Lecture 10:Terrorism and terrorists

What is terrorism?

• Terrorism is a controversial term• All definitions agree that terrorism involves acts of

violence• Terrorism differs from criminal violence because it

aims to achieve political change• Terrorists claim to fight for a just cause, but

opponents of that cause regard them as ordinary criminals

• Whether we describe something as terrorism depends on our view of the legitimacy of the cause

Who is a terrorist?

• States reserve for themselves the power to define who is a terrorist

• In the 1980s, the USA regarded the Afghan Mujahideen as ‘freedom fighters’ when they resisted the Soviet invasion

• Two decades later, the USA accused a new generation of Afghans of being terrorists for resisting western invasion

State violence:the first terrorists

• The first use of the term came after the French Revolution, when the new government used terror against its own citizens

• Thousands of real and imagined enemies of the Revolution were executed

• The terror backfired, and the leaders followed their victims to the guillotine

Is state violence terrorism?

• State violence is not normally regarded as terrorism now

• In Realist IR theory, states have a monopoly on the use of force

• Thus only sub-state groups are regarded as terrorists

• These groups and their supporters would not accept that distinction

State-sponsored terrorism

• One factor not covered by the Realist concept of state force is state support for terrorist groups in other countries

• Libya under Gaddafi sponsored several groups carrying out what he called ‘revolutionary violence’

Terrorism in International Relations

• Terrorist groups are not regarded as a legitimate actor in IR, as they operate outside the law

• Even so, it is clear that terrorist groups have been able to exert influence on international and domestic politics

Terrorism as a struggle

• Terrorism is the weakest form of armed struggle• Terrorist groups lack the means to engage in

direct confrontation with governments• Terrorists therefore pick soft or limited targets• Most terrorist groups enjoy limited popular support

– they are too radical• Terrorists usually seek to provoke a

disproportionate response from governments• This strategy can be counterproductive, as

terrorists can lose support

Types of terrorism

• In terms of political aims, terrorist groups can be conveniently divided into four types:

• a) left-wing• b) right-wing• c) ethno-nationalist or separatist• d) religious or ‘sacred’• These distinctions can overlap – some ethno-

nationalist groups could be Marxist or inspired by Marxist ideas

Left-wing terrorism

• Left-wing groups generally wish to achieve overthrow capitalist governments and establish societies run according to Marxist or quasi-Marxist principles

• Most of these groups were formed in the 1960s

• They were inspired by the actions of earlier anarchist groups

Early left-wing groups

• Long before the creation of the Soviet Union and modern communism, several early terrorist groups pursued broadly left-wing ideals

• One notable group was Russia’s Narodnaya Volya (the People’s Will), members of which assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881

Right-wing terrorism

• Right-wing terrorism is a relatively recent development

• These are mostly small groups inspired by neo-Fascist and neo-Nazi ideas

• Their actions often target government buildings, foreigners or real or perceived political opponents

Ethno-nationalists

• Ethno-nationalists are probably the best-known type of terrorists

• Ethno-nationalists generally seek independence (or greater autonomy) for a region, and target what they see as an oppressive occupying or imperial governments

• Ethno-nationalists regard themselves as national liberation movements

Early ethno-nationalist groups

• An early example of ethno-nationalist terrorism was the Fenian group, which fought to gain Irish independence from Britain

• In 1867 they planted a bomb outside Clerkenwell Prison in London, trying to rescue two of their members

Later ethno-nationalist groups

• Ethno-nationalist groups became common during decolonisation

• Many leaders of such groups became rulers after independence or changes of regime

• Ethno-nationalist terrorism continues in many parts of the world

Religious or ‘sacred’ terrorism

• Many groups have claimed to be inspired by Christian or Jewish faith, including the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda

• However, religious terrorism is usually associated with Islamist groups, notably Al Qaeda

Terrorism after 1968

• Terrorism has long been an important factor in the domestic politics of many countries

• Since 1968, terrorism has played a far more prominent role in international politics and international relations

• This was partly a factor of better transport, particularly air travel

• The development of the media – TV news – gave unprecedented publicity to terrorist events

• Several groups of diverse origin began to collaborate

New methods• In 1968 the Popular Front

for the Liberation of Palestine – a Marxist group that later became part of the PLO – hijacked an El Al jet

• In 1970 the same group attempted to hijack five planes

• Three of the planes were blown up in the eyes of the world’s press

International cooperation

• The 1970s saw cooperation between terrorist groups with very different aims – Germany’s left-wing RAF, Northern Ireland’s IRA, Palestine’s Fatah and the Japanese Red Army

• States like Libya, East Germany and even the Soviet Union gave help to some groups

Terrorism and globalisation

• The changes associated with globalisation – the growing interconnectedness of the world – have created new opportunities for terrorist groups

• Better transport means increased mobility• The Internet and mobile phone technologies

allow better communication, organisation and publicity

• They also make it possible to coordinate attacks from anywhere in the world

The rise of Al Qaeda

• What is new about Al Qaeda?• It represents the newest form of terrorism, the

so-called ‘sacred’ terrorism• Motivated by its own interpretation of Islam, it

promises its operatives rewards in the afterlife• It works as a brand, rather than as a tightly

structured organisation

Origins of Al Qaeda

• The war against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan in the 1980s created a space for radical Islam

• Many who had fought with the Afghan Mujahideen went on to found Al Qaeda and similar organisations

• These wished to become involved in Islamist struggles elsewhere in the world

Evolution of Al Qaeda

• Al Qaeda adopted an anti-American and anti-Western stance, particularly after the stationing of US forces in Saudi Arabia

• Notable actions included the suicide attack on the USS Cole in 2000

The 2001 attacks

• The multiple attacks on the US mainland in September 2001 were the most spectacular actions of Al Qaeda

• The attacks targeted important symbols of capitalism and American military power

• The attacks were also designed to gain maximum publicity

What has terrorism achieved?

• Most terrorist groups have achieved very little

• It is very difficult to undermine state power, unless there is strong popular support for the cause (not necessarily the methods)

• Some former terrorists entered the political process and achieved all or some of their aims, usually national independence or autonomy

• These groups (Sinn Féin, the PLO) usually had concrete aims that could be negotiated

• Most left- and right-wing groups achieved nothing

Terrorism and IR: the balance

• However, the aftermath of the 2001 saw US President Bush launch his ‘War on Terror’

• Soon this led to the invasion of Afghanistan and ultimately to the invasion of Iraq

• Thus a terrorist organisation had dramatic influence on subsequent events

• Terrorists can therefore be significant actors in IR in certain circumstances