Transcript
Page 1: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Sustaining Terrestrial

Biodiversity

Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Page 2: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

The Frontier Worldview Frontier worldview-the idea that

Earth’s resources are inexhaustible and it is there more human’s to conquer it. Contrast to Native American

views that deeply respected the land and its plants and animals

Led to enormous waste of resources because of belief that they were inexhaustible

By 1850 about 80% of land was owned by U.S. government, most taken from Native Americans

By 1900 more than half of U.S. public land was given away or sold cheaply to promote settlement.

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Case Study: Yellowstone Wolves

Between 1850 & 1900, 2 million wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned to keep W. and Great Plains safe for livestock

1973 U.S. Endangered Species Act only 400 wolves remained in lower 48 states.

1974 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) listed them as endangered.

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Case Study: Yellowstone Wolves

Keystone predator: Kept down populations of deer,

moose, and coyote and provided food for scavengers

Populations then rose drastically, devastating vegetation and increasing soil erosion.

1987 USFWS proposed introduction of gray wolves into Yellowstone, which was protested.

1995 caught wolves in Canada and relocated

Presently less damage due to elks and coyotes.

Page 5: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity

Humans have disturbed 50-80% of Earth’s land surface

82% of temperate deciduous forests cleared, fragmented, and dominated for crops and urban development

Tundra, tropical deserts, and land w/ ice are least disturbed b/c harsh conditions and poor soils are unappealing.

Humans ALONE use, waste, or destroy 10-55% of NPP of planet’s terrestrial ecosystems.

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Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity

Global extinction rates of species are at least 100 to 1,000X’s what it was before humans existed Rate currently 1%/year Threats to increase sharply by 2018

Convention on Biological Diversity of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio was ratified by 178 countries: National surveys of wildlife Establishment of parks and reserves Assessment and protection of endangered species.

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Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity

Both the needy poor and the largest amount of biodiversity that is vanishing is located in developing countries.

We can’t address one without the other.

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Projected Status of Biodiversity1998–2018

Critical and endangered Threatened Stable or intact

ANTARCTICA

NORTHAMERICA

EUROPE

AFRICA

ASIA

SOUTHAMERICA AUSTRALIA

PacificOcean

Antarctic Circle

PacificOcean

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of CapricornIndianOcean

AtlanticOcean

150°90°60°E0°30°W90°120°150°0°

60°

30°N

30°S

60°

Arctic CircleArctic Circle

Page 9: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Human PopulationSize and resource use

Human ActivitiesAgriculture, industry, economic

production and consumption, recreation

Indirect Effects

Direct Effects

Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems

Alteration of natural chemicalcycles and energy flows

Changes in number and distribution of species

Pollution of air, water, and soil

Climate change

Loss of biodiversity

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What Can We Do? Two approaches:

1. Species approach- to protect species from premature extinction

2. Ecosystem approach- protect populations of species and their natural habitats affects all others of ecosystems.

**Notice importance of habitat!

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The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach

Goal

Protect species frompremature extinction

Strategies• Identify

endangered species

• Protect their critical habitats

Tactics

• Legally protect endangered species

• Manage habitat

• Propagate endangered species in captivity

• Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

Goal

Protect populations ofspecies in their naturalhabitats

Strategy

Preserve sufficient areasof habitats in differentbiomes and aquaticsystems

Tactics• Protect habitat areas

through private purchase or government action

• Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas

• Manage protected areas to sustain native species

• Restore degraded ecosystems

Page 12: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Conservation Biology Multidisciplinary science

Started in 1970 Use emergency responses to slow down human’s

destruction and degradation of biodiversity Conservationists identify hot spots- most

endangered species-rich systems, and take action. Endemic plants- Those found nowhere else on

Earth.

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Page 14: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Public Lands in U.S. >35% of U.S. land is managed by federal

government—More than any other country 73% of federal public lands in Alaska, and 22% in

western states Public lands can be classified into three categories:

Multiple–use lands, which include National Forests (National Forest Service) and National resource lands (Bureau of Land Management);

Moderately–restricted use lands, which include National Wildlife Refuges (U.S. Fish and Wildlife);

Restricted–use lands, which include National Parks (National Park Service), and the National Wilderness Preservation System.

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National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

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Public Lands in U.S. National Forest System

Run by U.S. Forest Service (part of Department of Agriculture)

i.e. Hoosier National Forest 155 forests, 22 grasslands Used for logging, mining, livestock farming, oil

and gas extraction and recreation. National Resource Lands

Managed by Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Used for mining, oil and gas, livestock grazing

Page 17: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Public Lands in U.S. National Wildlife Refuges

Managed by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)

Most protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl and big game

Some protect endangered species from extinction

Permitted activities: hunting trapping fishing, mining, logging, and grazing

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Public Lands in U.S. National Park System

More restricted use Managed by National Park Service (NPS) 56 major parks, 331 national recreation

areas, monuments, and historic sites. 1,100 all over the world for other

countries’ programs Human activities threaten them due to:

Noise, congestion, eroded trails Off-road vehicles, damage to vegetation Nonnative species introduction Water pollution

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Solutions

National Parks

•Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands

•Add new parkland near threatened parks

•Buy private land inside parks

•Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks

•Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs

•Survey wildlife in parks

•Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance

•Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers

•Increase number and pay of park rangers

•Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours

•Seek private donations for park maitenance and repairs

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Public Lands in U.S. National Wilderness Preservation

System Collectively unites all 760

individual wilderness areas. Wilderness zones lie within other

types of public lands and managed by agencies in charge of those lands

Storehouses for biodiversity and centers of natural evolution

Only non-motor sports allowed U.S. Wilderness Act of 1964-

"...lands designated for preservation and protection in their natural condition..." "...an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man..."

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Public Lands in U.S. 3/30/09 Obama signed the Omnibus

Public Land Management Act of 2009 (Public law 111-11) into law which designated 52 new wilderness areas and added acreage to 26 existing areas, a total addition to the NWPS of over 2 million acres.

The most land to go into the system on record was during the Reagan administration in 1984.

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Other Types of Reserves Biosphere reserves-

UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) created the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

Goal: To establish a least one biosphere reserve in each of the earth’s 193 biogeographical zones.

Today, more than 425 exist Have a core area (protected from human

activities) surrounded by buffer zone (sustainable activities and recreation) and a final, outer, transition zone (more intensive but sustainable activities)

Page 23: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Biosphere Reserve

Core areaCore area

Buffer zone 1Buffer zone 1

Buffer zone 2Buffer zone 2

Human settlements

Tourism andeducation center

Research station

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Management of U.S. Public Lands Conservation biologists

Protect biodiversity and habitats Users-pay approach All users or extractors of resources should be

responsible for environmental damage. Economists and developers:

Sell public lands to corporations Slash federal funding Repeal or modify Endangered Species Act Wise-use approach- public lands should be managed

wisely and scientifically to provide needed resources

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Major Types of Forests Biomes with forests: boreal,

temperate and tropical. Three types of forests1. Old-growth- uncut or

regenerated that hasn’t been seriously disturbed by humans or natural disasters for 200+ years Storehouses of biodiversity b/c

lots of ecological niches 63% of world’s forests Russia, Canada, Brazil, New

Guinea, etc.

Page 26: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Major Types of Forests2. Second-growth- stand of trees from secondary

succession after removal by humans or natural forces Decent biodiversity 22% of all forests

3. Tree plantations (farms)- uniformly aged trees of one species (monoculture) that are harvested by clear-cutting and then replanted Low diversity 20% of all forests

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Years of growth30

2515

10

5

Clear cut

Weak treesremoved

Seedlingsplanted

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Two Forest Management Systems Even-aged management (industrial

forestry)- maintaining trees in given stand at about same age and size for harvesting Tree plantations replace biodiverse old-growth

or second-growth forests Uneven-aged management- variety of tree

species at many ages and sizes to foster natural regeneration For biodiversity, sustainable production of

timber, wildlife, and recreation.

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Harvesting Trees1st Build roads

Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss

Increased erosion and sediment runoff

Exposure to pests and nonnative species

Access to miners, farmers, and off-road vehicles

2nd Harvest trees Various methods, such as

selective cutting, shelterwood cutting, seed-tree cutting, and clear-cutting

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Old growth

Highway

HighwayCleared plotsfor grazing

Cleared plotsfor agriculture

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Harvesting Trees Selective cutting- removing intermediate

age or mature trees in an uneven-aged forest cut singly or in small groups Reduces crowding and encourages growth and

regeneration Protects site from erosion and wind damage High-grading- selective cutting in many tropical

forests to remove only largest and best trees. Many other trees damaged in process due to hanging vines.

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Selective Cutting

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Harvesting Trees

Shelterwood cutting- removing all mature trees in area in 2-3 cuttings over a certain period of time

Seed-tree cutting- loggers harvest nearly all trees, but leave a few evenly distributed seed-producing trees

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Shelterwood Cutting

Cut 1Cut 2

Seed-Tree Cutting

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Harvesting Trees Clear-cutting- all trees removed

Shelterwood and seed-tree cutting are forms of this that occur in 2 or more phases

Strip-cutting- clear-cutting variation that provides sustainable timber yield w/o widespread destruction. Less fragmentation

Page 36: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Clear-Cutting

Strip Cutting

Uncut Cut Cut Cut Uncut

6–10 years ago 3–5 years ago1 year ago

Cutting methods video clip

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Trade-Offs

Clear-Cutting Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields

Maximum economic return in shortest time

Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees

Short time to establish new stand of trees

Needs less skill and planning

Best way to harvest tree plantations

Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth

Reduces biodiversity

Disrupts ecosystem processes

Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats

Leaves moderate to large openings

Increases soil erosion

Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes

Eliminates most recreational value for several decades

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Deforestation Deforestation- temporary or

permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture or other uses.

Human activities have reduced Earth’s forest cover by 20-50%

Deforestation is still continuing at an rapid, exponential rate (0.3-0.8%/year), except in most temperate forests in N. America and Europe

Over 4/5 of losses taking place in tropics

Most common use of wood? Fuel!!!!

Page 39: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Biomass as Fuel

Historically, and certainly before the industrial revolution in developed countries, forests were cleared to use the wood for fuel. In 2000, an estimated 1.8 billion

cubic meters of fuelwood were used globally

Deforested trees or charcoal derived from them are used as fuel by many in developing countries today. In tropical locations, 80% of all

wood used goes toward fuel or charcoal production.

Selling charcoal is a source of income for many.

Page 40: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Natural Capital Degradation

Deforestation

•Decreased soil fertility from erosion

•Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems

•Premature extinction of species with specialized niches

•Loss of habitat for migratory species such as birds and butterflies

•Regional climate change from extensive clearing

•Releases CO2 into atmosphere from burning and tree decay

•Accelerates flooding

Page 41: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Tropical Deforestation Tropical forests:

Cover 6% of Earth’s land area, but once covered at least 2X’s as much, (since 1950)

Contain more than 50% of terrestrial plant and animal species

**Center for Interaction Forestry Research says the rapid spread in cattle ranching is the biggest threat to the Amazon’s tropical forests!

Page 42: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

What’s the Problem? Tropical rainforests provide chemicals as

blueprints for making most of world’s prescription drugs!

Clearing of tropical rainforests results in: Loss of natural cloud cover and rainfall that is produced

by the rainforest itself due to transpiration. Fewer trees = less rain in rainforest

CO2 released through burning of the trees as they’re cleared that act as a storehouse for carbon when intact

Positive feedback This affects the climates of the entire world.

Page 43: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Case Study: Brazil Brazil

Contains 40% of world’s remaining tropical forests in Amazon

Without aggressive action may largely disappear in 40-50 yrs

Their Atlantic coastal rainforest is 93% cleared!

Growing of sugar cane for ethanol Soybeans Cattle grazing Timber plantations

Brazil deforestation

Page 44: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

The Incredible Neem Tree Broadleaf evergreen member of mahogany family Quickly reforests degraded land (5-7yrs) Grows well in semiarid conditions Provides fuel wood, lumber, and lamp oil Extracts from seeds and

leaves: Fight bacterial, viral,

and fungal infections Contains natural pesticides that kill > 200 insect species Potential for male birth

control pill.

Page 45: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Case Study: Costa Rica

Once covered by tropical forests, but b/t 1963 and 1980, powerful ranching families cleared much of its forest to graze cattle.

Mid 1970’sestablished system of national parks and reserves, consolidated into 8 megareserves

Each has protected inner core surrounded by buffer zones that local people can use.

Eliminated subsidies for converting forests to cattle grazing land

Pays landowners to maintain forests.

Page 46: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Case Study: Costa Rica As part of the U.S. Tropical Forest Conservation

Act, in 2007 the U.S. granted Costa Rica the largest debt-for-nature swap on record at that time. CR owed the U.S. over $90 million. U.S. and two NGO’s (nongovernmental

organizations) contributed $14 million to help pay down $26 million of the loan (at a discounted rate.)

CR reduced their debt and generated money for their environment.

They are required to use the money they would have paid for the loan for forest conservation efforts.

Page 47: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Nicaragua

CostaRica

Pacific Ocean

Panama

Caribbean Sea

Peninsula Osa

Pacifico Central

CordilleraVolcanica Central

Bajo Tempisque

Arenal

GuanacastleLlanuras deTortuguero

La Amistad

Page 48: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Reducing Deforestation and Degradation

Protect most diverse andendangered areas

Educate settlers about sustainableagriculture and forestry

Phase out subsidies that encourageunsustainable forest use

Add subsidies that encouragesustainable forest use

Protect forests with debt-for-natureswaps, conservation easements,and conservation concessions

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce illegal cutting

Reduce poverty

Slow population growth

Reforestation

Rehabilitation of degradedareas

Concentrate farming andranching on already-clearedareas

RestorationPrevention

Solutions

Sustaining Tropical Forests

Page 49: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Logging

Removal of trees for timber, paper, and other goods

Deforestation is just to get rid of the trees.

2/3 wood consumed in U.S. wasted (how?)

Big debate on logging in National Forests

Page 50: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Trade-Offs

Advantages Disadvantages

Logging in U.S. National Forests

Helps meet country’s timber needs

Cut areas grow back

Keeps lumber and paper pricesdown

Provides jobs in nearby communities

Promotes economic growth in nearby communities

Provides only 4% of timber needs

Ample private forest land to meet timber needs

Has little effect on timber and paper prices

Damages nearby rivers and fisheries

Recreation in national forestsprovides more localjobs and incomefor local communities thanlogging

Decreasesrecreationalopportunities

Page 51: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

How To Slow Logging? Decrease pressure to harvest

trees Make paper from tree-free fibers,

which are agricultural residues left over from crops

Use fast-growing crops such as kenaf (kuh-NAHF) and hemp

Kenaf needs fewer pesticides b/c outer covering insect-proof

Needs less fertilizerit’s a nitrogen fixer

Breakdown of fibers easier less energy and fewer chemical to make the paper

Page 52: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Fires and Forests3 types of forest fires:1. Surface fires- burn undergrowth and leaf litter on

floor. Can kill seedlings, but usually spares mature trees Most animals escape

Benefits: Burn away flammable ground material preventing more

destructive fires Release valuable nutrients from undergrowth Stimulates germination of certain seed trees, such as

sequoia and jack pines Helps control pathogens and insects

Page 53: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Surface fire

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Fires and Forests2. Crown Fires- start on ground, but then

burn whole trees, leaping from treetop to treetop. Occur where there hasn’t been surface fires in

a long time b/c of built up undergrowth Destroys vegetation, kills wildlife, increases soil

erosion, and burns human structures.

3. Ground fires- fires burn decomposed leaves underground May smolder a long time before detected.

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Crown fire

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Reduction of Fires Prevention

Require burning permits and close parks during periods of drought

Educate public (i.e. Smokey Bear) Prescribed burning

Controlled ground fires to prevent build up Severe fires threaten 40% of all forest lands

through buildup from past fire prevention programs, increased logging leaving behind debris, and greater public use.

2003 Healthy Forest Initiative Law- timber companies allowed to cut down medium and large trees for 10 years in return for clearing smaller, fire prone trees and underbrush.

Page 57: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Pests in the Forests Emerald ash borer

Exotic, invasive, transported in campfire wood and lumber—some states are quarantined

Larvae feed on trees, stopping their ability to transport nutrients

Tens of millions of ash trees destroyed.

Bagworm Look very similar to pine cones Native pest Attack 100’s of types of trees.

Pine shoot beetle Introduced here in the U.S., and China has

suffered extreme loss of pine trees Attacks new shoots of pine trees,

stunting growth.

Page 58: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Price Tag of Ecological Services Researchers claim the

economic value of long-term ecological services from natural capital of forests is much greater than their short term economic gains

World’s forests provide us with $4.7 trillion/year (1/10 of all good and services of the entire world in 2004.)

What are some of these services?

Page 59: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Forests play a various important ecological roles:Regulate the flow of water

Slow runoff and continual recharge of groundwater and streams, reduce soil erosion and stream sediments

Influence climateincrease local precipitation and lower local temperatures

Vital to carbon cycletake up 90% of carbon fixed by terrestrial ecosystems

Provide wildlife habitatAccording to one calculation a typical tree provides

$196,250 worth of ecological benefits in its lifetimeoxygen, air purification, soil fertility and erosion control, water recycling and humidity control, wildlife habitat

Ecological Importance of Forests

Page 60: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

Managing Forests More Sustainably

Harvesting no faster than replenished Reduce road building Protecting old-growth and second-growth

forests and their biodiversity No fragmentation Use selective or strip-cutting Let trees fall and decompose to return

nutrients Include the economic value of forests’

ecological services in price of lumber Certification of sustainably grown timber

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Home Depot, Lowes, Andersen, etc. all

participate to guarantee they get supplies from sustainably managed forests.

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Solutions

Sustainable Forestry

•Grow more timber on long rotations

•Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting

•No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelterwood cuttingon steeply sloped land

•No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest

•Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas

•Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling

•Certify timber grown by sustainable methods

•Include ecological services of trees and forests inestimating economic value

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Current Forests in the U.S.

Forests cover more area now (30%) than in 1920! Good news!

More wood grown than cut, and we’ve set aside large areas of protected forests.

Since 1960’s, increasing area of old-growth and second-growth clear cut and replaced with tree plantations. Bad news!

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5 Basic Principles of Restoration Most of the damage we have inflicted on

nature is at least partially reversible. Mimic nature! Recreate important ecological niches that have

been lost (i.e.reclaiming industrial areas (brownfields))

Rely on pioneer species, keystone species, and ecological succession to facilitate the process.

Control or remove harmful nonnative species Reconnect small patches to form larger ones

and create corridors where existing patches are isolated.


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