Emotions & Emotions & ArousalArousal

Strong EmotionsStrong EmotionsImpair reasoning but a lack Impair reasoning but a lack of emotions can also lead of emotions can also lead to poor judgmentto poor judgment

Absence SeizureAbsence SeizureOriginally called petite malOriginally called petite mal

Type of epilepsy where a Type of epilepsy where a person has brief periods person has brief periods when they stare blankly when they stare blankly without talking or movingwithout talking or moving

Emotions & Emotions & ArousalArousal

James-Lange TheoryJames-Lange TheoryAutonomic arousal & skeletal Autonomic arousal & skeletal actions occur before an actions occur before an emotionemotionThe cognitive component of an The cognitive component of an emotion does not need emotion does not need feedback from the rest of the feedback from the rest of the bodybody

Pure Autonomic FailurePure Autonomic FailureCondition where output from Condition where output from the ANS to the body fails, the ANS to the body fails, either completely or almost either completely or almost completelycompletely

Locked-in SyndromeLocked-in SyndromeCaused by damage to the Caused by damage to the ventral part of the brain stemventral part of the brain stem

Emotions & Emotions & ArousalArousal

Panic DisorderPanic DisorderA condition marked by episodes of extreme A condition marked by episodes of extreme sympathetic nervous system arousal sympathetic nervous system arousal interpreted as fearinterpreted as fear

Perceptions of Perceptions of Bodily Reactions Bodily Reactions are Important for are Important for Interpreting Interpreting EmotionsEmotionsExtreme arousal is recognized as fear or Extreme arousal is recognized as fear or panicpanicStimuli inducing smiling or laughter are Stimuli inducing smiling or laughter are considered pleasant or amusingconsidered pleasant or amusing

Emotion Areas in the Emotion Areas in the BrainBrain

Limbic SystemLimbic SystemIncludes: cingulated cortex, Includes: cingulated cortex, hypothalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala & hippocampus, amygdala & olfactory bulbsolfactory bulbs

Other Emotional Other Emotional AreasAreasMedial frontal cortex (anger) & Medial frontal cortex (anger) & insular cortex (disgust)insular cortex (disgust)

Hemispheric Hemispheric Response to Response to EmotionsEmotionsRight hemisphere especially Right hemisphere especially activated by unpleasant emotionsactivated by unpleasant emotions

Stress & HealthStress & HealthStressStressA nonspecific response of the body to any A nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on itdemand made on it

Psychosomatic IllnessPsychosomatic IllnessAn illness whose onset is influenced by An illness whose onset is influenced by personality, emotions or experiencepersonality, emotions or experienceUlcers: Ulcers: from a combination of bacteria from a combination of bacteria & current & past experiences & drugs & current & past experiences & drugs irritating the digestive system wallirritating the digestive system wallHeart disease:Heart disease: more common in more common in frequently hostile individualsfrequently hostile individualsVoodoo death: Voodoo death: due to the belief that a due to the belief that a curse has destined deathcurse has destined deathSerendipity: Serendipity: stumbling on something stumbling on something interesting while looking for something interesting while looking for something elseelse

Stress & the Stress & the HPA AxisHPA Axis

Stress Activates Stress Activates the ANS & the HPA the ANS & the HPA AxisAxisProlonged stress keeps the Prolonged stress keeps the HPA axis activeHPA axis active

Stress activates the Stress activates the hypothalamus which sends hypothalamus which sends messages to the anterior messages to the anterior pituitary gland to secrete pituitary gland to secrete ACTHACTH

ACTH stimulates the adrenal ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol, cortex to secrete cortisol, which increases blood sugar which increases blood sugar levels & enhances metabolismlevels & enhances metabolism

The Immune The Immune SystemSystem

LeukocytesLeukocytesWhite blood cells produced in White blood cells produced in the bone marrow before the bone marrow before migrating to the thymus gland, migrating to the thymus gland, spleen, & peripheral lymph spleen, & peripheral lymph nodesnodes

They patrol the blood & other They patrol the blood & other body fluids looking for body fluids looking for intrudersintruders

AntigensAntigensAntibody-generator moleculesAntibody-generator molecules

Proteins located on a cell’s Proteins located on a cell’s surfacesurface

When leukocytes discover cells When leukocytes discover cells with antigens different from the with antigens different from the rest of the body, they attackrest of the body, they attack

The Immune The Immune SystemSystem

MacrophagesMacrophagesA cell that surrounds a bacterium or other A cell that surrounds a bacterium or other intruder, digests it & exposes its antigens intruder, digests it & exposes its antigens on the microphages own surfaceon the microphages own surface

B & T CellsB & T CellsB cells are leukocytes which mature on the B cells are leukocytes which mature on the bone marrow & produce specific antibodies bone marrow & produce specific antibodies to attack an antigento attack an antigen

T cells are leukocytes which mature in the T cells are leukocytes which mature in the thymusthymus

There are 2 types of T cells: cytotoxic T There are 2 types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells which directly attack an intruder & cells which directly attack an intruder & helper T cells which stimulate other T cells helper T cells which stimulate other T cells or B cells to multiply more rapidlyor B cells to multiply more rapidly

The Immune The Immune SystemSystem

AntibodiesAntibodiesY-shaped proteins that circulate in the Y-shaped proteins that circulate in the blood & attach to one specific kind of blood & attach to one specific kind of antigenantigen

The body develops antibodies against The body develops antibodies against antigens that it has encountered in the pastantigens that it has encountered in the past

The Immune The Immune SystemSystem

Natural Killer Natural Killer CellsCellsBlood cells which attach to cells infected Blood cells which attach to cells infected with viruses & certain kinds of tumor cellswith viruses & certain kinds of tumor cells

CytokinesCytokinesChemicals released by the immune system Chemicals released by the immune system which cross the blood-brain barrier & which cross the blood-brain barrier & influence neuronal functioninfluence neuronal function

PsychoneuroimPsychoneuroimmunologymunology

Stress & the Immune System & the CNSStress & the Immune System & the CNSHow stress influences the immune system & how the How stress influences the immune system & how the immune system influences the CNSimmune system influences the CNSThe body can handle stressors like illnessThe body can handle stressors like illnessProlonged stress leads to prolonged increases in cortisol & Prolonged stress leads to prolonged increases in cortisol & other hormonesother hormonesThis directs energy away from synthesizing proteins, This directs energy away from synthesizing proteins, including immune system proteinsincluding immune system proteinsExtremely prolonged stress weakens the immune systemExtremely prolonged stress weakens the immune systemHigh cortisol levels impair memory & increase the High cortisol levels impair memory & increase the vulnerability of neurons in the hippocampusvulnerability of neurons in the hippocampusToxins from overstimulation kill neuronsToxins from overstimulation kill neurons

Posttraumatic Stress DisorderPosttraumatic Stress Disorder

SymptomsSymptomsFrequent distressing Frequent distressing flashbacks & nightmares flashbacks & nightmares about the event, avoidance of about the event, avoidance of reminders of it, & reminders of it, & exaggerated arousal in exaggerated arousal in response to noises & other response to noises & other stimulistimuli

Victims have a smaller than Victims have a smaller than average hippocampus & lower average hippocampus & lower than normal levels of cortisolthan normal levels of cortisol

Attack BehaviorsAttack BehaviorsTrigger is Some Sort of Pain or ThreatTrigger is Some Sort of Pain or ThreatPrimed by stimulating corticomedial area of the amygdala (seen in hamsters)Primed by stimulating corticomedial area of the amygdala (seen in hamsters)This area shows increased neural activity immediately after a 1This area shows increased neural activity immediately after a 1 stst attack attack

Heredity & Environment in ViolenceHeredity & Environment in ViolenceEvidence of genetic influences in aggression, antisocial & criminal behavior (twin studies)Evidence of genetic influences in aggression, antisocial & criminal behavior (twin studies)Monozygotic twins more likely to commit crimes & be aggressive than dizygoticMonozygotic twins more likely to commit crimes & be aggressive than dizygoticAdoptees with parents with criminal records more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviorsAdoptees with parents with criminal records more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors

Attack BehaviorsAttack BehaviorsHormonesHormonesIn animals, male aggressive behavior is In animals, male aggressive behavior is linked to testosteronelinked to testosterone

In humans, higher levels of testosterone In humans, higher levels of testosterone related to higher violent activities and related to higher violent activities and criminal behaviorscriminal behaviors

Women injected with testosterone showed Women injected with testosterone showed increase in heart rate when looking at a increase in heart rate when looking at a picture of angry facepicture of angry face

Suggests that testosterone may induce Suggests that testosterone may induce people to attend longer & respond more people to attend longer & respond more vigorously to certain situationsvigorously to certain situations

Attack BehaviorsAttack BehaviorsBrain Abnormalities & Brain Abnormalities & ViolenceViolenceIntermittent explosive Intermittent explosive disorder:disorder:Condition marked by Condition marked by occasional outbursts of violent occasional outbursts of violent behavior with little or no behavior with little or no provocationprovocationSometimes linked with Sometimes linked with temporal lobe epilepsytemporal lobe epilepsyDamage to the prefrontal Damage to the prefrontal cortex induces fighting & cortex induces fighting & threatening responses with threatening responses with less provocationless provocationPrefrontal damage causes a Prefrontal damage causes a general loss of inhibition & a general loss of inhibition & a tendency toward many socially tendency toward many socially inappropriate behaviors, not inappropriate behaviors, not just violencejust violence

Attack BehaviorsAttack BehaviorsSerotonin Synapses & Aggressive Serotonin Synapses & Aggressive BehaviorBehaviorTurnover:Turnover: The amount of release & resynthesis of a neurotransmitter by a presynaptic neuronThe amount of release & resynthesis of a neurotransmitter by a presynaptic neuron

Social isolation induces a drop in serotonin turnover in brains of male mice; this further increases the Social isolation induces a drop in serotonin turnover in brains of male mice; this further increases the possibility of aggressive behavior toward other malespossibility of aggressive behavior toward other males

Monkeys with the lowest serotonin turnover had the highest amount of aggressive behaviors; they Monkeys with the lowest serotonin turnover had the highest amount of aggressive behaviors; they also died earlieralso died earlier

Low serotonin turnover are not only linked specifically to violence but to decreased inhibition Low serotonin turnover are not only linked specifically to violence but to decreased inhibition impulsesimpulses

In humans, lower-than-normal serotonin turnover was found in those convicted of violent crimes or In humans, lower-than-normal serotonin turnover was found in those convicted of violent crimes or attempted suicidesattempted suicides

Neurons synthesize serotonin from tryptophanNeurons synthesize serotonin from tryptophan

A diet high in other amino acids but low in tryptophan impairs the brain’s ability to synthesize A diet high in other amino acids but low in tryptophan impairs the brain’s ability to synthesize serotoninserotonin

An increase in aggressive behaviors was found in young men a few hours after eating a diet low in An increase in aggressive behaviors was found in young men a few hours after eating a diet low in tryptophantryptophan

Escape, Fear & AnxietyEscape, Fear & AnxietyUrbach-Urbach-Wiethe Wiethe DiseaseDiseaseA genetic disorder causing A genetic disorder causing gradual atrophy of the gradual atrophy of the amygdaleamygdale

Produces a weakened Produces a weakened experience of fear-related experience of fear-related emotionsemotions

Those with this disorder Those with this disorder have difficulty recognizing have difficulty recognizing fear in othersfear in others

Anxiety-Anxiety-reducing Drugsreducing DrugsCholecystokininCholecystokininOne of the main excitatory neuromodulators One of the main excitatory neuromodulators in the amygdalein the amygdale

Injections of CCK-stimulating drugs into the Injections of CCK-stimulating drugs into the amygdala enhances the startle reflexamygdala enhances the startle reflex

Gamma Amino Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)Butyric Acid (GABA)Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the amygdaleamygdale

Injections of GABA-blockers induce panicInjections of GABA-blockers induce panic

BarbituratesBarbituratesTranquilizers of years backTranquilizers of years back

Are addicting & can be fatal Are addicting & can be fatal

Anxiety-Anxiety-reducing Drugsreducing Drugs

BenzodiazepinBenzodiazepinesesCommonly used class of Commonly used class of tranquilizerstranquilizers

Includes: diazepam, Includes: diazepam, chlordiazepoxide & alprozolamchlordiazepoxide & alprozolam

They bind to a receptor site on the They bind to a receptor site on the GABAGABAAA receptor complex which receptor complex which

causes the receptor to change shape causes the receptor to change shape & bind more tightly& bind more tightly

They exert their antianxiety effects They exert their antianxiety effects in the amygdala & hypothalamusin the amygdala & hypothalamus

Anxiety-Anxiety-reducing Drugsreducing DrugsDiazepam-binding Inhibitor (DBI) Diazepam-binding Inhibitor (DBI) aka aka EndozepineEndozepineA protein that binds to the same sites as benzodiazepines A protein that binds to the same sites as benzodiazepines but blocks their behavioral effectsbut blocks their behavioral effects

Alcohol’s effectsAlcohol’s effectsAlcohol has similar behavioral effects as benzodiazepinesAlcohol has similar behavioral effects as benzodiazepines

Combinations of alcohol & tranquilizers can be fatalCombinations of alcohol & tranquilizers can be fatal

Alcohol, benzodiazepines & barbiturates exhibit Alcohol, benzodiazepines & barbiturates exhibit cross-cross-tolerancetolerance