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 DOI: 10.1177/019263659808259707

1998 82: 34NASSP BulletinJoyce M. Kelstrom

Effect on Academic AchievementThe Untapped Power of Music: Its Role in the Curriculum and Its

  

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34

A R T S E D U C A T I O N

The Untapped Power of Music:Its Role in the Curriculum andIts Effect on Academic AchievementBy Joyce M. Kelstrom

Joyce M. Kelstrom is a music educator in Elmhurst, Ill.

The importance of music in our schools is often overlooked, and its truepower is unrealized. Music deserves a place with the core subjects of math,science, history, and language arts. If it is given the opportunity, music canmake a difference in the academic achievement of our students.

s the twenty-first century approaches, educators and administrators

~~~ face budget cuts and financial stress, demands for higher test scoresand proof of student achievement, scheduling conflicts, overcrowd-ing of facilities, and higher technological demands. There is also increased

pressure on students to achieve higher grades and scores on college admis-sion tests, so students are frequently steered toward the subjects that are test-ed on these exams.

Music and fine arts are greatly affected by all these demands. Highschool music programs are fighting a battle to maintain enrollment becauseof ever-increasing college academic admission requirements, which leavemany interested students with no room in their schedule for music.

The future role of music and fine arts in the U.S. school depends on

administrators, who will only make music a part of the curriculum if theyare aware of the financial, academic, and aesthetic merits of having a music

program (Robitaille and O’Neal, 1981; Gillespie, 1992; Miller and Coen,1994; Anderson, 1995). The decision to support music cannot be made with-out knowing music’s effect on academic achievement and its contributionto a student’s education.

Music education has been advanced through history-by Plato andSocrates in ancient times; by Martin Luther in the Reformation; by HoraceMann and Lowell Mason in early America; and by John Dewey in the

Progressive Age. Historically, music education has flourished in religious

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settings-in Puritan schools and churches in the Northern colonies, in

parochial schools in the Middle Atlantic colonies, and in Lutheran schoolsand churches in the Reformation.

Music education has taken many forms. Singing schools, establishedin colonial days, concentrated on performance. When music was intro-

duced into the public school curriculum in 1838, the emphasis switched tomusic theory and notation. In the Progressive Era the concentration

changed to self-expression and musical activity, only to be replaced by&dquo;aesthetics&dquo; education in the post-Sputnik age.

Music in Today’s SchoolsOther countries, with Hungary, Japan, and the Netherlands leading the way,have already discovered the positive contribution music can make to stu-dents’ aptitude and learning success. These countries have made music a

major part of their curriculum. The United States lags far behind.

Today, music occupies a part-time place in U.S. schools. It is gener-ally taught once or twice a week at the elementarylevel, before or after school at the middle level, andas an elective in the high school.

To date, music has played a relatively minorrole in the school curriculum in the United States. If

student participation in music is a positive factor in

achieving high grades and test scores, however, andif music students perform better academically thannon-music students, that should revolutionize the

current concept and organization of basic schoolcurriculum.

While educators can learn much from the

past, current research has also uncovered findingsabout the value of music study and its relationship

If music is to assume a

place in the regular

school curriculum, cur-

rent research must be

used to show its effect

on academic achievement

and its contribution to

students’ education.

to academic achievement (Oddleifson, 1989; Mickela, 1990; Music

Educators National Conference, 1991; Morrison, 1994). Both the historical

viewpoint and current findings can be used to determine the role musicshould hold in the school curriculum today.

If music is to assume a place in the regular school curriculum, cur-rent research must be used to show its effect on academic achievement and

its contribution to students’ education. Two measures that are often used as

indicators of academic achievement are grades and standardized test scores.Research has been done at all levels of education, exploring the relation-ship of music instruction to academic achievement.

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Middle Level

Researchers have found that music instruction actually enhances stu-dent achievement in areas outside music. In a study by Robitaille andO’Neal (1981), 5,154 fifth graders took the Comprehensive Test of BasicSkills (CTBS) in Albuquerque, N.M., in 1979. In 1980, another 5,299 fifth

graders were tested. Of these groups, nearly one-fourth of all participantswere enrolled in the instrumental music program during both years. In allareas, music students scored higher on the CTBS than the total group. Theresearch showed that the longer pupils were in the music program, the

higher their achievement was in comparison to the non-music students. Thisstudy was replicated in 1986 and similar results were found.

In 1992, a group of 270 fifth graders were selected from a Kansasschool district to determine the effect of instrumental music instruction on

academic achievement. The Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills (CTBS)subtests of reading and math were used. The study indicated that time outof regular classes for instrumental music instruction does not negativelyaffect academic achievement (Dryden, 1992, p. 65). _

SAT Research

In a series of studies conducted by the College Board from 1990 to1996, it was found that music/art students consistently scored significantlyhigher on both the math and verbal sections of the SAT. The data were gath-ered by the Student Descriptive Questionnaire, a component of the SAT that

provides information about students’ academic preparation. Students’

response rate to the questionnaire was high-95 percent-and studies doc-ument the accuracy of self-reported student information (College Board,1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995; Krum, 1994).

Grades and Academic HonorsIn 1990 the National Center for Educational Statistics conducted a survey of

18,000 high school sophomores to gather information on the social and aca-demic life of U.S. teenagers. While 22.8 percent of these students partici-pated in school music programs, the percentage of music students wasmuch greater than 22 percent of the entire group in receiving academichonors, making the honor roll, or being elected to class office. The gradepoint average (GPA) of music students was also higher.

These results confirm the findings of the SAT studies.

Arts-Based Schools in the United StatesSome areas of the United States have experimented with implementing arts-based schools. These schools, though relatively few in number, have had a

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track record of considerable academic success (Oddleifson, 1989; Mickela,1990; Newbill, 1992). Some arts-based schools are magnet schools,designed to attract the best, brightest, and most talented music students.Others are schools open to the public with no prior music training or abil-

ity required of entering students.Students enrolled in the New Orleans Center for the Creative Arts

attend the center for a half day of arts training, then spend the remainderof the day at their home schools. Arts training includes drama, theater, visu-al arts, dance, and music. As students continue at the Center, their aca-demic studies improve and their grades rise (Oddleifson, 1989, p. 41).

At the other extreme is St. Augustine’s School in the Bronx, which wasabout to close in 1985 because of low enrollment and poor academic

achievement. The principal, in a desperate attempt to save the school, decid-ed to convert it into an arts-based school. Today students spend one-third ofthe day in music. At fourth grade they learn piano plus one other instrument.All students are taught to sing. This school is open to all, not just the musi-

cally talented. Even though it is located in an extremely poor area, it has a

waiting list of students who want to attend. Today, the school is one of onlythree schools in the greater New York area in which 90 percent of the stu-

dents are reading at the proper grade level (Mickela, 1990; Sautter, 1994).

Arts-Based Education AbroadWhile the United States is only experimenting with arts-based schools,countries around the world have been using arts-based curricula for yearswith overwhelming academic success (Oddleifson, 1989, 1990). A studywas performed by the International Association for Evaluation of

Educational Achievement in 1988, in which the scientific achievement of 14to 17-year-olds in 17 countries was analyzed. Of these, Hungary, Japan, andthe Netherlands were rated at the top. In these countries music is an inte-

gral part of the school curriculum K-12. The United States was ranked 14thof the 17 countries surveyed.

In Japan, all students learn both instrumental and choral music from

grade school through secondary school. Music theory and history are also

taught, along with Japanese and western art forms.The Dutch made art and music mandatory subjects in their sec-

ondary schools in 1968. These subjects then became part of the national

system of secondary exams to determine student qualification for universi-

ty study. In 1976, the arts were granted examination status.

Hungary is ranked first in scientific achievement for eighth and ninthgraders. Zoltan Kodaly created a comprehensive sequential music educa-tion program in which vocal and instrumental training are provided twice

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a week for the first eight years of schooling. After that, those students whochoose music receive daily lessons and learn a new instrument each year.The Hungarian embassy in Washington issued a statement saying that

&dquo;Hungarians have known for a long time that music education trains one tothink and that there is a very close connection between musical competenceand mathematical ability&dquo; (Oddleifson, 1989, p. 13).

What does this tell us? The three top-ranked countries in the worldin student scientific achievement have music education at the heart of their

educational systems. &dquo;It would appear that the Hungarians, Japanese, andthe Dutch understand something we Americans have yet to fully grasp-thatmusic and the arts are vital to the development and expanse of the humanintellect, which in turn results in superior academic and career perfor-mance&dquo; (Oddleifson, 1989, p. 13).

The Effect of Music on BrainFunctionsIn 1993 the University of California undertook a

study of college students to determine the effectsof music on spatial intelligence, the ability to

form mental images of physical objects. Studentswho listened to music by Mozart for 10 minuteswere found to have higher spatial scores thanthose who did not listen to any music. The stu-

dents scored 8-9 points higher on the spatial IQ

The three top-ranked

countries in the world

in student scientific

achievement have

music education at the

heart of their educa-

tional systems.

reasoning subtest of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Interestingly,rhythmically repeated contemporary musical works did not improve spatialtask performance; only the classical music had a significant effect. The con-clusion of this study was that music and spatial task performance is causal-ly related (Rauscher et al., 1994).

Case StudiesCase studies have been conducted in high schools to assess the academ-ic success of secondary school music students (Milley et al., 1983; Mickela,1990; McCarthy, 1992). In 1992, a study was undertaken by the Colorado

High School Association on band and orchestra students in a four-yearhigh school. Membership in the instrumental music groups was consid-ered the independent variable and the following were dependent vari-ables : Science Research Associates (SRA) tests of reading, language, math,and composite scores; absences from school during the 1990-91 schoolyear; and cumulative GPA.

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The study found that concert band and orchestra members scored

significantly higher than non-music students on SRA language, math, and

composite scores; that their GPAs were significantly higher than non-music

students; and that they had significantly fewer days absent. The conclusiondrawn was that music students reach higher academic achievement levelsin academic studies than non-music students.

In 1981 a study of the Mission Viejo High School in Southern

California determined the overall GPA of music students to be 3.59, com-

pared with 2.91 for non-music students. Sixteen percent of music studentsattained a 4.0 grade point average compared to only 5 percent of non-musicstudents (Mickela, 1990).

An educational research firm reported in 1980 that 67 individualcase studies in California showed that students’ achievement in reading,writing, and math improved when arts are included in the curriculum

(Milley et al., 1983).

The FutureWhat is music? What is academic achievement? Music is defined here as anymusic instruction given in school-choral, general, or instrumental.

Academic achievement is a measurable outcome, with grades and stan-dardized test scores used as the primary indicators.

Music is an art, a discipline, a language, and a vehicle of instruction.The studies cited have explored the relationship of school music instructionand academic achievement and, more specifically, the effect of music

instruction on academic achievement. The evidence from the research

strongly suggests there is a correlation between music instruction and highgrades and/or test scores. Yet, many specific questions remain unansweredand require further research.

Does music reinforce concepts that are essential to academic achievement

Yes, music develops critical thinking skills (Mickela, 1990) and

improves skills in reading, writing, and math (Milley et al., 1983). It stimu-lates thought and action in non-musical areas and develops individual con-fidence. The study of music develops an overall discipline of mind thattransfers to other subjects.

Wlhich characteristics of music are correlated with academic achievement

Eye-hand coordination and motor skills developed by playing amusical instrument transfer to writing skills (Mickela, 1990). Music developsand improves spatial intelligence, which transfers to high-level math andscience (Rauscher et al., 1994). It develops perceptual skills necessary in

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The rhythm of music transfers to the rhythm of reading. The learn-ing and performance of rhythm develop eye-hand coordination necessaryin other academic areas. Auditory discrimination developed by instrumen-tal study helps develop phonetic skills. Memory training, listening, recall,and concentration are all skills developed in music study that transfer toacademic areas (Mickela, 1990).

Why does learning music generalize to other areas?One reason music transfers to other subjects is that cognitive and

higher order thinking skills are developed in music. The level of energynecessary in music and the ability to organize time and self-discipline are

developed through music study (Mickela, 1990).

What skills developed in music apply to other areas?Some of these skills are a sense of rhythm, physical coordination,

fine motor and gross motor skills, critical thinking, memory recall, listening,and logic (Dryden, 1992).

What is the relationship between learning and reading?Music instruction develops the perceptual skills necessary in reading.

Studying a musical instrument develops auditory discrimination that posi-tively influences the development of phonetic skills. Music study also

improves the development of reading readiness skills in slow learners

(Dryden, 1992).

What is the relationship between music and math skills?Music instruction increases achievement in mathematical skills

(Milley et al., 1983). Studying music enables students to learn multiplicationtables and math formulas more easily (Mickela, 1990).

The ability to solve problems necessary in some branches of math-ematics is facilitated by experience in music study. Musical instruction tech-

niques that have been used for teaching mathematics have met with greatsuccess (Dryden, 1992).

What is the correlation between logic and music?This question is difficult to answer specifically: Music instruction

increases perception and critical thinking skills, and perception and critical

thinking skills correspond with logical skills. Long after the formulas learnedin a music theory class are forgotten, a person may use the ability for logi-cal thinking that was developed in the class to solve problems quite unre-lated to music; may use the discipline cultivated in a music performanceclass or creativity cultivated in a music composition class to solve problemsquite unrelated to music; may retain a lasting appreciation of the aestheticqualities manifest in music forever.

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What level and type of music curriculum should be offered in this country?A comprehensive music curriculum, incorporating vocal and instru-

mental performance, music theory, composition, and musical theater/dramashould be offered at every school level. Students should not only learnabout the arts, they should perform the arts to gain the greatest benefit.

Does the business sector recognize the importance of the arts?

In 1992 Fortune magazine ran an article entitled &dquo;What Our Kids

Must Learn.&dquo; An appreciation of the fine arts was one of 10 areas listed as a

necessity for young people to have upon leaving high school (Labich, 1992).

Music Instruction: The ChallengeMusic instruction is a powerful tool that educators can use to promote aca-demic achievement and mental discipline. Many examples of research canbe given to support the theory that music instruction promotes academicachievement.

What does this mean for Americans? Music has not found its placein the school curriculum of this country because music has not found its

way into the heart of school people. They will not

support what they do not understand; they will notunderstand what they are not taught; they will notbe taught a subject that is considered unimportant.As a result, the true benefits of music education arelost to our young people.

Music education is more than learning to

sing or play an instrument. It is more than enter-

taining or pleasing an audience. It is more than a

pleasant diversion or recreation. Music is a science.

Music instruction is

a powerful tool that

educators can use to

promote academic

achievement and

mental discipline.

It is a mental discipline. It is an art. It has a mathematical foundation. It is

a language. It is a physical activity. Any subject that combines science, dis-

cipline, language, math, physical activity and art must not only be worth-while, but absolutely essential to the education of our children. Music incor-

porates every other area of study in some way. What a tool to be used ineducation!

It is time for U.S. educators to consider the inclusion of music in the

school curriculum more carefully. The effect of music on brain functionsand academic activity should be further explored. The establishment of arts-based schools should become more widespread. Curriculum developersneed to write a fine arts curriculum that can be used in our schools.

Administrators need to incorporate music courses as requirements,not just electives in their school system. Serious music courses that are not

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just performing classes should be taught-music appreciation, music histo-

ry, composition, theory-and incorporated into the basic curriculum.

Serious money should be funneled into music programs for academic con-

cerns, not just for trip expenses or band uniforms. Music educators should

get on track and stop promoting the next competition or performance. Theymust focus on the education of our students. They need to see how music

shapes the education of our children academically as well as aesthetically.Music and the arts must be incorporated into the U.S. school cur-

riculum. A new curriculum is not needed. Instead, the existing curriculumshould be expanded and adapted to include music as a regular subject.

In most schools, traditional subjects such as mathematics, science,and history are considered core courses. Conversely, music~ is often consid-ered an &dquo;extracurricular&dquo; activity, and then given short shrift by comparingit to other extracurricular activities such as sports. Since music does not

bring in money as sports do, it is dismissed as extraneous, unimportant, and

unproductive. The contribution music makes to the academic achievementof students is ignored. Only when it is too late may schools realize what a

tremendous source of untapped power has been lost. -B

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Dryden, S. "The Impact of Instrumental Music Instruction on the AcademicAchievement of Fifth Grade Students, 1992." ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No. ED 368 634.

Gillespie, R. "The Elementary Pull-Out Crisis: Using Research Effectively."American String Teachers’ Journal, Spring 1992.

Krum, G. "SAT Scores and Art Study: An Update." Teaching Music 1(1994): 8.

Labich, K. "What Our Kids Must Learn." Fortune, January 27, 1992.

McCarthy, K. "Music Performance Group Membership and Academic Success."Revision of paper presented at Colorado Music Educators Convention,Boulder, Colo., January 1992.

Mickela, T. "Does Music Have an Impact on the Development of Students?"Paper presented at the California Music Educators State Convention, 1990.

Miller, A., and Coen, D. "The Case for Music in the Schools." Phi Delta

Kappan, February 1994.

Milley, J.; Buchen, I.; Oderlund, A.; and Mortarotti, J. "The Arts: An EssentialIngredient in Education." Position paper of the California Council of FineArts Deans, 1983. (Available from the School of Fine Arts, California StateUniversity, Long Beach.)

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Morrison, S. "Music Students and Academic Growth." Music Educators

Journal 2(1994): 33-36.

Music Educators National Conference. Data on Music Education. Reston, Va.:

MENC, 1990.

Newbill, S. "The Paseo Fine and Performing Arts Magnet High School,1989-1990, 1990-1991, 1991-1992, Summative Evaluation, 1992." ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No. ED 380 387.

Oddleifson, E. The Case for Sequential Music Education. Washington, D.C.:Center for Arts in the Basic Curriculum, 1989.

—. "Music Education as a Gateway to Improved Academic Performancein Reading, Math, and Science." Washington, D.C.: Center for Arts in theBasic Curriculum, 1990.

Rauscher, F.; Shaw, G.; Levine, L.; Ky, K.; and Wright, E. "Music and SpatialTask Performance: A Causal Relationship." Paper presented at the

American Psychological Association 102nd Annual Convention, Los

Angeles, Calif., August 1994.

Robitaille, J., and O’Neal, S. "Why Instrumental Music in Elementary Schools?"Phi Delta Kappan 3(1981): 213.

Sautter, C. "An Arts Education School Reform Strategy." Phi Delta Kappan,February 1994.

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