2012

Language Acquisition

Historical Change: English in the 18th Century

Contemporary Language Change

Maximizing your Marks – Do’s and Don’ts for the Exam

Summary:◦ Nurture◦ Nature◦ How we know about acquisition◦ Acquiring the sounds of the language

Early vocalisations

Babbling

◦ Acquiring the words of the language◦ Acquiring the grammar of the language◦ Acquisition up to around 4 years◦ Acquisition in later childhood to adolescence◦ Other research areas

Described as “a paradox of constrained infinity”

One idea to consider:◦ Nature vs. Nurture

Nature – an innate disposition. We are born with the understanding of language

Nurture – language must be taught and acquired.

In fact, both are important: Nature AND Nurture

Children acquire the language they are exposed to◦ This can diverge from the adult model as children are

able to create their own utterances that they will not have heard from adults; “doggy been fun time”, “me no blue ice man”

Consider deaf children:

they have no model to follow yet research has found a spontaneous development of a form of signing (“Homesign”)

- “Even without a model children combined gestures into strings that functioned like sentences of early child language”

(Golding Meadow and Mylander 1990)

Are we born with the ability to understand language and speak fluently without any prompts?

Well, no.

However, some theorists have found that perhaps we are born with ‘puzzle solving’ equipment which helps us to understand the complexities of language and help us to decode it◦ Chomsky (LAD)

Observational data◦ Parental diaries◦ Recorded corpora◦ Parental questionnaires

Experimental data◦ Both on comprehension and production

E.g. Act-out and imitation

Different types of studies◦ Longitudinal studies

Same children over time◦ Cross-sectional

Different children of different ages◦ Single case studies

Following one child for several years

Awareness of prosody◦ Studies have shown that babies in the uterus are

sensitive to stress and intonation of the mother’s voice

Early differentiation between sounds◦ Babies show an awareness of the differences between

sounds in their own language and sounds of a different language, e.g. English compared to German

Mutual gaze◦ Babies monitor and copy their mother’s facial

expressions

“Motherese”◦ Caregiver speech, also known as CDS◦ Characteristics of this are virtually universal, cross-

linguistically

0-2 months – reflexive vocalisations

2-4 months – cooing

4-6 months – vocal play

Anatomy Sounds

Vocal tract is not developed-High larynx and the tongue fills most of mouth

Reflexive sounds:-Crying, Fussing, Coughing, Gargling

Unable to control muscles in tongue, lips and jaw Biological noises

Anatomy Sounds

Vocal tract maturing Cooing (c) V-like structure

Larynx starts descending (3months – 4years) Consonantal sounds – vegetative sound mechanisms

Lowering of jaw Vowel sounds – reflexive sound mechanisms

Increased control of voicing

Anatomy Sounds

Manipulating articulators- Pitch, amplitude

Squeals and growls

Yelling

Ability to close the vocal tract Nasal murmurs and snorts

Begins marginal babbling

6-9 months ◦ Canonical babbling

Repeating syllables “gagagaga” “dadada” “mimimi”

9-15 months◦ Veriegated babbling

Changing syllables “damidami” “gagogiga” “mimemi”

Jargon◦ The addition of intonation and rhythm begins to

become applied

Babbling prepares children for words

12 Months◦ First words appear “protowords”

◦ Approximations and mispronunciations are common

E.g. ‘nana’ for ‘banana’

Children are trying to map sounds they hear onto their own articulatory abilities

From 1½ to 6 years a child acquires the comprehension of an average of 5 or 6 new words a day

A 2 year old knows around 200 words, but by 6, s/he knows some 14,000 words

Children must map phonological form onto meaning

The ‘Fast-mapping’ phenomenon◦ Grasping meaning of words on the basis of a few

incidental exposures; there was no explicit act of teaching meaning

◦ Children remember at least some aspects of the intended meaning several weeks later

Children demonstrate sensitivity to grammar from very early on, even before they are able to produce any language◦ E.g. Infants are sensitive to clause and phrase boundaries◦ E.g. Infants can distinguish function words from content

words

Words have to be ordered in some way – what decides how?

Principles of grammar are deemed to be innate and invariant

Parameters (a limited number of possible “settings”) are fixed during the process of language acquisition◦ E.g. Doggie gone, want juice, big teddy

Between 2-3 years ◦ Sentences containing more than one clause (mostly

co-ordination)

Around 3 years ◦ Subordinate clauses appear more often

By around 4 years◦ The major building blocks of language are in place

Phonology◦ Still some problems, e.g. stresses

Occasional errors in syntax

Changes are slow and much more subtle Some less common structures are yet to be mastered Carol Chomsky (1969)The Acquisition of syntax in

children from 5 to 10 Change is obvious only in non-adjacent age groups

(e.g. 9yrs vs. 12yrs) Major expansions in semantics (word and sentence

meaning) Developments in pragmatics (language use in

context) Ability with figurative language continues to increase

throughout lifespan Eve V. Clark (2002) First Language Acquisition

Development of children with language impairment issues◦ Specific language impairment

◦ Autism

◦ Down syndrome

◦ Dyslexia

Understanding of language acquisition in bi-lingual children

Summary:◦ Linguistic Issues and Developments in 18th Century

English

◦ Context of Change: Trends and Tendancies in the History of English

◦ Sample Texts

Rise of the normative approach to language:◦ Huge increase in number of dictionaries (Johnson 1755) and grammars

(Lowth 1762)◦ These texts were increasingly seen as guides to good/proper usage

This use of language established social status and intelligence

Consequences of prescriptive attitudes and process of language codification:◦ Previously common features (e.g. Double negatives and final prepositions)

are stigmatized◦ Language use is increasingly important in terms of social status, identity

and prestige

But this doesn’t mean there wasn’t still variation and change in language:◦ The impact of prescriptive guides and grammars was not immediate◦ Variation remained, e.g. In terms of the different registers of language

used in different styles/genres of texts

Normative approach:- Establishing language specifically

Prescriptivism:- The idea that language change is not good and a specific set of

rules of usage was necessary

Codification:- The selection of features seen as appropriate

Spellings – standardization◦ ‘long s’ <ſ> is an allograph (different way of

writing) of <s> until c.1800: <firſt> = first, <croſſed> = crossed

◦ <-our> alternated with <-or> until mid 19th

century: honor/honour; color/colour

Color = Latin

Colour = Anglo Norman

◦ <-ick> in unstressed syllables until early 19th

century: musick, logick

Grammar – changes and innovations that arose in the Early Modern Period continue◦ Completion of shift from third person singular <-th> (hath) to <-

s> (has)◦ Completion of shift to you as 2nd person singular (subject and

object) pronoun from ‘thee’◦ Completion of development of necessary ‘DO-support’ in

interrogatives and negatives Verbs of cognition (know, think, believe) remain an exception to this for a

while◦ Perfect aux. + verb constructions restricted to HAVE + verb – it has

fallen (no longer it is fallen) HAVE rather than BE – this is seen as dramatical and can still be found in

dramatic genre texts◦ Decrease in the use of subjunctive (if I were you) rather than if ‘I

was you’◦ Increase in frequency, type and application of progressive

constructions Progressives with future meaning : I’m running a marathon next week Passive progressives : the house is being built (condemned by some in the

19thCentury)

Rich inflectional system

Full unstressed vowel pronunciations

Many strong verbs; various verb parts

‘strong’/’irregular’ features

Sparse inflectional system

Reduced (schwa) unstressed vowel

Few strong verbs; fewer verb parts

‘weak’/’regular’ features

Further back you Further modern you go the more: As time progresses go the more:

Some features worth mentioning can be found after the slides of texts.

Take into account the DATE of the text and the GENRE of the text – also WHO wrote it and WHO received it.

The next Step to our Refinement, was the introducing of Italian Actors into our Opera; who sung their Parts in their own Language, at the same Time that our Countrymen perform’d theirs in our native Tongue. The Kind or Hero of the Play generally spoke in Italian, and his Slaves answer’d him in English [...] One would have thought it very difficult to have carry’d on Dialogues after this Manner, without an Interpreter between the Persons that convers’dtogether [...] I hope, we do put such an entire Confidence in them, they will not talk against us before our Faces, thought they may do it with the same Safety as if it were behind our Backs.

Capitalized nouns◦ “The next Step to our Refinement”◦ This is a German influence on the English language

which has since faded out of use

Apostrophe on past tense verbs◦ “perform’d”◦ Historically represents the disappearance of an ‘e’ in

possessives

Complexity of strong verbs with different multiple parts◦ ‘sung’ vs. ‘sang’

Use of prepositions◦ “after this Manner” instead of ‘in this manner’◦ Prepositions change their meaning over time

My dear friend: I know it will revive your spirits to see from whence this Epistle is dated even from a Place in which the happiest moments of your life have passed. While the multitude consider it just as the town of Edinburgh and no more. How much more valuable it is to you [...] you have attended the Theatre, and there had your soul refined by gentle Music, by the noble feelings of Tragedy, by the lively flashes of comedy [...]

Fewer capitalized nouns◦ Used to be only used for emphasis before printing

capitalized all nouns

◦ Consideration of context – it is a letter to a friend = informal

◦ “Music... Tragedy... comedy”

Why is comedy non-capitalized in comparison to Music and Tragedy?

Lack of apostrophes on past tense verbs◦ This feature has become less prevalent by this time

period

Many Acknowledgements and thanks are due to you for your ready compliance with my Request in giving me a Translation of that hard passage about ǺɩɑλɛУɛσϑɩɑ [Dialegesthai] which I could not render into English with any Satisfaction. Where the Sense so intirely depends on the Etymology of a Word in ye Original, it requires more Knowledge than I am Mistress of, to make it clear in another language; and your friendly Kindness in doing it for me is felt most cordially and gratefully.

Capitalization◦ Sign of printers, and thus a sign of formality

This is a FORMAL letter to a friend due to serious content, or perhaps a gender issue as the writer is female yet the recipient is male.

The issue of the distorted thorn◦ “ye” instead of ‘the’ is due to the distorted thorn◦ Originally carved as:◦ Then as circular lines became acheivable: þ◦ Became distorted to:◦ Which somehow became: y

Preposition usage◦ “I am Mistress of” – here the preposition is at the end of

the sentence, which was condemned by grammarians

He stayed till Friday morning. When he was gone, ‘What say you to him, Miss Burney? cried Mrs. Thrale, I am sure I offer you variety?’

‘Why I like him better than Mr. Crutchley – but I don’t think I shal pine for either of them’?

‘Mr. Johnson, said Mrs. Thrale, don’t you think Jerry Crutchley very much improved?’

Dr J. Yes, Madam, I think he is. Mrs T. Shall he have Miss Burney?

Dr. J. Why – I think not; - at least, I must know more of him: I must enquire into his connections, his recreations, his employments, & his Character, for his Intimates before I trust Miss Burney with him.

Use of ‘DO-support’◦ “What say you to him”

‘DO-support’ missing

◦ “I don’t think”

‘DO-support’ used for a cognitive verb is unusual

◦ “I think not”

No ‘DO-support’ = irregularities throughout the text, presumably due to different speakers having different backgrounds and educations

I have a thousand things to write and I Can’t tell where to begin first – But I think Ill begin from the time I left Fowey – Just as we was getting out of the Harbour I saw you and Cousin Polly out at St Catherines and I look’d at you till I saw you get out at the Castle and sit down upon the Bank the other side and I look’d and look’d and look’d again till you look’d so small that I Cou’d not discern you scarcely only your red Cloak.

Apostrophe usage◦ “look’d”

◦ “Can’t”

◦ “Catherines”

◦ “Ill” (as in I will)

Consider why apostrophes are used and omitted within this text with these four examples

Use of subjunctive◦ “Just as we was getting” – this was falling out of use

during this period, yet is still used here in 1792, quite late in the period. Why do you think this is?

Linguistic concepts and issues (AO2)◦ “Who is the master?” (Humpty Dumpty, ‘Alice in Wonderland’)

◦ Diachronic and Synchronic

◦ Prestige and covert prestige

◦ Informalisation & Conversationalisation

Contextual factors and key constituents of language (AO3)◦ Morphology – development of new lexis

◦ Discourse – underlying values

The armchair method◦ Looking at language change by analysing historical

texts

The tape-recorder method◦ Looking at language change by investigating

change as it happens around you

There are 3 separate forms of COMPOUNDS (2 words which create one meaning)◦ Open

◦ Hyphenated

◦ Closed

How would you form these words?◦ Bath tub, Bath-tub or Bathtub

◦ Nappy rash, Nappy-rash or Nappyrash

◦ Meal time, Meal-time or Mealtime

Diachronic◦ Over time

Synchronic◦ Across regions, registers etc.

Labov’s New York department store study◦ Most prestigious form = rolled ‘r’ in Fourth Floor

◦ Less pretigious form = Fawth Flaw

◦ The prestigious form was found when people were reading a word list or passage

◦ The less prestigious form was found in casual and formal speech

This is when a group use potentially stigmatized forms, in contexts, that being to gain prestige

Is this because society is becoming more democratic?

Or is the youth of today becoming more influential on culture?

Spelling/punctuation◦ Apostrophes

◦ Capitalizations

Pronunciation◦ Glottal stops – buh’er, instead of butter

◦ HRT (high rising tone at the end of sentences – Australian influence)

Fairclough gave us the term ‘Conversationalisation’◦ He found that the more modern a text is, the more

likely it is to have conversational features in it regardless of text genre or formality

Other people now call this ‘Informalisation’◦ This is often used by advertisements as they break

down barriers between ‘us’ and ‘them’ by breaking the barriers of formality

Make annotations on all texts you are looking at for your chosen question

PLAN YOUR ANSWER in order to have a well-structured answer that is fluent and cohesive – this will be awarded the best marks

Annotations and planning should take around 10-15 minutes

What grammatical changes occurred from the 18th Century?◦ “It is I”

The subject pronouns is no longer used◦ “To whom were you talking”

Object ‘who’ not used This order due to avoiding ending the sentence with a preposition ‘to’

◦ “We have gotten together” Past participles beginning to drop ‘-en’

◦ “If it be your wish” Losing subjunctives

◦ “I shall” Future auxiliaries are changing, ‘I will’

◦ “Fewer” “less” Losing the rule that is something is a countable value it is ‘fewer’ and if it

is uncountable it is ‘less’◦ “Himself” vs. “his self”

Changing reflexive pronouns

Pronunciation changes◦ “I’m so heppy will you merry me?”

Using an ‘e’ instead of an ‘a’ sounds rather archaic as this would have been the done form a few centuries ago

◦ “Do you have the tixt?”

Replacing ‘e’s with ‘i’s sounds rather posh and is becoming a prestigious form

‘A conceptualized response’◦ This means you are looking at whole patterns not

just individual examples within the texts

Investigation◦ You can refer to your own findings from your

investigation within the exam

Show your thought process◦ Show different interpretations of features and their

usage where you can

Show you’re thinking for yourself and engaging with the text Answer the question, do not just give an explanation of language

change or acquisition as a whole Make a plan Begin with a ‘big idea’/overall context

◦ Big idea – context/ what’s happening?/ what’s the aim of the person?

Close in on evidence from the text You can bring AS topics into the exam also Cover a range of levels

◦ For example, look at the significance of one word, then look at the meaning it implies through the whole sentence, then look at the sentence structure, then the sentence type.

Grammar is important to get higher marks Be tentative! This means don’t always say something IS what you

say it is, say that PERHAPS it is this because... Use precise terminology, the more precise it is the better!

◦ E.g. ‘Deontic modal auxiliary’ is better than ‘auxiliary verb’

Do not tell the story of the English Language

Do not tell the story of a child from 0+ learning to speak, read and write

Do not use theorists just to get their names in, it will award you no points

Do not skate over an interesting point- go into detail