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Carbohydrate Metabolism
Sources
Initial Absorption and Digestion
Oxidation of Glucose: Glycolysis & Citric Acid Cycle
Synthesis of Glucose: Gluconeogenesis
Glycogen Metabolism
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Organ Integration of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Note: For chemistry & structures of carbohydrates review
Unit 4 in the Self Teaching Program
Dietary Sources of Carbohydrates (Most abundant biomolecules
on earth)
1
Carbohydrate oxidation is the central energy yielding pathway in most cells.
2
Starch: the nutritional
store of glucose in
plants.
A major source of
dietary glucose.
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides
2 Forms of Starch (nutritional reservoir in plants)Branched
Unbranched
1 6
glu glu1 4
23
α-1,4 glycosidic linkages
α-1,4 & α-1,6 glycosidic
linkages
glu fru
glu glu
gal glu
(30) (1)
1 4
gal
glufru
1 4
Similar to glycogen in
animal cells, but less
extensive branching
in starch.
Initial Digestion of Carbohydrates
1) Mouth: limited breakdown of starch and glycogen occurs;
brief period of contact.
Salivary amylase (an α-1,4 glucosidase);
• Specific for internal bonds; does not breakdown α-1,6-glucosides
or α-1,4 bonds located at branch points.
• Oligosaccharides and some maltose are the products.
2) Stomach: no significant digestive enzymes present.
The GI tract is a barrier for large nutrients. Starch and other
oligosaccharides must be broken down to monosaccharides
prior to entry into cells.
Initial Digestion of Carbohydrates
3) Small Intestine: Responsible for most of carbohydrate digestion.
a) Lumen: Pancreatic amylase (its substrate specificity is similar to
that of salivary amylase; hydrolyzes internal α-1,4 linkages);
•Secreted by the pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
•Quantitatively more important than the salivary enzyme.
•Products are: maltose (a disaccharide), maltotriose (a trisaccharide),
and the α-limit dextrins.
•The α-limit dextrins contain approx. 8 glucose units with one or more
α-1,6 branch points. They will be further digested to maltose, maltotriose,
and glucose on the luminal surface of the epithelial cells.
Initial Digestion of Carbohydrates
b) Brush Border of the Mucosal Epithelium
Final hydrolysis of di- and oligosaccharides to monosaccharides.
Catalyzed by enzymes on the surface of the small intestinal epithelial
cells. Excess capacity for digestion of starch and sucrose.
Only monosaccharides can be absorbed into intestinal epithelial cells.
Undigested Material
Di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides which are not hydrolyzed,
are not absorbed into the intestinal epithelial cells.
Travel to lower portion of small intestine, metabolized by bacteria which
contain many more saccharidases than do human cells.
Products: short chain fatty acids, lactate, hydrogen gas, methane, CO2
These products cause: fluid secretion
increased intestinal motility
cramps (due to distension of gut and/or
irritant effects on the intestinal mucosa)
Absorption of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are absorbed from the brush border membrane of
the intestinal epithelial cells and ultimately into the bloodstream via
the actions of specific transport proteins.
Rate of monosaccharide absorption is enhanced via microvilli (increase
surface area) and the existence of specific transport proteins.
Sugar moves from small intestine intestinal epithelial cell bloodstream
Luminal; Brush
border membrane
Microvilli
Contraluminal
membrane
Na-dependent“ActiveTransport”
“FacilitatedDiffusion”Na-independent
“FacilitatedDiffusion”Na-independent
Carbohydrate Maldigestion Disease
Three categories of carbohydrate intolerances:
1) Congenital absence of an enzyme (lactase deficiency) or transport
system: (e.g. glucose-galactose malabsorption syndrome due to a
decrease or lack of Na-coupled glucose, galactose transporter; SGLT-1).
2) Hereditary, delayed onset deficiency: e.g., delayed onset of lactase
deficiency.
Lactose intolerance: frequently seen among adults in which ingestion of
lactose-containing foods (milk products) leads to abdominal cramps and
diarrhea.
Due to disappearance of lactase after childhood; lactose is incompletely
digested and absorbed. Unabsorbed lactose is converted into toxic
products by bacterial enzymes in the large intestine.
3) Acquired Deficiency: as a result of intestinal disease; arises due to
gastroenteritis and destruction of brush border tissue.
Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway)
1) Represents the central pathway for the catabolism of glucose and
other monosaccharides.
2) A nearly universal pathway in biological systems and occurs
in virtually every tissue.
3) The liver is the principal organ in the maintenance of blood glucose
levels. Thus the functional state of the liver will profoundly influence
carbohydrate metabolism.
4) D-glucose is oxidized to pyruvate, which under anaerobic
conditions may then be partially converted to lactate.
Under anaerobic conditions: glycolysis consists of 11 coupled reactions
with the overall net reaction being:
D-glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP 2 lactate + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O
ΔG˚’ = -32.4 kcal/mol
Under aerobic conditions: glycolysis consists of 10 coupled reactions
with the overall net reaction being:
D-glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+
2 pyruvate + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H2O
ΔG˚’ = -20.4 kcal/mol
Glycolysis can be divided into 2 stages:
Stage 1 (The Preparatory Phase): Consists of the collection of sugars
by the liver.
Subsequent phosphorylation of these sugars at the expense of 2 ATP’s.
Conversion to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
Stage 2 (The Payoff Phase): Consists of conversion of glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate to either pyruvate or lactate via a series of oxidation-
reduction steps.
Concomitant conservation of energy via formation of 4 ATPs
(5 or 6 enzymes are utilized, respectively).
Stage 1
-2 ATP
Stage 2
+4 ATP
2 NAD+
Lactate (2)
11
2 NAD+
Stage 2
+4 ATP
Stage 1
-2 ATP
Glycolysis: Stage 1
Initial Strategy: Trap glucose in the cell and convert it to a compound
that can be cleaved into phosphorylated 3-carbon units.
1st Reaction: Glucose enters cell and is phosphorylated to glucose
6-phosphate, a negatively charged molecule which is trapped inside
the cell.
6 6
Important Additional Points
1) Reaction is irreversible.
2) Liver also contains a specialized form of hexokinase known as
glucokinase.
3) Glucokinase: much higher Km for glucose (5 mM vs. 0.1 mM)
is not inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate
is absent in muscle and is deficient in patients
with diabetes
4) At normal blood glucose concentrations hexokinase is fully
saturated, glucokinase is not.
5) Glucokinase is present at high concentration in liver and is induced
in response to D-glucose.
6) Glucokinase assures that at high concentrations, glucose is
not wasted. Instead it is converted to glucose 6-phosphate for
subsequent synthesis of glycogen.
7) Hexokinase can also phosphorylate fructose, mannose, and
glucosamine, whereas glucokinase cannot. However, due to its
high Km for fructose, and existence of a separate pathway for
fructose, it is not a significant substrate for hexokinase.
8) First reaction does not commit glucose to glycolysis, since
glucose-6-phosphate represents a branch point in carbohydrate
metabolism. It also enters pentose phosphate pathway and
glycogenesis.
2nd Reaction: the isomerization of glucose 6-phosphate to fructose
6-phosphate.
Catalyzed by phosphoglucose isomerase.
6 membered
pyranose ring
5 membered
furanose ring
1
23
4
5
6
1
2
34
5
6
This reaction is readily reversible.
This reaction represents an example of a conversion of an aldoseto a ketose.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Aldehyde
Ketone
Open chain representation of the sugars.
An aldehyde containing sugar. A ketone containing sugar.
1
2
3
4
5
6
3rd Reaction: Fructose 6-phosphate is phosphorylated by ATP to form
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
This is the second of the two priming reactions in glycolysis.
Catalyzed by phosphofructokinase (PFK; PFK1).
PFK is the major point of regulation in glycolysis. Rx is irreversible.
PFK is regulated allosterically.
1
2
34
5
6
4th Reaction: Cleavage of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Represents cleavage of a hexose into two trioses.
Note: Reaction is readily reversible. It is pulled to the right via removal
of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate via subsequent steps.
Only glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is on the direct pathway of glycolysis.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
5th Reaction: Isomerization of 3-carbon phosphorylated sugars.
catalyzed by triose phosphate isomerase.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Additional Points:
1) At equilibrium 96% of triose phosphate is dihydroxyacetone
phosphate. Rx. is pulled to the right via rapid removal of
the product.
2) Net result: Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is funneled into the main
glycolytic pathway;
2 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are formed from 1
molecule of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
3) Triose phosphate isomerase accelerates isomerization by a factor
of 1010. Only limited by diffusion of the substrate into the active site.
Considered a kinetically perfect enzyme.
With this reaction, carbons 1, 2, and 3 of the starting glucose become
indistinguishable from carbons 6, 5, and 4, respectively.
Also, the numbering of carbon atoms in glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
is not the same as the numbering of carbons in glucose.
Glycolysis: Stage 2
Stage 1: 1 molecule of glucose 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate.
Stage 2: 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
2 molecules of pyruvate
AND
4 ADP 4ATP.
2 NAD+
Stage 1
-2 ATP
2 NAD+
Stage 1
-2 ATP
Stage 2
+4 ATP
Lactate (2)
11
2 NAD+
6th Reaction: Oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
The first of the two energy-conserving
reactions of glycolysis that will ultimately
yield ATP.
This is a mixed anhydride
of phosphoric acid and a
carboxylic acid.
Note: The mixed anhydride
has a very high free energy
of hydrolysis.
1
2
3
Aldehyde
group
NAD+-dependent
Mixed
anhydride1
2
3
7th Reaction: First ATP-generating step. ATP is formed as the phosporyl
on the carboxyl group of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to ADP.
“Substrate Level Phosphorylation”
Note: The consequences of this reaction in
combination with the 6th reaction are:
1) An aldehyde is oxidized to a carboxylic
acid group.
2) NAD+ is concomitantly reduced to NADH.
3) ATP is formed from Pi and ADP.
1
2
3
1
2
3
8th Reaction: The phosphoryl group is shifted from the C-3 to the C-2
position of glycerate. Catalyzed by phosphoglycerate mutase.
Note: A mutase transfers a functional group from one position to
another on the same molecule.
1
2
3
1
2
3
9th Reaction: A dehydration reaction is which water is reversibly
removed from 2-phosphoglycerate to from phosphoenolpyruvate.
Catalyzed by enolase.
Large difference in the standard free energy of hydrolysis of the
phosphate group in the reactant versus the product.
1
2
3
1
2
3
10th Reaction: Transfer of a phosphoryl group from PEP to ADP
catalyzed by pyruvate kinase.
Irreversible; An important site of regulation in the liver.
The second “substrate level phosphorylation”.
11th Reaction: Reduction of pyruvate to lactate via the enzyme
lactate dehydrogenase.
Conversion of occurs under partially anerobic conditions, when
oxygen is limited (e.g., muscle during intense activity) OR in certain
tissues even when sufficient oxygen is present (retina, brain, RBCs).
NADH required for this reaction is supplied
by the 6th reaction (the dehydrogenation of
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate).
Importantly, under anaerobic conditions, theregeneration of NAD+ by this step is essentialfor the continued functioning of glycolysis.
Stage 1
-2 ATP
Stage 2
+4 ATP
Lactate (2)
11
2 NAD+
There are 5 isozymic forms of lactate dehydrogenase.
Differ in their affinity for substrate and sensitivity to allosteric
inhibition.
Isozymes: multiple forms of a given enzyme that catalyze the
same reaction but differ in kinetic or regulatory properties.
Each LDH isozyme contains 4 copes of two different polypeptides.
H form (heart) and M form (muscle). Designated H4, H3M1, H2M2, etc.
H4: higher affinity for substrate; allosterically regulated.
Designed to oxidize lactate to pyruvate which can be used by
the heart as an aerobic fuel source.
M4: optimized to convert pyruvate to lactate in muscle; allows
glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
Net reaction in transformation of glucose into pyruvate:
D-glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+
2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H2O
2 ATPs are generated during conversion of glucose to 2 pyruvate.
3 Reactions are irreversible under physiological conditions:
hexokinasephosphofructokinasepyruvate kinase
Entry of Other Monosaccharides into Glycolysis
D-Fructose: present in fruits; also can be generated by hydrolysis of
sucrose (yield fructose + glucose).
Note: In the liver hexokinase has a 20x higher affinity for glucose
compared to fructose. Since there is a lot of glucose present in this
organ, fructose is not principally metabolized by hexokinase, but
rather by the following pathway:
(1)(2)
(1) Fructose intolerance results from a deficiency in fructose 1-phosphate
aldolase. Leads to an accumulation in fructose 1-phosphate and a depletion
of ATP and Pi. Pi depletion makes it impossible to generate more ATP
lowering levels even further. Causes cell damage.
(2) Fructosuria results from a deficiency in fructokinase. Fructose appears
in blood and urine. Relatively benign metabolic abnormality.
D-mannose: arises from digestion of polysaccharides and glycoproteins
found in food.
Mannose + ATP Mannose 6-phosphate
Mannose 6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate
Hexokinase
Phosphomannose isomerase
D-Galactose: Derived via hydrolysis of
the disaccharide lactose.
It is converted to glucose 1-phosphate
as follows:
Step 1: galactose is phosphorylated.
Step 2: Galactose 1-phosphate acquires
a uridyl group from UDP-glucose with a
release of glucose 1-phosphate.
Step 3: The galactose moiety of UDP-galactose
is epimerized to glucose; the configuration
of the hydroxyl group at C-4 is inverted.
Net effect is conversion of galactose 1-phosphate to glucose 1-phosphate.
1
UDP
Glucose 1-phosphate is then isomerized to glucose 6-phosphate:
Glucose 1-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphatephosphoglucomutase
•The disease galactosemia results from the absence of the enzyme
galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase.
•Galactose metabolism is blocked at the galactose 1-phosphate step.
•Damage occurs due to the accumulation of toxic substances rather
than due to the absence of an essential compound.
One of the offending compounds is galactitol
which is produced by the reduction of
galactose.
•Galactosemia is a severe disease.
•Symptoms occur when milk is consumed; liver
becomes enlarged; jaundice is common.
•Blood galactose is elevated and it’s found
in the urine is well.
•Absence of the transferase enzyme from RBCs
is diagnostic.
•Treatment involves exclusion of galactose from
the diet.
Conversion of Glucose to Fructose via Sorbitol
•Aldose reductase reduces glucose to sorbitol, which is quite polar
and thus does not passively diffuse across membrane.
•Also, its not a substrate for the glucose transporter.
•Therefore its trapped inside cells.
•Liver, ovaries, sperm, and seminal
vesicles contain the enzyme sorbitol dehydrogenase.
•Oxidizes sorbitol to fructose.
•Fructose then enters glycolysis or
gluconeogenesis.
•When glucose is elevated (e.g., diabetes) and if there is sufficient
NADPH, aldose reductase produces excess sorbitol.
•Retina, lens, kidney, and nerve cells do not contain sorbitol dehydrogenase and therefore sorbitol accumulates.
•Causes a strong osmotic effect and cell swelling due to water retention.
•Symptomalogy occurs (cataract formation, peripheral neuropathy, and
vascular problems).
No sorbitol
dehydrogenase.
Dietary Disaccharides are Hydrolyzed to Monosaccharides
Disaccharides cannot directly enter cells without first being hydrolyzed
to monosaccharides (extracellularly). Hydrolysis reactions are
catalyzed by enzymes attached to outer surface of epithelial cells
lining the small intestine.
The resulting monosaccharides enter cells lining the intestine via
specific transport proteins. Then pass from cells into the blood,
distributed to the liver, enter the glycolytic pathway.
Regulation of Glycolysis
Enzymes catalyzing irreversible reactions are often potential control
sites.
In glycolysis regulation occurs at hexokinase, phosphofructokinase,and pyruvate kinase.
I. Phosphofructokinase: the most important control point in
glycolysis. It is the first irreversible reaction that is unique to the
pathway (i.e., the committed step).
• Inhibited by ATP
• AMP reverses the inhibition by ATP. Thus PFK activity increases
when the ATP/AMP ratio is lowered (i.e., as the energy charge of
the cell decreases).
• Inhibited by a decrease in pH.
• Inhibited by citrate.
• Activated by Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.***
•Fructose 2,6-BP is formed by phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate
via the enzyme phosphofructokinase 2.
•Fructose 2,6-BP can be hydrolyzed by the enzyme fructose bisphosphatase 2.
•Fructose 6-phosphate both accelerates the synthesis of fructose 2,6-BP
and inhibits its hydrolysis. Both mechanisms lead to increased fructose 2,6-BP.
Phosphofructokinase 2
Fructose bisphosphatase 2
Causes phosphorylation of
the enzyme which then
activates the phosphatase
function.
16
1
•The activities of PFK2 and FBPase2 reside on the same polypeptide
chain.
•Both activities are reciprocally regulated by phosphorylation of a
single serine residue.
Thus low blood glucose, blood glucagon, cAMP-dependent
phosphorylation of this bifunctional enzyme, PFK2 and FBPase 2,
which then F 2,6-BP, and the activity of PFK1.
Phosphofructokinase 2
Fructose bisphosphatase 2
Causes phosphorylation of
the enzyme which then
activates the phosphatase
function and inhibits the
kinase.
Net result is to decrease fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
level and therefore decrease PFK1 activity.
II. Hexokinase: inhibited by its product glucose 6-phosphate. Thus
PFK inhibition leads to hexokinase inhibition via the buildup of
metabolites.
III. Pyruvate Kinase: catalyzes the third irreversible step in glycolysis.
Controls the outflow of the pathway.
2 forms: L form (liver): subject to extensive allosteric regulation.
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate activates.
ATP and alanine inhibit.
M form (muscle and brain): not allosterically regulated.
Regulation of Glycolysis
Regulation of Glycolysis
The L form of pyruvate kinase is inhibited by hormone-mediated
cAMP-dependent phosphorylation as depicted below:
Low glucose stimulates phos-
phorylation of pyruvate kinase
which inactivates the enzyme.
Low glucose inhibits
dephosphorylation of
pyruvate kinase thereby
maintaining the inactive
form of the enzyme.
Low blood glucose, glucagon, cAMP-dependent phosphorylation,
of pyruvate kinase, INACTIVATES.
Thus low blood glucose, PFK1 and pyruvate kinase.
Bottom Line: liver does not consume glucose when it is more urgently needed by brain and muscle.
Alcoholic Fermentation
The sequence of reactions from glucose to pyruvate is similar in all
organisms.
However, in yeast and several other microorganisms ethanol is
formed from pyruvate via the following 2 reactions:
Note: the CO2 produced via pyruvate
decarboxylation in Brewer’s yeast is
responsible for the carbonation of
champagne.
In baking the CO2 released when yeast
is mixed with a fermentable sugar
causes the dough to rise.
Absent in
Humans.
Present in humans.
partly responsible
for the oxidation of
ethanol.