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Vital WaterVital Water
Alice Newton Alice Newton University of AlgarveUniversity of Algarve
Joint Master in Water and Coastal ManagementJoint Master in Water and Coastal ManagementUniversity of Bergen 2005-2006University of Bergen 2005-2006
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Bibliography Bibliography Books :Books :
– Philip Ball 1999: Philip Ball 1999: HH22O A biography of WaterO A biography of WaterISBN 0 75381 092 1ISBN 0 75381 092 1
– Peter H. Gleick 1993: Peter H. Gleick 1993: Water in Crisis Water in Crisis Oxford University PressOxford University Press
– Open University course team 1997Open University course team 1997: Seawater: : Seawater: its composition, properties and behaviourits composition, properties and behaviour
– Frank J. Millero 1996Frank J. Millero 1996: Chemical Oceanography, : Chemical Oceanography, CRC PressCRC Press
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Bibliography 2Bibliography 2WebWeb
– United Nations Environment ProgramUnited Nations Environment Programwww.unep.orgwww.unep.org Vital Water Graphics Vital Water Graphics
– Global International Water AssessmentGlobal International Water Assessmentwww.giwa.netwww.giwa.net
– Intergovernemntal Panel on Climate Intergovernemntal Panel on Climate ChangeChange www.IPCC.orgwww.IPCC.org
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ObjectivesObjectives
• Vital water is an introductory lecture Vital water is an introductory lecture that relates both to integrated river that relates both to integrated river basin management or integrated basin management or integrated coastal zone managementcoastal zone management
• It also links up with many other It also links up with many other modules in the coursemodules in the course
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RequirementsRequirements
• No special skills are required for this No special skills are required for this lecturelecture
• A knowledge of basic inorganic and A knowledge of basic inorganic and environmental chemistry is useful.environmental chemistry is useful.
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ProgrammeProgramme• The constituents of waterThe constituents of water• The water moleculeThe water molecule• Properties of waterProperties of water• The origin of waterThe origin of water• The hydrological cycleThe hydrological cycle• Composition of natural watersComposition of natural waters• Ice and glaciationIce and glaciation• Water and lifeWater and life• Water the destroyerWater the destroyer• Water and society, resources, uses and Water and society, resources, uses and
abusesabuses
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Learning outcomesLearning outcomes
• After completing this module you After completing this module you should know: should know: that although water is a that although water is a very common substance on Earth, it very common substance on Earth, it has strange properties and is a scarce has strange properties and is a scarce resourceresource
• After completing this module you After completing this module you should be able to: should be able to: Explain why water is Explain why water is so special and what some so special and what some consequences are for water and coastal consequences are for water and coastal managementmanagement
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Other skillsOther skills
• Consult scientific literature and Consult scientific literature and websiteswebsites
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The Constituents of Water… The Constituents of Water… a little chemistry a little chemistry
• Hydrogen (H )Hydrogen (H )
• Oxygen (O)Oxygen (O)
• HH22O is the basic unit of waterO is the basic unit of water
• Ratio 2:1 is a consequence of the Ratio 2:1 is a consequence of the atomic structureatomic structure
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HydrogenHydrogen (H) (H) • About ¾ of the mass of the Universe is About ¾ of the mass of the Universe is
Hydrogen!Hydrogen!
• H atom has 1 protonH atom has 1 proton
• H usually has no neutrons, so the H usually has no neutrons, so the atomic mass is 1atomic mass is 1
• 0.000015 % of H has 1 neutron, so 0.000015 % of H has 1 neutron, so atomic mass is 2 (1 proton + 1 atomic mass is 2 (1 proton + 1 neutron)neutron)– This isotope (different number of neutrons) This isotope (different number of neutrons)
is called “heavy” water, Deuterium, or is called “heavy” water, Deuterium, or Hydrogen-2Hydrogen-2
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Oxygen Oxygen (O)(O)• O atom has 8 protonsO atom has 8 protons
• Mass of O is about 16 x mass of H Mass of O is about 16 x mass of H (different isotopes and neutons)(different isotopes and neutons)
• O can have 7, O can have 7, 88, 9 or 10 neutrons, 9 or 10 neutrons
• O is the third most abundant element O is the third most abundant element in the Universe in the Universe
• (the second most abundant element (the second most abundant element in the Universe is Helium, relatively in the Universe is Helium, relatively unreactive)unreactive)
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The Origin of H and O… The Origin of H and O… a little cosmo-chemistry a little cosmo-chemistry Current scientific theoryCurrent scientific theory
• Protons (HProtons (H++) formed a millionth of a ) formed a millionth of a second after Big Bang, second after Big Bang, T~ a trillion degreesT~ a trillion degrees
• Nucleosynthesis started one Nucleosynthesis started one hundredth of a second later hundredth of a second later (protons+neutrons), (protons+neutrons), T~ three billion degreesT~ three billion degrees
• Hydrogen atoms form, T~ 4000 Hydrogen atoms form, T~ 4000 °°CC
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The Origin of H, O and The Origin of H, O and Water Water • Gravity leads to formation of Gravity leads to formation of
Galaxies and Stars Galaxies and Stars Hans Bethe 1939Hans Bethe 1939
• Elements (C-N- O) formed in stars by Elements (C-N- O) formed in stars by fusionfusion
• Mainly generates Mainly generates 1515O but also O but also 1616O O 1717O O Burbridge,Burbridge, Fowler and Hoyle 1957Burbridge,Burbridge, Fowler and Hoyle 1957
• Water formed by Water formed by reactionreaction of H and O of H and O
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From “Element” to From “Element” to compoundcompound• Water classically was thought of as an Water classically was thought of as an
ElementElement• Lavoisiers’ experiments 1784 prove that Lavoisiers’ experiments 1784 prove that
water is formed by burning Hydrogen in water is formed by burning Hydrogen in the presence of oxygen. Hydrogen means the presence of oxygen. Hydrogen means “water former” “water former”
• Nicholson and Carlisle split water by Nicholson and Carlisle split water by electrolysis to form hydrogen and oxygenelectrolysis to form hydrogen and oxygen
• Berzelius recognized the fixed ratios H=2, Berzelius recognized the fixed ratios H=2, O=1O=1
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Water as a LiquidWater as a Liquid
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Liquid waterLiquid water
• At present most of the water on At present most of the water on Earth is in the liquid phaseEarth is in the liquid phase
• Most liquid water (~97%) is in Most liquid water (~97%) is in seawaterseawater
• Water is the main component Water is the main component (~96%) of seawater(~96%) of seawater
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The Water MoleculeThe Water Molecule
• Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)
• HH22O is the basic unit of waterO is the basic unit of water
• Ratio 2:1 Ratio 2:1
• Consequence of Consequence of atomic atomic and molecular and molecular structurestructure
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Molecular Structure of Molecular Structure of WaterWater • Hydrogen atoms have Hydrogen atoms have
a partial positive charge.a partial positive charge.
• Oxygen has 2 unbonded Oxygen has 2 unbonded pairs of electronspairs of electrons with with partial negative charges.partial negative charges.
• Tetrahedral, distorted by charges to Tetrahedral, distorted by charges to minimize repulsionminimize repulsion
• Molecular structure is "bent" to yield a Molecular structure is "bent" to yield a 104.5°104.5° angle between the hydrogen atoms angle between the hydrogen atoms instead of 109.5° for a regular tetrahedron . instead of 109.5° for a regular tetrahedron .
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Hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds
• A partly positive hydrogen atom of one A partly positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule attracts the partly water molecule attracts the partly negative unbonded electron pair in the negative unbonded electron pair in the oxygen atom, forming a hydrogen bond.oxygen atom, forming a hydrogen bond.
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Hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds• The oxygen atom of The oxygen atom of
a water molecule is a water molecule is the hydrogen bond the hydrogen bond acceptor for two acceptor for two hydrogen atoms . hydrogen atoms .
• Each O-H group Each O-H group serves as a hydrogen serves as a hydrogen bond donor.bond donor.
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4 Hydrogen bonds4 Hydrogen bonds• Leads to the formation Leads to the formation
of of 4 hydrogen bonds4 hydrogen bonds by waterby water
• The tetrahedral structure The tetrahedral structure of the water hydrogen bonds of the water hydrogen bonds is a consequence of the sp3 is a consequence of the sp3 hybridization of the hybridization of the oxygen's electrons. oxygen's electrons.
• The two hydrogen bonds between the oxygen and The two hydrogen bonds between the oxygen and the hydrogen atoms on another water molecule the hydrogen atoms on another water molecule utilize the two partly-negative pairs of unbonded utilize the two partly-negative pairs of unbonded electrons on oxygen.electrons on oxygen.
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Structure of liquid waterStructure of liquid water
• The hydrogen bonding pattern of The hydrogen bonding pattern of water is more irregular than that of water is more irregular than that of ice. ice.
• The absolute structure of liquid water The absolute structure of liquid water has not been determinedhas not been determined..
• Many theoriesMany theories e.g. e.g. Frank and Wen Frank and Wen flickering cluster modelflickering cluster model: as a liquid, : as a liquid, water has partly crystalline “clusters” water has partly crystalline “clusters” but some “loose molecules” but some “loose molecules”
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Properties of WaterProperties of Water
The Strange LiquidThe Strange Liquid
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Density anomalyDensity anomaly
• Most substances are denser in the Most substances are denser in the solid than in the liquid phasesolid than in the liquid phase
• The structure of ice at 0The structure of ice at 0ooC is less C is less dense than that of liquid water at 0dense than that of liquid water at 0ooCC because ice has a more rigid lattice.because ice has a more rigid lattice.
• Density maximum at 4Density maximum at 4ooCC• Ice forms at surface and floatsIce forms at surface and floats• Enormous implications for climateEnormous implications for climate
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High Specific High Specific Heat CapacityHeat Capacity• Very high energy required to Very high energy required to change change
the temperaturethe temperature of water of water
• Water is slow to heat and slow to coolWater is slow to heat and slow to cool
• Warm ocean currents can therefore Warm ocean currents can therefore transport huge amounts of heattransport huge amounts of heat
• Gulf Stream transports more heat daily Gulf Stream transports more heat daily than would be produced by burning than would be produced by burning global quantity of coal mined annually global quantity of coal mined annually
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Latent Heat CapacityLatent Heat Capacity• Energy to Energy to change phasechange phase without without
changing temperaturechanging temperature• When water is heated to 100ºC, is When water is heated to 100ºC, is
doesn’t all instantly evaporate to doesn’t all instantly evaporate to steam. A lot of heat has to be supplied steam. A lot of heat has to be supplied to transform all the liquid into vapour.to transform all the liquid into vapour.
• When ice is reaches 0ºC, is doesn’t all When ice is reaches 0ºC, is doesn’t all instantly melt. A lot more heat must instantly melt. A lot more heat must be applied to transform all the ice into be applied to transform all the ice into liquid waterliquid water
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Specific HeatSpecific Heat and and Latent Latent HeatHeat
Heat Energy Supplied
100ºC
0ºC
TºC
Boiling Point
Freezing Point
Specific Heat of Water
Specific Heat of Ice
Latent Heat of
Water
Latent
Heat
of Ice
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Phase transitionsPhase transitionssolid-liquid-gassolid-liquid-gas
• Boundaries of Boundaries of phasesphases are controlled by are controlled by temperature and temperature and pressurepressure
• Phase diagramPhase diagram plots plots phases on a graph of phases on a graph of temperature and temperature and pressurepressure
T
P
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Phase diagram of waterPhase diagram of water
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Triple PointTriple Point
• Solid, LiquidSolid, Liquidand and Gas phases Gas phases can co-existcan co-exist
• Below Below Triple PointTriple Point, solid , solid sublimessublimes to gas to gas• Gas and Solid extend throughout T and PGas and Solid extend throughout T and P• Liquid is a “contigent” state, not always Liquid is a “contigent” state, not always
necessarynecessary
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Critical Critical PointPoint
• Boundary Boundary between Liquid between Liquid and Solid stopsand Solid stopsat at CriticalCritical PointPoint
• Supercritical region: gas and liquid Supercritical region: gas and liquid behave in same waybehave in same way
• Gas and Liquid are both Gas and Liquid are both Fluids phasesFluids phases
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More anomalous propertiesMore anomalous properties
• Excellent Excellent solventsolvent, especially of ionic , especially of ionic compoundscompounds
• Highly Highly reactivereactive and therefore and therefore corrosivecorrosive
• Viscosity increases with pressureViscosity increases with pressure
• High boiling point and freezing pointHigh boiling point and freezing point
• Low dissociation, but can act as an Low dissociation, but can act as an Acid or Alkali and is an electrolyte Acid or Alkali and is an electrolyte
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Water as IceWater as Ice
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Molecular structure of Molecular structure of iceice• Water molecules in ice form Water molecules in ice form
an open hexagonal lattice in an open hexagonal lattice in which every water molecule is which every water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four hydrogen bonded to four others.others.
• The geometric regularity of The geometric regularity of these hydrogen bonds these hydrogen bonds contributes to the strength of contributes to the strength of the ice crystal. the ice crystal.
• All hydrogen bonds are All hydrogen bonds are satisfied in ice. satisfied in ice.
Structure of Ice I
“normal” ice
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““Normal” iceNormal” ice
• Ice I has Ice I has hexagonal hexagonal symmetrysymmetry that we that we associate with associate with snowflakes snowflakes
• Dendritic Dendritic ((branchingbranching) growth ) growth from a “seed” from a “seed” particleparticle
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Many types of iceMany types of ice• Under pressure, Ice I can change to Under pressure, Ice I can change to
other forms other forms e.g.e.g. ice II and ice III. ice II and ice III.
• 1998 Ice XII was discovered!1998 Ice XII was discovered!
• Some forms are very unstable Some forms are very unstable e.g.e.g. ice IV and ice XIIice IV and ice XII
• I-V the hexagonal lattice is buckledI-V the hexagonal lattice is buckled
• VI-XII several interlocking latticesVI-XII several interlocking lattices
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““Weird” iceWeird” ice• At ~ 3500 atm, Ice I can change to At ~ 3500 atm, Ice I can change to
other forms other forms e.g.e.g. ice II and ice III. ice II and ice III.
• Ice VI will remain solid up to 80ºC, but Ice VI will remain solid up to 80ºC, but melts at pressures less than 6500 melts at pressures less than 6500 atm !atm !
• Ice VII is formed at 22000 atm, is twice Ice VII is formed at 22000 atm, is twice as dense as ice I and melts at 100 ºC !as dense as ice I and melts at 100 ºC !
• Ice IX cannot exist at temperatures Ice IX cannot exist at temperatures above -100 ºC !above -100 ºC !
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Amorphous, glassy iceAmorphous, glassy ice
• Low density amophousLow density amophous ice forms by ice forms by rapid freezing to -140 ºC rapid freezing to -140 ºC
• There is no “time” to form the latticeThere is no “time” to form the lattice• Can only exist between -140 ºC and -Can only exist between -140 ºC and -
120 ºC120 ºC• Behaves like very viscous liquidBehaves like very viscous liquid• High density amorphousHigh density amorphous ice is formed ice is formed
from ice I at 10 000 atm and -196 ºC from ice I at 10 000 atm and -196 ºC
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Supercooled waterSupercooled water
• Liquid water can also be Liquid water can also be supercooled supercooled
• High altitude, low temperatures and High altitude, low temperatures and pressures e.g. cirrus clouds ~38 ºCpressures e.g. cirrus clouds ~38 ºC
• Solutes also decrease the freezing Solutes also decrease the freezing point, point, e.g.e.g. seawater freezes at – 1.9 seawater freezes at – 1.9 ºC ºC
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Where did the water on Where did the water on Earth come from?Earth come from?
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Water in the UniverseWater in the Universe
• ““Excited” molecules of water radiate Excited” molecules of water radiate
MASERSMASERS (Microwave Amplified (Microwave Amplified Stimulated Emission of Radiation)Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
• Water is Water is commoncommon in in the Universe the Universe e.g.e.g. Orion’s Orion’s Horse Head Horse Head Nebula Nebula Townes 1969Townes 1969
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Solar Systems Solar Systems • Material orbiting stars can form a Material orbiting stars can form a
planetary solar system (such as ours)planetary solar system (such as ours)
• Our solar system consists ofOur solar system consists of– Inner “rock” planets Inner “rock” planets e.g.e.g. Earth and Mars Earth and Mars– Outer “gas” planets Outer “gas” planets e.g.e.g. Jupiter and Jupiter and
SaturnSaturn– Planetesimals such as asteroids, Planetesimals such as asteroids,
meteorites and comets that maybe rich meteorites and comets that maybe rich in water, COin water, CO2 2 and NHand NH33
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Our Solar SystemOur Solar System
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Water in our Solar System Water in our Solar System • Carbonaceous ChondritesCarbonaceous Chondrites (type of (type of
meteorite) contain 20% water as ice meteorite) contain 20% water as ice or in the structure of consitutent or in the structure of consitutent mineralsminerals
• Common meterorites (Chondrites) Common meterorites (Chondrites) contain 0.1% watercontain 0.1% water
• CometsComets contain huge amounts of contain huge amounts of water, typically one thousand trillion water, typically one thousand trillion kgs!kgs!
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e.g.e.g. Halley’s Comet Halley’s Comet
• SizeSize8km x 16km8km x 16km
• Mass Mass 100 trillion Kg100 trillion Kg
• Mostly iceMostly ice
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Origins of Water on Planet Origins of Water on Planet EarthEarth
• CollisionsCollisions with Planetesimals such as with Planetesimals such as asteroids, meteorites and comets asteroids, meteorites and comets brought water, CObrought water, CO2 2 and NHand NH3 3 to the to the Earth Earth
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Formation of Formation of LithosphereLithosphere
•As Earth cooled, As Earth cooled, a rocky surface, a rocky surface, the lithosphere, the lithosphere, formed on the formed on the molten magma molten magma
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Formation of early Formation of early AtmosphereAtmosphere
•CoolingCooling magma released magma released volatiles by volatiles by degassingdegassing to form to form early atmosphereearly atmosphere
•Early Early atmosphereatmosphere was mainly was mainly COCO22, N, N22 and water vapour and water vapour
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Formation of HydrosphereFormation of Hydrosphere
• Between 4.4 and 4.0 billion years Between 4.4 and 4.0 billion years agoago
• Temperature low enough for Temperature low enough for condensationcondensation of water of water
• Formation of clouds and rainFormation of clouds and rain
• Formation of oceansFormation of oceans
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The Blue PlanetThe Blue Planet
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Water controls our PlanetWater controls our Planet• Geological changeGeological change: :
erosion by rivers, erosion by rivers, glaciers and glaciers and coastal erosioncoastal erosion
• Short term climateShort term climate: : El Niño, North El Niño, North Atlantic OscillationAtlantic Oscillation
• Climate changeClimate change: : Ice-agesIce-ages
El NiñoEl Niño
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El Niño mechanismEl Niño mechanism
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino-home.html#
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Some facts and figures…Some facts and figures…
• Planet Water would be more appropriate Planet Water would be more appropriate as a name than planet Earth!as a name than planet Earth!
• More than 2/3 of planet surface is waterMore than 2/3 of planet surface is water
• More than 1/20 of planet surface is iceMore than 1/20 of planet surface is ice
• Only tiny proportion, 1/10000, is Only tiny proportion, 1/10000, is freshwaterfreshwater
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The Hydrological CycleThe Hydrological Cycle
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Hydrological cycleHydrological cycle
• Very dynamic cycling, main Very dynamic cycling, main mechanisms are mechanisms are evaporationevaporation and and condensation / condensation / precipitationprecipitation
• Balance between water in Balance between water in 3 states3 states: : solid, liquid, gas; ice, water and solid, liquid, gas; ice, water and vapourvapour
• Hydrological cycle regulates and Hydrological cycle regulates and controls many other controls many other biogeochemical biogeochemical cyclescycles
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Water in the Sky… CloudsWater in the Sky… Clouds
• Volume equal to all the oceans passes Volume equal to all the oceans passes through atmosphere ~3100 yearsthrough atmosphere ~3100 years
• Atmosphere only contains about 0.001% Atmosphere only contains about 0.001% of total water at any one time as of total water at any one time as cloudsclouds
• Represents only 0.035% of all Represents only 0.035% of all freshwaterfreshwater
• Equivalent to about 2.5 cm of rain over Equivalent to about 2.5 cm of rain over all surface of globeall surface of globe
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Formation of CloudsFormation of Clouds
• Process of condensationProcess of condensation
• Condensation nucleiCondensation nuclei
• Airborne particles Airborne particles e.g.e.g. – dust, dust, – soot, soot, – DMSDMS
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Dimethyl Sulphide (DMS)Dimethyl Sulphide (DMS)
• Produced by phytoplanktonProduced by phytoplankton
• In atmosphere forms sulphateIn atmosphere forms sulphate
• Coalesces with sodium and Coalesces with sodium and magnesium ions from sea-saltmagnesium ions from sea-salt
• Forms crystalline particles that are Forms crystalline particles that are condensation nucleicondensation nuclei
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CloudsClouds• CumulusCumulus• StratusStratus• Alto-cumulusAlto-cumulus • Alto-stratusAlto-stratus • CirrusCirrus• Cumulo-nimbusCumulo-nimbus
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CumulusCumulus•low altitudelow altitude
•formed by formed by convection of air convection of air
•““warm clouds“warm clouds“ mostly above 0ºC mostly above 0ºC
•fluffy and billowingfluffy and billowing
Image ID: wea00079, Historic NWS CollectionPhoto Date: September 1980Photographer: Ralph F. Kresge #1126
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StratusStratus• low altitude, low altitude, • formed by formed by
convection of air convection of air meeting a stable meeting a stable layerlayer
• mostly above 0ºC mostly above 0ºC • staticstatic• typical of overcast typical of overcast
sky sky
Image ID: wea02051, Historic NWS CollectionLocation: Oahu, HawaiiPhoto Date: March, 1976Photographer: Ralph F. Kresge
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Alto-cumulusAlto-cumulus• At higher At higher
altitudes altitudes • Formed at a Formed at a
lower lower temperature temperature (0 to -39ºC)(0 to -39ºC)
• AlsoAlso Alto-stratus Alto-stratusImage ID: wea00039, Historic NWS CollectionPhotographer: Ralph F. Kresge #1201
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CirrusCirrus• high altitudehigh altitude• temperature temperature
below -39ºCbelow -39ºC• feathery feathery
Image ID: wea00062, Historic NWS CollectionLocation: Looking SSW at Rossmoor, MarylandPhoto Date: 10:45 A.M., January 29, 1976Photographer: Ralph F. Kresge
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Alto-stratusAlto-stratus• At higher altitudesAt higher altitudes• formed at a formed at a
lower temperature lower temperature (0 to -39ºC)(0 to -39ºC)
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Cumulo-nimbusCumulo-nimbus
• cumulus cumulus topped by topped by cirruscirrus
• storm cloudstorm cloud
Image ID: wea00094, Historic NWS CollectionLocation: Mauna Kea, HawaiiPhoto Date: February 1976Photographer: Ralph F. Kresge #0221
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Water Vapour and Global Water Vapour and Global ChangeChange• Water vapour is a Water vapour is a greenhouse gasgreenhouse gas• Global warning may cause Global warning may cause positive positive
feedbackfeedback: warming puts more water-: warming puts more water-vapour into atmosphere which causes vapour into atmosphere which causes further warmingfurther warming
• Alternately more water-vapour into Alternately more water-vapour into atmosphere may cause more, violent atmosphere may cause more, violent precipitationprecipitation
• Also consider Also consider albedoalbedo effect versus effect versus greenhouse effectgreenhouse effect
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Evaporation and Evaporation and TranspirationTranspiration• ~ 875 cubic km of water evaporate ~ 875 cubic km of water evaporate
from the from the oceansoceans every day every day
• Equivalent to about 1m of the oceans Equivalent to about 1m of the oceans annuallyannually
• ~ 160 cubic km of water evaporate ~ 160 cubic km of water evaporate from from landland and and plantsplants ( (transpirationtranspiration) ) every dayevery day
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Residence timesResidence timesBiospheric waterBiospheric water
Atmospheric waterAtmospheric waterRiver channelsRiver channels
SwampsSwampsLakes and reservoirsLakes and reservoirs
Soil moistureSoil moistureIce caps and glaciersIce caps and glaciers
Ocean and seasOcean and seasGroundwaterGroundwater
• 1 week1 week• 1.5 weeks1.5 weeks• 2 weeks2 weeks• 1-10 years1-10 years• 10 years10 years• 2 weeks-1 year2 weeks-1 year• 1000-100 000 years1000-100 000 years• 4000 years4000 years• 2 weeks-10 000 years2 weeks-10 000 years
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RunoffRunoff
• Precipitation on land - Evaporation on Precipitation on land - Evaporation on land = land = RunoffRunoff
• ~100 cubic km per day~100 cubic km per day
• Deserts: precipitation = evaporationDeserts: precipitation = evaporation
• Amazon: Amazon: – precipitation >> evaporation precipitation >> evaporation – 1/5 of freshwater input into oceans1/5 of freshwater input into oceans
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Oceans and Seas are all Oceans and Seas are all interconnected basinsinterconnected basins• AtlanticAtlantic
• PacificPacific
• IndianIndian
• Southern Southern (Antarctic)(Antarctic)
• 2/3 in South 2/3 in South HemisphereHemisphere
• Mediterranean SeaMediterranean Sea
• Black SeaBlack Sea
• North SeaNorth Sea
• Red SeaRed Sea
• Arabian SeaArabian Sea
• East and South East and South China SeasChina Seas
• ArcticArctic
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OceansOceans… a little oceanography… a little oceanography
• ½ of the globe is 3 000-6 000m deep!½ of the globe is 3 000-6 000m deep!
• Ocean trenches reach 11 000m, Ocean trenches reach 11 000m, mountains only 8000mmountains only 8000m
• Mid-ocean ridges are the greatest Mid-ocean ridges are the greatest mountain chains mountain chains
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Topography of Ocean BasinsTopography of Ocean Basins
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Surface CurrentsSurface Currents
• wind wind
• rotationrotation (gyres) (gyres)
• N. EquatorialN. Equatorial
• S. EquatorialS. Equatorial
• West wind driftWest wind drift
• NorwayNorway• North AtlanticNorth Atlantic• CanaryCanary• BrazilBrazil
• AgulhasAgulhas
• AlaskaAlaska• Oyashio Oyashio • KuroshioKuroshio• PeruPeru
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Global Ocean Surface Global Ocean Surface CurrentsCurrents
http://web.uvic.ca/~rdewey/eos110/webimages.html
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Deep Circulation, Global Deep Circulation, Global ConveyorConveyor
• thermohaline thermohaline
• Density Density drivendriven
• (T and S)(T and S)
http://web.uvic.ca/~rdewey/eos110/webimages.html
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Tidal currentsTidal currents
• Up to 14m!Up to 14m!
• Gravitational pull (moon + sun)Gravitational pull (moon + sun)
• 24 h and 50 min cycle 24 h and 50 min cycle
• Semi diurnal (High-Low-High-Low)Semi diurnal (High-Low-High-Low)
• Lunar cycle (Spring-Neap-Spring-Lunar cycle (Spring-Neap-Spring-Neap)Neap)
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River basinsRiver basins
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NileNile
– Length: Length: 6650 km 6650 km
– Catchment:Catchment:~ 3 million ~ 3 million kmkm22
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Amazon Amazon
• Length: Length: 6450 km 6450 km
• Catchment: Catchment:
~ 7 million ~ 7 million kmkm22
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Volume of water Volume of water transportedtransported
• Different climatic regions Different climatic regions ((e.g.e.g. Nile and Amazon) Nile and Amazon)
• DamsDams– Aswan: Lake Nasser 500km, +900 000 Aswan: Lake Nasser 500km, +900 000
acres of arable land, ¼ of Egypt’s poweracres of arable land, ¼ of Egypt’s power– ItaipuItaipu– Three gorges estimate 18200 Three gorges estimate 18200
megawatts, reservoir ~660 km longmegawatts, reservoir ~660 km long
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Aswan Dam
Lake Nasser
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River basinsRiver basins
• Different geomorphologyDifferent geomorphology
• Different size of flood plainsDifferent size of flood plains
• Erosion of rocksErosion of rocks
• Sediment transportSediment transport
• DamsDams
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GroundwaterGroundwater• Some rain permeates through ground Some rain permeates through ground
((aquiferaquifer) until it reaches ) until it reaches impermeable bedrock or clay. impermeable bedrock or clay.
• Upper limit isUpper limit is water tablewater table
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Groundwater qualityGroundwater quality
• Depends on rocks of aquiferDepends on rocks of aquifer– HardHard water: chalk and limestone water: chalk and limestone– Soft Soft water: slate and granitewater: slate and granite
• MineralMineral water: high concentration of water: high concentration of dissolved minerals. Maybe volcanically dissolved minerals. Maybe volcanically heated, thermal.heated, thermal.
• Maybe Maybe contaminatedcontaminated by pesticides, by pesticides, fertilizers from agriculture or leachates fertilizers from agriculture or leachates from landfillsfrom landfills
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Characterization of Water Characterization of Water by Mineral Compositionby Mineral Composition
… a little hydrochemistry … a little hydrochemistry
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CaCa2+2+ • Rain is acidic (~pH 5.5)Rain is acidic (~pH 5.5)
• Dissolves carboniferous rocks Dissolves carboniferous rocks Ca COCa CO33
• Temperature is importantTemperature is important((solubility decreases with increasing temperature)solubility decreases with increasing temperature)
• K= [Ca K= [Ca 2+2+] [CO] [CO3 3 2-2-] = 10 ] = 10 -8,3 -8,3
(1:1)(1:1)
• PPCO2CO2 in soil < a P in soil < a PCO2CO2 in the atmos in the atmos
((PCO2 in soil ≈ 3 x 10-4 atm.)
• K= K= [Ca [Ca 2+2+] [HCO] [HCO3 3 --]]22 = 10 = 10 -5,8-5,8
PPCO2CO2
(1:2) (1:2)
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Bicarbonate HCOBicarbonate HCO33- -
• HH22COCO3 3 EquilibriumEquilibrium
• Controlled by pHControlled by pH
• Normally Normally HCOHCO33--is is
dominant speciedominant specie
• Determine Determine alkalinity of wateralkalinity of water
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How do we represent the How do we represent the composition of water?composition of water?
• Bar charts or Collins diagramBar charts or Collins diagram
• Pie chartsPie charts
• Kite or stiff diagramsKite or stiff diagrams
• Radial diagramsRadial diagrams
• Triangular or Piper diagramsTriangular or Piper diagrams
• Semi-logarithmic or Schoeller Semi-logarithmic or Schoeller diagramsdiagrams
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Exploitation of aquifersExploitation of aquifers
• Over exploitation may cause land Over exploitation may cause land subsidencesubsidence e.g.e.g. London and Mexico London and Mexico
• In coastal regions, In coastal regions, seawater intrusionseawater intrusion
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Ice… the cryosphereIce… the cryosphere
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Ice AgesIce Ages• Thought to be caused by Thought to be caused by
astronomical variations called astronomical variations called Milankovitch cyclesMilankovitch cycles
• ObliquityObliquity
• Precession Precession
• EccentricityEccentricity
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Milankovitch cyclesMilankovitch cycles
The ice ages were due to the so-called The ice ages were due to the so-called Milankovitch cycles, that is a combination of the Milankovitch cycles, that is a combination of the Earths eccentricity (the difference in distance to Earths eccentricity (the difference in distance to the sun throughout the year), the tilt of the Earth the sun throughout the year), the tilt of the Earth relative to the Earth-sun plane (difference relative to the Earth-sun plane (difference summer – winter) and the time of the year when summer – winter) and the time of the year when the Earth is closest to the sun.the Earth is closest to the sun.
Milutin Milankovitch
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The 3 Milankovitch cyclesThe 3 Milankovitch cycles
• PrecessionPrecession: Orientation of the : Orientation of the rotation axis with respect to Sun, 20 rotation axis with respect to Sun, 20 000 year cycle000 year cycle
• ObliquityObliquity: tilt of rotation axis : tilt of rotation axis currently at 23.5º to plane of orbit, currently at 23.5º to plane of orbit, 40 000 year cycle40 000 year cycle
• EccentricityEccentricity: elliptical shape of orbit, : elliptical shape of orbit, 100 000 year cycle100 000 year cycle
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PrecessionPrecession
Orientation of the Orientation of the rotation axis rotation axis with respect to Sunwith respect to Sun20 000 year cycle20 000 year cycle
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ObliquityObliquity: : tilt of rotation tilt of rotation axis axis currently at currently at 23.5º to plane of 23.5º to plane of orbitorbit40 000 year 40 000 year cyclecycle
EccentricityEccentricity: : elliptical shape elliptical shape of orbit, of orbit, 100 000 year 100 000 year cyclecycle
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Last Ice AgeLast Ice Age
• 18 000 years ago18 000 years ago
• Sea-level 120 m below present Sea-level 120 m below present
• Water bound up as continental Water bound up as continental icesheetsicesheets– Laurentide ice sheet of N.AmericaLaurentide ice sheet of N.America– Fennoscandinavian ice sheet of Fennoscandinavian ice sheet of
N.EuropeN.Europe
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Present Occurrence of IcePresent Occurrence of Ice
Water bound up in ice as: Water bound up in ice as:
• Continental Continental icesheetsicesheets
• Sea ice: Sea ice: iceshelves iceshelves or or pack-ice pack-ice and and icebergsicebergs
• Mountain Mountain glaciersglaciers
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Present cryospherePresent cryosphere
• Includes permafrost in tundra and Includes permafrost in tundra and snow at high altitudessnow at high altitudes
• 2% of total water volume2% of total water volume• ¾ of Earth’s freshwater¾ of Earth’s freshwater• 5.7% of surface of globe (seasonal 5.7% of surface of globe (seasonal
fluctuations)fluctuations)• Most ice is stored in AntarcticaMost ice is stored in Antarctica• High albedoHigh albedo
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Antarctic Icesheets Antarctic Icesheets and ice-shelvesand ice-shelves• Mean thickness 2100mMean thickness 2100m
• Maximum thickness 4800mMaximum thickness 4800m
• East Antarctic East Antarctic icesheeticesheet is larger than West is larger than West Antarctic icesheetAntarctic icesheet
• East AntarcticEast Antarctic icesheet on bedrock above icesheet on bedrock above sea levelsea level
• West AntarcticWest Antarctic icesheet on rock below icesheet on rock below sealevelsealevel
• Also Ross and Ronne Also Ross and Ronne ice-shelvesice-shelves over sea over sea
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Ice coresIce cores
• Icesheets are maintained by Icesheets are maintained by application of new coats of ice application of new coats of ice compressing previous layerscompressing previous layers
• East Antarctic icesheet at 3000m is East Antarctic icesheet at 3000m is 250 000 years old250 000 years old
• Analysis of cores of polar ice reveal Analysis of cores of polar ice reveal previous composition of atmosphereprevious composition of atmosphere
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Greenland Plateau and Greenland Plateau and Vostok, AntarcticaVostok, Antarctica
Ice plateau on Greenland
Vostok
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Antarctic temperatures – Antarctic temperatures – during the last 400 000 during the last 400 000 yearsyears
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Last four ice ages recorded Last four ice ages recorded in Antarcticain Antarctica
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig2-22.htm
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Icestreams and IcebergsIcestreams and Icebergs
Melting of icesheets Melting of icesheets
can form can form icestreamsicestreams
or or icebergsicebergs
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Mountain GlaciersMountain Glaciers• Frozen riversFrozen rivers
• Flow slowly Flow slowly down down with gravitywith gravity
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Glacial featuresGlacial features
• U-shaped valleysU-shaped valleys
• Truncated spursTruncated spurs
• Hanging valleysHanging valleys
• MorainesMoraines
• FjordsFjords
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Glacier melt waterGlacier melt water
• Discharged into Discharged into rivers, or rivers, or directly into sea directly into sea at high latitudesat high latitudes
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Cryosphere and global Cryosphere and global changechange
• Seasonal glacial retreatSeasonal glacial retreat
• Retreat over several years maybe Retreat over several years maybe symptom of global change and symptom of global change and warmingwarming
• Increase number of icebergs in N. Increase number of icebergs in N. AtlanticAtlantic
• Decrease thickness of pack-ice in Decrease thickness of pack-ice in ArcticArctic
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Glacier retreatGlacier retreat
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The Nigard valley. The picture shows the retreat of the glacier.
Photo: Bjørn Wold, NVE.
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Changes in sea-ice thickness in Changes in sea-ice thickness in the Arcticthe Arctic
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) –Grid Arendal
Overall change
-1.3 m (40%)
Positions with comparisonUSS Archerfish Measurements ’60s and ’90s
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The destructive forces of The destructive forces of WaterWater
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FloodsFloods
• River floods and ice jamsRiver floods and ice jams
• Coastal floodsCoastal floods
• Hurricanes and cyclonesHurricanes and cyclones
• TsunamisTsunamis
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Floods and mortalitiesFloods and mortalities
• 40% of deaths from natural disasters are 40% of deaths from natural disasters are due to floodsdue to floods
• 1965-85 half of Federal disasters in USA 1965-85 half of Federal disasters in USA due to floodsdue to floods
• Hurricane Agnes: 3.5 billion US, 120 livesHurricane Agnes: 3.5 billion US, 120 lives• In USA, floods cost 2-4 Billion US dollars In USA, floods cost 2-4 Billion US dollars
annually and about 200 livesannually and about 200 lives• Figures much higher in some other parts Figures much higher in some other parts
of worldof world
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River floodsRiver floods• 1992 Pakistan and India: 2000 lives1992 Pakistan and India: 2000 lives
• China: 2297 BC China: 2297 BC
1332 AD 7 000 000 lives1332 AD 7 000 000 lives
1887 6 000 000 lives1887 6 000 000 lives
• Bangladesh: Ganges, Bramaputra and Bangladesh: Ganges, Bramaputra and Megna rivers, low elevation frequent Megna rivers, low elevation frequent floodsfloods
• Egypt: historical flooding of NileEgypt: historical flooding of Nile
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1993 1993 Mississipi flood: Mississipi flood: 15 billion U$ 15 billion U$ 487 lives487 lives
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Ice jams and meltsIce jams and melts
• 1936 New England: 107 lives1936 New England: 107 lives
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Coastal floodsCoastal floods
• High tides and storm surgesHigh tides and storm surges 1953 North Sea1953 North Sea
• Tropical cyclonesTropical cyclones– Hurricanes (Caribbean)Hurricanes (Caribbean)– Typhoons (W. Pacific)Typhoons (W. Pacific)
• TsunamiTsunami
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HurricanesHurricanes
• 1900 Galveston 10 000 lives1900 Galveston 10 000 lives
• Hugo 1989 and Hugo 1989 and Andrew 1992 Andrew 1992 30 billion US 30 billion US dollarsdollars
• Formed over Formed over warm seaswarm seas
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Hurricane HugoHurricane Hugohttp://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nws/hugo1.hthttp://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nws/hugo1.htmlml
Digitized Charleston WSR-57 radar image of Hugo with superimposed winds Real-time winds measured onboard NOAA research aircraft flying into Hugo Wind velocity transmitted to NHC through a satellite link as eyewall hit coast Sustained winds of 155 mph at 10,000 feet and 135 mph at surface Higher gusts were estimated in area of landfall
Image ID: wea00455, Historic NWS CollectionPhotographer: Dr. Frank Marks, AOML
Hurricane Research Division
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Hurricane AndrewHurricane Andrewhttp://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nws/andy1.hthttp://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nws/andy1.htmlmlHurricane Andrew -
visible satellite image taken by METEOSAT 3 This picture depicts Andrew during period of maximum intensity over Bahamas August 23,1992 Image ID: wea00520, Historic NWS Collection
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Hurricane Katrina, USA Hurricane Katrina, USA
• August 2005August 2005• Levee holding back lake Pontchartrain breechedLevee holding back lake Pontchartrain breeched• New Orleans floodedNew Orleans flooded• ScienceScience, Vol 309, Issue 5741, 1656-1659 , 9 , Vol 309, Issue 5741, 1656-1659 , 9
September 2005September 2005• Scientists' Fears Come True as Hurricane Scientists' Fears Come True as Hurricane
Floods New OrleansFloods New Orleans• John TravisJohn Travis • Katrina held few surprises for hurricane experts, who Katrina held few surprises for hurricane experts, who
have repeatedly warned about the potential have repeatedly warned about the potential catastrophic consequences for New Orleans if such a catastrophic consequences for New Orleans if such a storm were to make landfall nearby.storm were to make landfall nearby.
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Lake Pontchartrain and New Orleans
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New OrleansNew Orleans flooded flooded
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Breeched Breeched LeveeLevee
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Breeched LeveeBreeched Levee
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Loss of Loss of WetlandsWetlands
An ambitious $14 billion plan known as Coast 2050 attempts to protect more than 10,000 square kilometers of Louisiana's wetlands, which are disappearing at a rate of up to 90 square kilometers per year, one of the highest rates of land loss in the world. But a number of unanswered scientific questions swirl around the plan. And it could run afoul of powerful interests in the shipping, petroleum, and fishing industries.
Louisiana's Vanishing Wetlands: Going, Going ...Joel Bourne Science 2000 290: 456. (in Letters) [Full Text]
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Altered Altered DeltaDelta
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Tropical cyclones in Indian Tropical cyclones in Indian OceanOcean
• Bangladesh: large areasBangladesh: large areas only 3m altitude only 3m altitude
• 1737: 1 000 000 lives1737: 1 000 000 lives
• 18761876
• 1970: 200 000 lives1970: 200 000 lives
• 1991: 100 000 lives1991: 100 000 lives
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The 1998 flood in BangladeshThe 1998 flood in Bangladesh
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Floods in BangladeshFloods in Bangladesh
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TsunamiTsunami
• caused by:caused by:
• EarthquakesEarthquakes and and Sea-floor Sea-floor displacementdisplacement: : e.g.e.g. 26 December 26 December 2004 Aceh2004 Aceh
• LandslidesLandslides: : e.g.e.g. Alaska 1957 Alaska 1957
• VolcanoesVolcanoes: : e.g.e.g. Krakatau 1883 Krakatau 1883
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TsunamiTsunami
• 1792 Japan: 15 000 lives1792 Japan: 15 000 lives
• 1896 Japan: 27 000 lives1896 Japan: 27 000 lives
• 1957 Alaska: wave 60m devasted 1957 Alaska: wave 60m devasted trees upland to 530mtrees upland to 530m
• 1883 Krakatau: 36 000 lives1883 Krakatau: 36 000 lives
• 2004 Aceh and Indian Ocean: 300 2004 Aceh and Indian Ocean: 300 000+ lives000+ lives
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26 December 2004 off Aceh,
Indonesia
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Indonesia: lhoknga_iko_200
4364
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Sri Lanka_qbd_2004361
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Sea Level ChangeSea Level Change• Linked to climate change and ice agesLinked to climate change and ice ages
• Last ice age, sea level 120m below Last ice age, sea level 120m below presentpresent
• Still enough ice in ice-sheets and glaciers Still enough ice in ice-sheets and glaciers to raise sea level by 66m!to raise sea level by 66m!
• A rise of only 5m would be catastrophic for A rise of only 5m would be catastrophic for Pacific Islands, Bangladesh, the Pacific Islands, Bangladesh, the Netherlands, Vietnam, FloridaNetherlands, Vietnam, Florida
• Current estimates vary 20cm-1m by 2100Current estimates vary 20cm-1m by 2100
• Thermal expansionThermal expansion is main cause of rise is main cause of rise
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Water and SocietyWater and Society
• Religions: water Gods, creation, Religions: water Gods, creation, floodsfloods
• Ceremonies: baptism, cleansing Ceremonies: baptism, cleansing before worship, sacred and holy before worship, sacred and holy waterwater
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Ancient Civilizations and Ancient Civilizations and WaterwaysWaterways• MesopotamiaMesopotamia
• IndiaIndia
• ChinaChina
• EgyptEgypt
• Tigris and Tigris and EuphatesEuphates
• GangesGanges
• Yellow RiverYellow River
• NileNile
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Water and HealthWater and Health
• CholeraCholera
• TyphoidTyphoid
• DysentryDysentry
• Hepatitis AHepatitis A
• Maleria and other mosquito-borne Maleria and other mosquito-borne diseases (Dengue, West Nile fever)diseases (Dengue, West Nile fever)
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Water as a ResourceWater as a Resource
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The uses of waterThe uses of water
• DomesticDomestic– DrinkingDrinking– HygieneHygiene– CleaningCleaning
• IndustrialIndustrial– Heavy industryHeavy industry– Light industryLight industry– Food industryFood industry– Power generationPower generation
• RecreationRecreation– BathingBathing– SailingSailing
• AgriculturalAgricultural– IrrigationIrrigation– AquacultureAquaculture– FisheriesFisheries
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Water and EnergyWater and Energy
• Hydroelectric powerHydroelectric power
• Water as a “fuel” by splittingWater as a “fuel” by splitting– Electolysis,Electolysis,– Photolysis,Photolysis,– Photosynthesis Photosynthesis – H-O fuel cellsH-O fuel cells
• Tidal mills and barragesTidal mills and barrages
• Ocean currentsOcean currents
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Water as a Water as a scarce resourcescarce resource • Uneven Uneven
distribution of distribution of rainfallrainfall
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• 2/3 of 2/3 of rainfall rainfall flows to flows to sea sea
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Global use of waterGlobal use of water
• Tripled between 1950-90Tripled between 1950-90
• Half of available runoff used by 1996 Half of available runoff used by 1996
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Use of water by Use of water by sector differssector differs
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Use of domestic water Use of domestic water differs…differs…• Uganda and Burundi 5-25 Liters per Uganda and Burundi 5-25 Liters per
day per personday per person
• Europe 100 to 260 liters per day per Europe 100 to 260 liters per day per personperson
• USA 400-500 liters per dayUSA 400-500 liters per day
• Same water quality for brushing Same water quality for brushing teeth, flushing toilet and washing carteeth, flushing toilet and washing car
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AgricultureAgriculture• Most increases in crop production due Most increases in crop production due
to irrigationto irrigation
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Increasing water stressIncreasing water stress
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Abuses of waterAbuses of water
• Wastage in distribution, leaks Wastage in distribution, leaks e.g.e.g. UK UK
• Inefficient irrigation Inefficient irrigation e.g.e.g. Middle East Middle East
• Over extraction and salinization Over extraction and salinization e.g.e.g. MediterraneanMediterranean
• Desertification Desertification e.g.e.g. MidWest dust bowl MidWest dust bowl SahelSahel
• PollutionPollution
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PollutionPollutionDrinking water can be affected Drinking water can be affected • Pesticides, Herbicides, FungicidesPesticides, Herbicides, Fungicides• Fertilizers Fertilizers • Industrial PCBs (paints, plastics, adhesives)Industrial PCBs (paints, plastics, adhesives)• Metals from mines and industryMetals from mines and industry• Hydrocarbons and Crude oilHydrocarbons and Crude oil• Sewage pathogensSewage pathogens• Organic MatterOrganic Matter• DetergentsDetergents• Acid rainAcid rain
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New or recycled waterNew or recycled water
• Recycle grey water for agricultureRecycle grey water for agriculture
• DesalinationDesalination
• Shipping water from countries where Shipping water from countries where it is abundant it is abundant e.g.e.g. Alaska to China, Alaska to China, Norway to S. EuropeNorway to S. Europe
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The Global International Waters Assessment
•GIWA
•Comprehensive strategic assessment
•Designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters.
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GIWA's GIWA's assessmentassessment tools tools
Incorporate 5 major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework.
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DPSIR DPSIR frameworkframework
•Driving forces
•Pressures
•Impacts
•State
•Responses
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•Black Sea,
•Amazon,
•Gr. Barrier Reef,
•Agulhas Current
GIWA Case Studies
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Water and LifeWater and Life
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Carbon life-forms…Carbon life-forms…
• All known life-forms are C-basedAll known life-forms are C-based
• Many other elements essential for Many other elements essential for organic (C) life, organic (C) life, e.g.e.g. N, P N, P
• All known life-forms also require waterAll known life-forms also require water
• Many organisms more than 70% Many organisms more than 70% water, some more than 90%water, some more than 90%
• Humans require min. 1 liter per dayHumans require min. 1 liter per day
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The Beginning of LifeThe Beginning of Life
• ~3.8 billion years ago. ~3.8 billion years ago.
• Atmosphere contained N, COAtmosphere contained N, CO22 and and water as well as Hwater as well as H22S and CHS and CH44 from from volcanoesvolcanoes
• Very little oxygen, anoxic, reducingVery little oxygen, anoxic, reducing
• Current scientific theory: first life-Current scientific theory: first life-forms were forms were aquaticaquatic in shallow in shallow lagoons, or hydrothermal ventslagoons, or hydrothermal vents
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Early life formsEarly life forms• Oldest fossils:Oldest fossils:
– Rocks in SW Greenland Rocks in SW Greenland – Australian Stromatolites 3.5 billion yearsAustralian Stromatolites 3.5 billion years
• First life-forms:First life-forms:– anaerobic heterotrophs anaerobic heterotrophs using simple using simple
organic molecules available by organic molecules available by glycolysis or fermentationglycolysis or fermentation
– chemosynthetic autotrophs chemosynthetic autotrophs using Husing H22SS– photosynthetic autotrophs photosynthetic autotrophs using Husing H22SS
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Oxygen and early life-formsOxygen and early life-forms• Oxygen produced by one type of Oxygen produced by one type of
photosynthesis photosynthesis • Uses HUses H22O as a proton donor instead of HO as a proton donor instead of H22SS• Oxygen is oxidating, reactive, corrosive gasOxygen is oxidating, reactive, corrosive gas• Oxygen is TOXIC to aerobic life-formsOxygen is TOXIC to aerobic life-forms• Oxygen accumulated slowly in the Oxygen accumulated slowly in the
atmosphereatmosphere• Permited the evolution of Permited the evolution of facultative facultative
anerobesanerobes and and aerobic heterotrophs aerobic heterotrophs andand• Aerobic respiration is far more energetic Aerobic respiration is far more energetic
than fermentationthan fermentation
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Aquatic life-formsAquatic life-forms• Aquatic life-forms usually restricted Aquatic life-forms usually restricted
in their distribution to fresh or salt in their distribution to fresh or salt waterwater
• Osmotic pressureOsmotic pressure one of the one of the colligative properties of watercolligative properties of water
• Special adaptations needed for Special adaptations needed for estuarine organisms to survive estuarine organisms to survive salinity changes and migratory salinity changes and migratory organisms such as eels and salmonorganisms such as eels and salmon
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Terrestrial plant-formsTerrestrial plant-forms• Photosynthetic cyanobacteria probably Photosynthetic cyanobacteria probably
first organisms to survive on landfirst organisms to survive on land• 460 million years ago bryophytes (mosses 460 million years ago bryophytes (mosses
and liverworts) and fernsand liverworts) and ferns• 325 million years ago tropical forests 325 million years ago tropical forests • Vascular plants “higher” supported by Vascular plants “higher” supported by
water-based fluids xylem and phloemwater-based fluids xylem and phloem• Depend on properties of water such as Depend on properties of water such as
osmosisosmosis and and capillary actioncapillary action• Transpiration Transpiration from plants is important in from plants is important in
Hydrological cycleHydrological cycle
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Terrestrial animal-formsTerrestrial animal-forms• Many land-based animals need Many land-based animals need
special adaptations to live out of special adaptations to live out of water such e.g. water such e.g. – Molluscs such as gastropod snailsMolluscs such as gastropod snails– Crustacea such as crabsCrustacea such as crabs
• Amphibians first vertebrates on landAmphibians first vertebrates on land
• Animals also have many water based Animals also have many water based fluids such as cytoplasm, blood fluids such as cytoplasm, blood plasma and lymphplasma and lymph
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