,since it is too cold in winter to process outdoors.Also, it is not legal in some states to sell meatfrom on-farm facilities.

LLLLLIVEIVEIVEIVEIVE M M M M MARKETARKETARKETARKETARKET S S S S SETUPETUPETUPETUPETUPAt live markets in larger cities, birds are sold

live to consumers, usually from ethnic groups.After a customer chooses a bird, it is processedat an on-site facility, usually state-licensed. Thesefacilities generally process only about 50 birdsper day. The customer has the option of takinghome the head, feet, and blood along with thecarcass.

MMMMMOBILEOBILEOBILEOBILEOBILE P P P P PROCESSINGROCESSINGROCESSINGROCESSINGROCESSING U U U U UNITNITNITNITNIT (MPU) (MPU) (MPU) (MPU) (MPU)SSSSSETUPETUPETUPETUPETUP

MPUs are a way for producers to work co-operatively, sharing equipment and labor, withportable equipment mounted on a trailer. MPUs

have typically been used with game animals ortribal processing of large animals, but interest isgrowing for poultry MPUs. Most MPUs for poul-try cost $7,000 to $12,000 to outfit, and the capac-ity is about 400 birds per day.

Examples of active MPU groups include:• The Northeast Pastured Poultry Association

MPU (48) was built with help from the non-profit Heifer International.

• The Nebraska Pastured Poultry IMPACTgroup (47) has a 15-minute video.

• The South-Central NY RC&D’s MPU is pho-tographed and described at http://www.ibiblio.org/farming-connection/graz-ing/pastpoul/resource.htm; the lay-out is inAppendix A. Contact Jim McLaughlin (49)for details.The MPUs listed below have government li-

censing—something few have, since meat inspec-tion authorities are not accustomed to them.• Tom Neuberger (18) has a federally exempt

MPU in South Dakota, an 8’ x 48’ refriger-ated truck that cost $25,000 to outfit.

• The Wagbo Peace Center (50) in Michigan hasa state-licensed MPU that serves 12 families.

• The Island Grown Farmer Cooperative (51)in Lopez Island, Washington, has broken newground with a red meat MPU that is feder-ally inspected.

• Terry Swaggerty’s collaborative group inWashington (52) has a grant to build a licensedpoultry MPU.

Kentucky MPU Case StudyThe nonprofit organization Heifer International,along with Partners for Family Farms and theKentucky Department of Agriculture, built anMPU in Kentucky and has served as a guidefor others. The MPU is a federally exemptfacility that is licensed by Kentucky’s Cabinetfor Health Services and cost about $70,000to build. It is an enclosed gooseneck trailer20’ long and 8’ wide that can be pulled with ahalf-ton truck. The trailer has a collapsiblecanopy that extends on one side to make ascreened area for killing, scalding, and pick-ing. The carcass is then passed inside thetrailer through a small door for evisceration.

Continued on page 22

A typical mobile processingunit for poultry.


The trailer is air-conditioned inside and hashot and cold water. It has a capacity of 500birds per day.The Kentucky MPU can only be used at ap-proved docking stations with a level pad topark the unit and another concrete pad that issloped to drain for the slaughter area. Appro-priate electrical, water, and propane hookupsare required. Electrical requirements are a200 amp service panel that is either water-proof or covered. Water must be from an ap-proved municipal source or a tested well, andflow rate must be at least 10 gallons perminute. The setup also requires a 750-gallongrease trap and a 1500-gallon septic tank forwastewater. The wastewater holding tankmust have a float sensor with an alarm or lightas a fill indicator, and the water must bepumped out and hauled to an ap-proved wastewater treatment

Continued from page 21

Luke Elliott owned and operated a small USDAplant in Arkansas.

The Kentucky MPU’s outsidekill area is screened; birds are

eviscerated inside.

plant. The MPU user must bring a 100-lb.propane cylinder to provide heat for thescalder. MPU users take the feathers andoffal back to theirfarms for composting.The MPU has a rentalfee and user agree-ment. Producerswanting to use it mustbe trained as facilitymanagers. A manualprovides instructionsfor use and plans forsanitation and avoidingthe introduction of con-taminants into thefood. This MPU takesa lot of work to set up

and take down. See Appendix B for the lay-out of the Kentucky MPU. Steve Muntz andJeff Dombroskas of Heifer International (53)are contacts.

SSSSSMALLMALLMALLMALLMALL P P P P PLLLLLANTANTANTANTANT S S S S SETUPETUPETUPETUPETUPSmall plants are generally specialized build-

ings; however, some small plants are former dairyparlors or other renovated buildings.

Pickwick/Zesco Co. (11) can send you abooklet called Planning the Small Poultry Process-ing Operation that includes equipment plans forfour different volumes (50 birds/day, 50 to 200birds/hour, 200 to 500 birds/hour, and 500 to1200 birds/hour). This guide is also availableat the following website: <http://www.zesco-inc.com>. Brower Co. (3) can send you plansfor processing 400 birds/hour, 600 birds/hour,and 1200 birds/hour; available at <http://

www.browerequip.com>.Small Plant CaseStudy: Luke ElliottLuke Elliott’s (23)USDA–inspected plantwas designed to handle500 birds per day. The

2,500-square foot plantcost about $80,000, usingan existing building shellthat required concrete tobe poured for the floor andall internal walls and ceil-

ings to be finished. If he had built it from theground up, it would have cost $120,000. Hisequipment cost about $45,000 (new) and was

rated for 150 birds perhour, but he actuallyprocessed less thanthat during the courseof the day. In batchprocessing, you needto finish the kill opera-tions in the morning toallow sufficient time forchilling, packing, label-ing, preparing for ship-ment, cleaning up, anddoing paperwork laterin the day. With a crewof four, Elliott’s plant


processed 18 birds per person per hour.The USDA inspection process was time-con-suming. Under bird-by-bird federal inspection,Elliott could process only 200 birds per day.Because of pre-operation inspection, hecouldn’t start killing before 9 a.m. The inspec-tion process reduced line speed. Also, hisoverhead track was not motorized—“motor-izing is a key factor to increase the produc-tion capacity (23).”

SSSSSMALLMALLMALLMALLMALL P P P P PLLLLLANTANTANTANTANT L L L L LAAAAAYYYYYOUTOUTOUTOUTOUT ANDANDANDANDAND

CCCCCONSTRUCTIONONSTRUCTIONONSTRUCTIONONSTRUCTIONONSTRUCTIONPlants are designed for efficiency, sanitation,

and adequate work space. For an outline ofwork areas and design considerations for smallplants, see Appendix C. A sample floor plan isalso included.

The USDA used to print construction guide-lines for plants intending to operate under in-spection. However, the USDA no longer makesprior approval decisions. It now relies on thecompany, through the company’s HazardAnalysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan,to produce a product under sanitary conditions.The last guidebook was U.S. Inspected Meat andPoultry Plants: A Guide to Construction and Lay-out (54) from 1984. It applies to large and smallplants processing red meat or poultry.

The Virginia Department of Agriculture andConsumer Services (55) offers the EstablishmentDesign and Construction Guidebook, also availableon-line at their website. The publication wasdrawn from USDA information and is an ex-

cellent resource for those planning a plant.

LLLLLARGEARGEARGEARGEARGE P P P P PLLLLLANTANTANTANTANT S S S S SETUPETUPETUPETUPETUPLarge, automated plants usually cost about

$25 million and can process one million broilersper week. Industry uses three line speeds (SIS—70 birds/min, NELS—91 birds/min, and High-speed—140 birds/min or 8400 birds per hour).Turkey plants are manual and process about 42birds per minute with a very large crew. If youwant to see what processing looks like at a largeplant, you may be able to arrange a visit or atleast buy slides for viewing. Layouts of largeplants are available in textbooks.

EconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsRefer to Growing Your Range Poultry Business:

An Entrepreneur’s Toolbox for budgets for process-ing on the farm, in an MPU, and in a small plant.

It costs at least $1.50 to process a bird in asmall plant. It only costs large processors about$0.30 per bird for processing, because of in-creased mechanization, greater scale econo-mies, better use of capacity, and more efficienttransportation and distribution.

ResourResourResourResourResourcescescescescesMost small processors recommend learning

from an experienced processor. See ATTRA’sInternships and Apprenticeships for a listing of farm-ers seeking interns; some of the farmers processpoultry. Experienced small processors like LukeElliott (23) and Aaron Silverman (6) offer con-sulting services for a fee.

Books on backyard poultry production de-scribe the on-farm butchering process, especiallythe evisceration. Pastured Poultry Profits (56), byVirginia poultry producer Joel Salatin, includesphotographs that show how to eviscerate.Salatin’s video is also useful for learning to evis-cerate by hand.

Some Extension materials that offer how-toinformation for on-farm slaughter include:• Home Processing of Poultry, available from the

University of Minnesota Extension Service(57) <http://www.extension.umn.edu/distri-bution/livestocksystems/DI0701.html>.

• Home Processing of Chickens, available from theUniversity of Nebraska Extension Service (58)<http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/foods/

Plants should have separate rooms for killing andevisceration to help prevent the edible product from

being contaminated by raw or inedible products.


heg144.htm>.• Food*A*Syst: A Food Safety Risk Management

Guide for the Producer, with good sections onprocessing setup and procedures, deliveryand storage, and disposal of waste, is avail-able from Kansas State Extension Service (59)<http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/foodasyst/foodasysbook.pdf>.Information on low-volume processing on a

small commercial scale is hard to find. A disser-tation titled Economics of Establishing a Low-Vol-ume Poultry Processing Plant (60), written by aMichigan State student, examines four plants:with capacities of 200, 350, 500, and 1200 birdsper hour.

Books about processing in large plants offeruseful cross-over information:• Poultry Meat Processing (5), by Alan R. Sams• Poultry Products Technology (61), by George J.

Mountney and Carmen R. Parkhurst• Processing of Poultry (62), by G.C. Mead• Poultry Processing Systems (1), by Shari

BarbutIn the past, the American Association of

Meat Processors (63) membership includedmany small poultry processors. As the numberof small poultry plants grows, trade associationscan help further their interests. The AmericanPastured Poultry Producers Association(APPPA) (17) is one such networking resource.

ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences1) Barbut, Shari. 2002. Poultry Processing

Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton. FL. 548 p.

2) Kuhl CorporationP.O.Box 26Flemington, NJ 08822908-782-5696908-782-2751 Faxhttp://www.kuhlcorp.com

3) Brower CompanyP.O. Box 2000Houghton, IA 52631319-469-4141http://www.browerequip.com

4) Tanner, James Jerrel. 1969. A WastewaterCharacterization of the Poultry ProcessingIndustry. MS thesis, University of Ar-

kansas.

5) Sams, Alan R. 2001 (ed.). Poultry MeatProcessing. CRC Press, New York, NY.334 p.

6) Aaron SilvermanCreative Growers88741 Torrence Rd.Noti, OR 97461541-935-7952E-mail: [email protected]

7) Owens, Casey. 2001 University of Arkan-sas, Poultry Science Department,Fayetteville, AR. Personal communica-tion.

8) Plamondon, Robert. 2002. Re: Cleanli-ness. E-mail posting to PasturePoultrylistserver. February 13.

9) Plamondon, Robert. 2002. Re: DomesticWater Storage. E-mail posting toPasturePoultry listserver. February 14.

10) Snyder Industries, Inc.P.O. Box 4583Lincoln, NE 68504402-467-5221402- 465-1220 Faxhttp://www.snydernet.com

11) Pickwick/ZescoChan Zuber, General Manager7887 Fuller Road #116Eden Prairie, MN 55344952-906-3333952-906-3335E-mail: [email protected]://www.zesco-inc.com

12) Ashley CompanyP.O. Box 2Greensburg, IN 47240812-663-2180

13) Jako, Inc.Kenneth King


6003 E. Eales Rd.Hutchinson, KS 67501316-663-1470E-mail: [email protected]://www.jakoinc.com

14) Eli M. ReiffPoultry ManRR #2, Box 484Mifflinburg, PA 17844570-966-0769

15) David Schafer56 SW 52nd Ave.Trenton, MO 64683660-359-6545E-mail: [email protected]@grm.net

16) R and R PluckersRob BaumanRD 1Oxford, NY 13830607-843-7415

17) American Pastured Poultry ProducersAssociationPO Box 1024Chippewa Falls, WI 54729715-577-5966 (cell)Contact: Jody PadghamE-mail: [email protected]://www.apppa.orgMembership is $20 per year and includesquarterly newsletter Grit.

18) Tom NeubergerSouth Dakota Poultry HeadquartersRt. 1, Box 303Canistota, SD 57012605-296-3314

19) Beck-Chenoweth, Herman. 1996. Free-Range Poultry Production and Marketing.Back Forty Books, Creola, OH. Orderfrom:Back Forty BooksNatures Pace SanctuaryHartshorn, MO 65479573-858-3559$39.50 (plus $4.50 s/h)E-mail: [email protected]://www.back40books.com http://www.free-rangepoultry.com

20) Kimball, Herrick. 2002. Anyone CanBuild a Tub-Style Mechanical Chicken

Plucker. Tradesman Publications. 58 p.Order from:

Herrick KimballTradesman PublicationsP.O. Box 1117Moravia, NY 13118315-497-9618$19.95E-mail: [email protected]

21) Stromberg’sP.O. Box 400Pine River, MN 56474218-587-2222http://www.strombergschickens.com/products/processing.htm

22) Paul Helbert12558 North Valley PikeTenth Legion, VA 22815540-896-7107http://home.rica.net/phelbert/chickens.html

23) Luke ElliottP.O. Box 76Fox, AR [email protected]

24) A-1 Refrigeration Company11212 Wright RoadLynwood, CA 90262323-979-2244310-639-9910310-604-1596 Fax800-669-4423 outside Californiahttp://www.A1flakeice.com

25) Kip Glass. 2001. Re: Chilling birds. E-mail posting to PasturePoultry listserver.September 25.

26) McKee, Shelly. 2001. Chilling difference.WATT Poultry USA. January. p. 18, 20,22-23.

27) MBA Brand Smart Chicken333 South Third StreetP.O. Box 257Tecumseh, NE 68450402-335-2501402-335-2502 Faxhttp://www.smartchicken.com

28) Maple Leaf Foods Inc.30 St. Clair Avenue West, Suite 1500


Toronto, OntarioCanada M4V 3A2http://www.mapleleaf.com

29) Linco USA, Inc.6245 Shiloh Road, Suite AAlpharetta, GA 30005-8348770-844-8000E-mail: [email protected]: Tom Tieleman120 Park Ave.Seaford, DE 19973-9479302-628-9150404-915-5732 (mobile)

30) Stork Gamco Inc.Airport ParkwayP.O. Box 1258Gainesville, GA 30503770-532-7041770-532-5672 FaxContact: Felipe HerreraE-mail: [email protected]

31) Meyn Food Processing Technology B.V.P.O. Box 161510 AA OostzaanThe Netherlands31 (0) 75-684335531 (0) 75-6844150 Faxhttp://www.meyn.nl

32) Dr. Shelly McKeeDepartment of Poultry ScienceAuburn University234 Upchurch HallAuburn, AL 36849334-844-2765E-mail: [email protected]

33) TRS ContainersP.O. BOX 188Avenel, NJ 07001-0188732-636-3300732-750-1642 Faxhttp://www.trscontainers.comhttp://shippingcontainers.com/cstmized.htmE-mail: [email protected]

34) Brandon Sussman1482 Pleasant St.Webster, NH 03303-7613

603-648-2595E-mail: http://WebsterRidge.com/

email.shtmlhttp://www.websterridge.com/recipes/

brining.html

35) Koch Supplies1411 West 29th St.Kansas City, MO 64108800-777-5624816-561-9783 Faxhttp://www.kochequipment.com

36) Freund Container155 West 84th StreetChicago, IL 60620800-363-9822773-224-8812 Faxhttp://www.freundcan.com

37) Cryovac Sealed Air CorporationBuilding ARogers Bridge RoadDuncan, SC 29334Contact: Don Smith800-845-7551 ext. 2969800-662-9335http://www.cryovac.com

38) Berkel Company4406 Technology DriveSouth Bend, IN 46628800-348-0251888-888-2838 Fax

39) Bentley, Jordon. 2002. Turkey-sizefreezer bags. E-mail posting toPasturePoultry listserver. October 22.

40) Nielsen, V.C. 1989. In: Processing ofPoultry (ed. G.C. Meade). p. 361-412.Elsevier Applied Science, New York, NY.423 p.

41) Equipment Exchange Company ofAmerica, Inc.10042 Keystone Dr.Lake City, PA 16423814-774-0888814-774-0880 FaxE-mail: [email protected]://eeclink.com

42) U.S. Poultry and Egg Association


1530 Cooledge RoadTucker, GA 30084-7303770-493-9401770-493-9257 Faxhttp://www.poultryegg.org

43) Black, Karen. 2002. Re: processing knife.E-mail posting to PasturePoultrylistserver. January 13.

44) Diana EndicottHealth Harvest ProduceRt. 1, Box 117Bronson, KS 66716316-939-4922E-mail: [email protected]

45) Plamondon, Robert. 2001. Re: Processingspeed. E-mail posting to PasturePoultrylistserver. May 17.

46) Shell, Tim. 2001. Digest number 212. E-mail posting to DayRangePoultrylistserver. May 18.

47) Dave BosleeIMPACT402-462-9424

$22.50 for a 15-minute video

48) Northeast Pastured Poultry Association(NEPPA)c/o Hudson-Mohawk RC&D Council, Inc.1024 Route 66Ghent, NY 12075518-828-4385Co-chair: Judith Kelinberg 518-371-5592

49) Jim McLaughlin242 Dan Main RoadNorwich, NY 13815607-334-2833E-mail: [email protected]://www.cornerstone-farm.comhttp://www.cornerstone-farm.com/mpu.htm

50) Wagbo Peace Center5745 N. M-66East Jordan, MI 49727616-536-0333Contact: Rick Meisterheim

51) Island Grown Farmers Cooperativec/o Lopez Community Land Trust360-468-3723Contact: Sandy WoodE-mail: [email protected]: Bruce Dunlop360-468-4620E-mail: [email protected]

52) Terry Swagerty985 S. Elm StColville, WA 99126509-684-2588E-mail: [email protected]

53) Steve Muntz, Heifer International Appala-chia Program ManagerJeff Dombroskas, Heifer InternationalAppalachia Field Assistant110 N. Maysville St., Suite 100Mt. Sterling, KY 40353859-497-0603859-497-0626800-359-9581E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]://www.heifer.org

54) USDA FSIS. 1984. U.S. Inspected Meatand Poultry Plants: A Guide to Construc-tion and Layout. Agriculture Handbook570. U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, DC.U.S. Government Printing OfficeSuperintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC 20402866-512-1800 (toll free)202-512-1800202-512-2250 Fax

55) Virginia Department of Agriculture andConsumer ServicesOffice of Meat and Poultry Services1100 Bank St., Suite 614Richmond, VA 23219804-786-4569http://www.vdacs.state.va.us/meat&poultry/index.html


By Anne FanaticoNCAT Agriculture Specialist

Edited by Luke Elliott, Lance Gegner, andRichard EarlesFormatted by Gail M. Hardy

May 2003

56) Salatin, Joel. 1993. Pastured PoultryProfits. Polyface, Swoope, VA. 330 p.Order from:The Stockman Grass FarmerP.O. Box 2300Ridgeland, MS 39158-2300800-748-9808

Book $30 plus $4.50 s/hVideo $50

57) University of Minnesota Extension ServiceOffice of the Director240 Coffey Hall1420 Eckles Ave.St. Paul, MN 55108-6068612-624-1222800-876-8636 (to order publications bycredit card)

58) Extension PublicationsIANR Communications & InformationTechnologyBox 830918Lincoln, NE 68583-0918402-472-9712 (warehouse)402-472-0542 Fax

Home Processing of Chicken

59) Production ServicesKansas State University24 Umberger HallManhattan, KS 66506-3402785-532-5830 (10 or fewer titles)785-532-7938 Fax

60) Dhladhla, Vusumuzi. 1992. Economicsof Establishing a Low-Volume PoultryProcessing Plant: A Computer ApplicationDesign. Ph.D. Dissertation. University ofMichigan, Ann Arbor, MI. 173 p.

61) Mountney, George J., and Carmen R.Parkhurst. 1995. Poultry ProductsTechnology. 3rd Edition. Food ProductsPress, New York, NY. 446 p.

62) Mead, G.C. 1989. Processing of Poultry.Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.New York, NY.

63) American Association of Meat Processors

Appendices:Appendix A: South Central New York RC&D

MPU LayoutAppendix B: Kentucky MPU LayoutAppendix C: Small Plant Work Areas and De-

sign

P.O. Box 269Elizabethtown, PA 17022717-367-1168717-367-9096 Faxhttp://www.aamp.comE-mail: [email protected]


Appendix A. South Central New York RC&D MPU Layout

PASTURED POULTRYMOBILE PROCESSING UNIT

(MPU)

South Central New York Resource Conservation and Development Project has been involved with the startup andexpansion of Pastured Poultry Production in central New York since 1994. Through the SOCNY RC&D Office inNorwich, NY, funds were garnered to build a Pastured Poultry Mobile Processing Unit (MPU). The MPU wasdesigned and built by SOCNY RC&CD staff to help demonstrate how to reduce off farm expenses incurred in theraising and processing of pastured poultry on the farm. This MPU allows small producers and those interested inraising pastured poultry access to the equipment necessary to undertake on-farm processing. The unit is available fora rental fee based on the number of birds processed and the distance traveled to deliver it.

One of the important aspects of raising pastured poultry in a financially successful manner is to maintain low off-farm inputs. There are certain inputs that must be purchased off farm such as feed, and various manufactured items(i.e. poultry wire). However there are many on-farm resources that can be utilized other than grass (i.e. rough cutlumber, aluminum cage roofing, etc.). Pastured Poultry is a sustainable agriculture practice in that it returns to theland: fertilizer in the form of nitrogen; compost from the brooder bedding, and compost from the offal derived fromthe slaughtering process. A key component for successful economic return is to do all processing on the farm. Thecurrent rate for processing poultry in a New York State licensed facility is between $1.00 and $1.75 per bird. Theaverage number of birds a couple can process on the farm with the correct equipment is 20 birds per hour; thisequates to a $27.50/hour wage for home processed birds. In addition, the producer has the compost available forreturning organic matter to the soil.

The MPU consists of 5 poultry crates for containing live birds; 5 poultry kill cones to ensure correct bleeding; ascalder (capable of doing 4 birds at a time); a 3-4 bird barrel type feather picker; stainless steel table, processed birdchill tanks, knives and scales. A 20-foot long tarp is included to provide shade and protection from the elements.There are also hookups for 110 volt electricity and water. The 25-foot long unit can be towed to the desired locationwith a ½ ton pickup truck.

Approximate construction cost for the MPU was $3000 not including 70 hours of labor. The initial idea was to usea camper trailer keeping the shell intact. The interior was to be gutted and the processing components mountedinside. It was hoped that leaving the shell intact would allow for processing in any weather condition. However,several problems arose as construction began. The first concern was that it would become too hot inside the trailer,as the scalder unit is propane fired and has to maintain a temperature of 145-150° F. The second problem arose whengutting the trailer. It soon became apparent that the floor and structural integrity left much to be desired. Otherconcerns were the problem of maintaining a sanitary environment and the necessary maneuverability due to thephysical layout and size of the trailer. As a result, it was decided that it would be better to completely strip the trailerdown to the frame. Expanded metal was then welded to the frame and additional angle iron for reinforcement wasadded. The various processing components were then attached, which allows the unit to be put into operation withminimal assembly. This design allows for more space and an open, comfortable work environment.

The purpose of the MPU is to allow new producers the opportunity of processing poultry on their farm without havingto purchase the equipment themselves. Purchasing processing equipment can cost several thousand dollars. TheMPU is not intended to be used by producers year after year, but on a trial basis to help to meet the initial need.Currently the SOCNY RC&D Office is underwriting the cost of maintaining the equipment.

Grant moneys provided by Heifer Project International, and the USDA-NRCS GRAZE NY Program, allowed thisproject to be completed. The Pastured Poultry Initiative is made possible through the support of Heifer ProjectInternational, which assists rural families in the United States, Canada and Countries throughout the world. For moreinformation on the MPU, Heifer Project International, or GRAZE NY, contact the SoCNY RC&D office at 607-334-3231 Ext. 4 or 99 North Broad St., Norwich, NY 138125. E-mail: [email protected].

Appendix A continued on page 30



Appendix A continued from page 29

PASTURED POULTRY MOBILE PROCESSING UNITFact Sheet

The Mobile Processing Unit (MPU) was conceived and designed for the on-farm processing of pastured poultry. It isintended to assist first year poultry producers with processing, helping producers learn safe and sanitary procedures.The MPU is not intended to be used by individual producers year after year, but as a trial to help producers start uptheir businesses.

The MPU is capable of processing up to 40 birds and hour with experienced help. It consists of poultry crates forcontaining live birds, poultry kill cones to ensure correct bleeding; a scalder (capable of handling 3 to 4 birds at atime), a 3 to 4 bird barrel type feather picker; stainless steel table; chill tanks for processed birds; knives- and scales.A 20-foot long tarp is included to provide shade and protection from the elements. There are also hookups for 110volt electricity and water. The 25-foot long unit can be towed to the desired location with a pickup track. A ½ tonpickup truck with trailer light wiring and a 21-inch ball is necessary if the MPU will be picked up.

The current cost for the use of the MPU for a Pastured Poultry Association Member first year user is $25.00 for thefirst 100 birds and 25 cents per bird over 100 birds and 31 cents per mile (round trip) for delivery. The cost for asecond and successive year user is $35.00 for the first 100 birds and 35 cents per bird over 100 birds and 31 cents permile (round trip) for delivery. The cost for non-members if $45.00 per 100 birds and 45 cents per bird and 31 centsper mile delivery.

The unit is available for rent from May 1 through Oct. 15.

The MPU is delivered to the farm clean and ready to use and must be clean upon pickup. This includes the kill cones,picker, scalder and tables. The unit must be free from feathers and viscera. Stainless steel and galvanized equipmentmust be washed completely with chlorine bleach prior to return. There is a $50 fee if the unit is not returned in cleancondition. This requirement is for your health and safety, as well as for the continuation of on farm processing. It isimperative that we as producers and processors take the initiative to maintain absolutely sanitary slaughter conditionsto insure that disease free poultry is being sold to the public.

Reservations for use of the MPU must be made at least 4 weeks in advance to insure the processing date. The MPUwill be scheduled on a first come first served basis. First time processors are entitled to a brief introduction of theMPU and equipment by a staff person. The introduction will cover proper killing, scalding, picking and evisceration.If you are a first time processor and would like this training please notify the RC&D secretary when the MPU isscheduled. Training is done the day of delivery.

The costs for 1999 have yet to be established and may change. Any broken, damaged or missing equipment will bebilled at the replacement cost to the producer. Mileage is based on the actual miles traveled, this may not necessarilybe the way a producer would travel, but is left up to the discretion of the driver.

For more information on the MPU, contact the SoCNY RC&D office at 607-334-3231 Ext. 4 or write to: 99 NorthBroad St., Norwich, NY 13815. E-mail: [email protected]




Material List for Chicken Spin Picker and Scalder/Dunker

2X4 for frame

1-55 gal. Plastic drum

100 plucker fingers for drum and bottom plate

1 – 1 ½ hp motor

1 – 20” pulley for plate(Pulley sizes depend on motor you use)1 – 2” pulley for motor

1 – aluminum disk that will fit inside of your drum for bottom spinner. Keep gap between drum sidewall and plateas small as possible. I have seen people use plywood with a piece of thin aluminum bolted to it.

1 – 1 ¼” pipe approximately 12”

1 – 1 ½” pipe approximately 12”

Waterproof electric box and switch GFI.

12/2 w/ground wire.

1 – appropriate size v belt

Misc. metal pieces.

Scalder/Dunker

1 – 55 gal steel drum

1 – 35 gal drum (to make cage for birds to go in) [or egg basket?]

1 – propane fired unit. Can be purchased new or use an old hot water heater burner. You may also use electricheating elements (are more accurate)

1 – reduction unit of you own choice. Examples: silo distributor drive, manure spreader reduction unit, snowblower or rototiller reduction unit, etc.

Steel for frame

2 2-3” pulleys

Cable to run from reduction unit up to top pulleys then down to lowest point cage will be in tank

4 – ¾” square stock for air space between drums.

1 – appropriate size v belt

Misc. metal pieces.




SoCNY RC&D PickSoCNY RC&D PickSoCNY RC&D PickSoCNY RC&D PickSoCNY RC&D Picker Planer Planer Planer Planer Plan

Commercial rubber poultrypicker fingers

1-1½ hp motor 110V

2x4 woodenframe

55-gallon plasticdrum top andbottom cut out

Aluminum platein bottom ofdrum w/pickerfingers spacedabout 2” apart

Plate Top View

Picker fingers

2x4

12”pulley

1¼” pipe inside1½” pipe




SoCNY RC&D Scalder/DunkSoCNY RC&D Scalder/DunkSoCNY RC&D Scalder/DunkSoCNY RC&D Scalder/DunkSoCNY RC&D Scalder/Dunker Planer Planer Planer Planer Plan

Metal Cable

Pulleys

Metal cage to holdbirds. Could bean egg basket.

55-gallon drum cut1/3 off and 2/3 partturned upside downand filled withwater.

Allow 1-inch airspace in-betweendrum parts

1/3 of the drum is turned on end and the centeris cut out, which allows a gas burner from anold water heater to be mounted on it. Usedbottled LP gas from an old gas grill for fuelsource. Metal blocks are welded on top ofbase to allow airflow and stability.

Designed and built by Bob Banta

Burner Detail

Mountingbrackets

Gas burner

Use some type of reduction unit. Weused an old walk behind powered lawnmower and a 1-1/2-hp motor. Perhapsa trans-axle from a lawn tractor.




Appendix B. Kentucky MPU Layout


Appendix C. Small Plant Work Areas and DesignThe following outline of work areas and de-

sign considerations is adapted from Poultry Prod-ucts Technology (Mountney and Parkhurst, 1995).You may be required to follow some of theserecommendations if you are operating understate or federal inspection or in a federally ex-empt plant. Plants should be constructed to pro-vide space for future expansion. The main pointof the design is to keep edible products fromcoming in contact with raw or inedible prod-ucts.

WWWWWORKORKORKORKORK A A A A AREASREASREASREASREAS

• Receiving and holding area: for unloadingcrates and hanging birds or putting them incones.

• Dressing area: for killing, bleeding, scald-ing, and picking.

• Eviscerating area: for eviscerating, inspect-ing, and chilling; separated from the dress-ing room by a wall.

• Packing area: for packing and sometimescutting up.

• Refrigerated area: for chilling or freezing.• Shipping area: for moving product onto

trucks.• Other areas are needed for offices, inedibles,

cleaning, maintenance, toilets, dressing,lunch, and supplies.

DDDDDESIGNESIGNESIGNESIGNESIGN C C C C CONSIDERAONSIDERAONSIDERAONSIDERAONSIDERATIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS

• Structural materials: These include concrete,brick, glazed tile, and steel.

• Floors: Floors are concrete, smooth for easycleaning, and sloped to floor drains or cen-tral gutter drains to prevent water from pud-dling. Floors have an abrasive covering inwet areas to prevent slipping.

• Walls, ceilings, posts, and doors: Surfacesare smooth and impervious to water for easycleaning. According to small processor LukeElliott, “A common material used for wallsand ceilings is glass board like what youmay see in a restroom or a restaurantkitchen. The material comes in sheets and

has a stippled surface that may be washeddown.” Ceilings generally need to be 10feet high. Windowsills should be sloped ata 45-degree angle. The junction of floorsand walls should be covered to a radius ofat least 2 inches. Windows, doorways, andother openings should have screens to ex-clude insects and rodents.

• Plumbing: Prevent contamination fromcross-connections, back-siphonage, back-flow, leakage, or condensation. Toilet soillines should be separate from floor drain-age lines to a point outside the building.Water should be delivered to convenientoutlets for washing carcasses, walls, floors,and equipment. Pressure should be at least30 pounds per square inch. According toElliott, “You will want large water lines tosupply your plant. Even in small plants themain water line may be 1 ½ inches or morein diameter, and the feeder lines are typi-cally 1 inch and no less than ¾ inch. De-pending on local codes, copper may be re-quired. All lines should be insulated andcovered with a special plastic jacket to pre-vent condensation from dripping on theproduct. Exposed lines must be offset fromthe wall or ceiling to allow cleaning andwashdown behind the lines.”

• Ventilation: Ventilation is required to re-move dust, moisture, and gases. “A filteredair positive-pressure type system providesclean air from the outside and prevents re-contamination with dust and dirt (Mountneyand Parkhurst, 1995).” A counter-flow airsystem (from finished product area to raw)is needed. Air conditioning or a fan andduct system can be used. According toElliott, “This is especially true in the killroom. I suggest a separate heating and cool-ing and ventilation system for the kill room—it is a climate unto itself. A restaurant-typevent hood over the scalder is nice, with theability to bring in outside air to the killroom.”

Appendix C continued on page 37


• Lighting: Lights should be covered with anonshattering and watertight cover. Use atleast 50 foot-candles in inspection areas.

• Equipment design: Equipment should alloweasy cleaning and inspection and safe op-eration. It should be installed for maximumefficiency to reduce reach distances and per-mit smooth hand motions patterns. Equip-ment used for inedible products must bemarked. Slaughtering and processingrooms and toilets must have foot-pedaledhand-washing facilities with hot and coldwater, soap, and individual towels.

• Plant safety: Poultry processing has a highrate of accidents, so plan for safety. Fireextinguishers and first aid should be closeby.

Adapted from: Mountney, George J., andCarmen R. Parkhurst. 1995. Poultry ProductsTechnology. 3rd Edition. Food Products Press,New York, NY. 446 p. With comments by LukeElliott, Fox, Arkansas.

See Attachment.

Appendix C continued from page 36


Attached is a generic floorplan of a small plant, developed by Chan Zuber at Pickwick/Zesco.The floorplan should not be considered approved for licensing; you should check with your state andfederal authorities for licensing.

AttachmentAttachmentAttachmentAttachmentAttachment



The electronic version of Small-Scale PoultryProcessing is located at:HTMLhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/poultryprocess.htmlPDFhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/poultryprocess.pdf

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