Chapter 5 wortham - classroom assessments - observation

CHAPTER 5:Classroom Assessments

ObservationsAssessment In Early Childhood Education

Fifth EditionSue C. Wortham

Developed by:

Dr. Margarita Pérez, Worcester State College

Chapter Objectives

1. Understand the purposes for teacher assessments

2. Understand the purposes of observation

3. Use different types of observation

4. Conduct observations of physical, social, cognitive, and language development by using appropriate observation strategies

Informal Teacher-conducted Assessments

• Obtain more specific information than standardized tests about each child relative to the instructional objectives of the class

• Can be used for placement, diagnostic evaluation and instructional planning

• For preschool, teacher-designed evaluation strategies are a first step in evaluation

Disadvantages Of Using Classroom Assessments

Improper development and implementation of teacher-designed assessments:

• validity and reliability are questionable• there is misapplication and inappropriate use • there may be confusion over what constitutes

mastery and what kind of assessment is appropriate to determine mastery

Beaty’s Reasons for Observing and Recording the Development of Young Children

1. To make an initial assessment of the child’s abilities2. To determine a child’s areas of strength and areas

needing strengthening3. To make individual plans based on observed needs4. To conduct an ongoing check on the child’s progress5. To learn more about child development in particular

areas6. To resolve a particular problem involving the child7. To use in reporting to parents or to specialists in health,

speech, and mental health8. To gather information for the child’s folder, for use in

guidance and placement

Assessment of Young Children with Disabilities

Play-based assessment is a more effective way of assessing than testing children who may be delayed in development.

Arena assessment by transdisciplinary teams of professionals simultaneously observe the child’s play.

Transdisciplinary play-based assessment (TPBA) is used to observe children’s development in structured and unstructured play situations to study child–child and parent–child interactions.

Skills of the Observer

• Know what to look for, how to record the desired information, and how to explain the behavior

• Have knowledge of developmental theories and stages of development to identify the significant events of an observation

• Use this knowledge to interpret the child’s level of development and to determine the need for experiences to further the child’s development

Ecobehavioral assessment

• Assessment of behavior in natural environments

• Systematic observation of the child

• Criterion referenced rather than norm referenced


• Behavior of child is described

• The relationship with environmental variables are analyzed

• Behaviors change in different situations and with different informants

• Focus is on naturalistic observations

Ecobehavioral assessment• A) Analyzes the physical and social

environment of the school

1) grouping of students

2) instructional materials utilized

3) instructional methods

4) schedule of the school day

5) physical location


• B) analyzes the teacher’s behavior

1) physical location

2) verbalizations

3) response to the student’s behavior

What is a Behavior?

• 1) Observable

• 2) Definable

• 3) Measurable

- frequency (how often does it occur?)

- duration (how long does it occur?)

• Place a B or N in each blank, depending whether the term is a specific Behavior or Not a specific behavior

_______ 1. Angry _______ 11. Happy_______ 2. Hits classmates and yells _______ 12. Walks to

the door_______ 3. Is bad _______ 13. Loves

food_______ 4. Does not complete _______ 14. Eats all

the homework food on the plate in 1 minute

______ 5. Is sad _______ 15. Good boy______ 6. Cries 4 times during the day _______ 16. Sings at

recess______ 7. Good student _______ 17. Verbally

abusive______ 8. Pays attention _______ 18. Uses

swear words 20 times in 10 minutes

______ 9. Raises hand _______ 19. Is afraid______ 10. Neurotic _______ 20. Hides in the

corner when confronted by the class bully

Types of ObservationThe purpose for gathering information helps determine the best observation method to use.

• Anecdotal records• Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)• Event sampling (frequency recording)• Duration recording• Latency recording• Time sampling• Running records• Specimen records• Checklists• Rating scales

Anecdotal Record (narrative summary)

An objective account of an incident that tells what happened, when, and where.

• It is a prompt, accurate, and specific account of an

event.• It includes the context of the behavior.• Interpretations of the incident are recorded separately

from the incident.• It focuses on behavior that is either typical or unusual

for the child being observed.

Follow This Case

Matt, a 4th grade student, seems to react in a negative manner towards his peers. During his reading class, he pushed another student and said a sarcastic remark to his teacher when he was instructed to get his reading homework out to pass toward the front of the class.

During this reading class, Matt’s teacher requested that the special education teacher observe to assist her with figuring out why Matt seemed to be having difficulty. The special education teacher completed an anecdotal recording.

Anecdotal Recording of Matt

Matt entered the classroom. He went to his desk and talked to the student sitting next to him. The student responded. When the teacher requested that the students prepare for their oral reading period, Matt continued talking with his peer. The peer asked Matt to leave him alone. Matt continued talking to the student and the student replied “Leave me alone. Stop talking. We are going to get into trouble.” At this point, Matt shoved the student. Peer repeats request. The teacher instructed the students to hand in their reading questions that were assigned for homework. The peer told Matt, “ Pay attention. Get your homework out.” At this point, Matt replied, “I didn’t do the stupid homework.” The peer laughs.

IDEA requires assessment teams to conduct functional behavioral assessments (FBA).

• “what is the function of the behavior?”• Task avoidance or escape, sensory

stimulation, attention, continuing a reinforcing activity– Antecedents

• Difficulty of assignment, noise levels, fatigue

– Behavior– Consequences

• Reinforcement or punishment

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Write each in the following format:

Antecedents Behaviors Consequences

Antecedents Behaviors

Matt enters the room.

Matt talks to his peer.

The peer responds.

Teacher gives command.

Matt talks to his peer.

The peer responds.

Peer tells Matt tostop.

Matt pushes peer.

The peer responds.

Peer tells Matt to get homework out.

Matt talks to peer. The peer responds(laughs).

Consequences

Event Recording

Event recording-Recording the frequency of a target Behavior; also called frequency counting.

Matt’s teacher and the special education teacher reviewed theanecdotal recording. They determined that Matt’s talkingwas being reinforced by the responses of his peer. In other words, talking to the peer served the function of receivingpeer attention. The special education teacher asked Matt’s teacher if Matt behaved in the same manner during otherclasses. The teacher decided to complete an observation forother classes and other days to see if the behavior was consistent.The next slide illustrates the data.

Event Recording for MattTarget Behavior: Talking to Peers

Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Reading 1111 11 1111 1111 1111 1111 11

Spelling 111 11 11

Writing 11 1111 11

Math 1 11 1

Review the frequency count presented on thePrevious page. Discuss the following questions.

1. Is Matt’s behavior consistent in all of the other periods observed?

2. When does the behavior seem the mostproblematic?

3. Is the behavior the same across the three days of the observations?4. What hypotheses can you generate or, in other words, what

other information would you want to find out to help you understand the behaviors?

Special Education Teacher and General Classroom Teacher Discussion

The teachers discussed the data and made the following Observations. Matt’s talking is consistently more problematic during reading class. His talking seemed to increase through the week in reading class.

The questions that the teachers decided they wanted to answer were:

How is Matt achieving in reading? How does Matt feel about the reading tasks he is required to do? For example, does he dislike the oral reading time or the written homework for the stories read in class?

Special Education Teacher and General Classroom Teacher Discussion

Other questions they considered were:

Does Matt have friends in his other classes? (The peer he talked with is only in his reading class.)

Are there factors outside the classroom that prevent himfrom completing his homework for reading?

Because reading is the first class of the day, are there factors that occur in the mornings before school or on the way to school that impact his behavior (setting events)?

Does Matt use his time in class to complete his work?

Frequency or Event Recording

Latency Recording

One intervention that Matt’s teacher implemented was a change in seating arrangement. Matt was no longer sitting next to the same peer. He continued to have some difficulty in reading class.As the teachers discussed Matt’s behaviors, one of the factors that seems to influence Matt’s ability to make academic progress was the length of time it required Matt to complete his assignments. His teacher noted that Matt seems to take a long time getting organized and getting to work. His teacher decided to complete a latency recording. For comparison, the teacher also completed a latency recording for 2 peers sitting beside Matt.

Latency recording- Observations involving the amount of time that elapses from the presentation of the stimulus until the response occurs.

Latency Recording

Instruction

Get readingBooks out

Take out Paper

BeginChapterquestions

Matt

145 seconds

90 seconds

120 seconds

Peer 1

20 seconds

15 seconds

18 seconds

Peer 2

5 seconds

12 seconds

10 seconds

Stimulus Time to Respond

Terry OvertonAssessing Learners with Special Needs, 5e

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.

As you can see, Matt seems to take significantly more time responding to requests in reading class.

Can you suggest some strategies or interventionsthat might be beneficial to try?

Matt’s teacher analyzed Matt’s permanent products in his academic subjects. His teacher noted that Matt’s skills seemed to be somewhat weak in the areas of reading decoding, reading comprehension, and writing. Discuss the impact of his academic skills on his behavior and the impact of his behavior on his academic achievement. Review the other types of informal academic and behavioral assessment that should be used next.

Analyzing the Data

Momentary Time Sampling

T: Observation 1 = 20% C: Observation 1 = 80%T: Observation 2 = 60% C: Observation 2 = 100%

Running RecordA record of the situation so that future readers can visualize what occurred. • more detailed narrative that includes the sequence of

events--everything that happened and was said during the observation period

• the description is objective• comments or analysis of the behaviors are kept separately

from the record• used in assessments of emergent literacy as informal

assessments conducted while the child is reading

Specimen Record

• similar to a running record, but more detailed and precise

• used by researchers who are not part of the classroom

• researchers may later code observation information to analyze the findings

Observing Development

• Development is continuous, multidimensional and sequential

Although each individual develops at a different rate, – stages do not vary; children do not skip a stage of

development– all children progress, regardless of cultural or social

differences, through the stages in the same order; the stages are universal

Purposes for Observing Physical Development

• To learn how children develop gross- and fine-motor skills

• To become familiar with the kinds of physical activities young children engage in as they practice the use of gross- and fine-motor skills

• To become familiar with individual differences in physical development

Purposes for Observing Social and Emotional Development

• To learn how children develop social skills• To become familiar with how children learn

about social interactions• To understand how children differ in social skill

development• To become familiar with the ways preschool

children handle their emotions• To be aware of differences in children’s

emotional behaviors and responses

Purposes for Observing Cognitive Development

• To understand how children use cognitive abilities to learn

• To understand differences in children’s cognitive styles

• To understand how the child uses play and interaction with materials to extend his or her cognitive abilities

• To become familiar with how children think and what they are capable of learning

• To evaluate what children have learned

Purposes for Observing Language Development

• To understand the child’s ability to use language to communicate

• To understand the difference between egocentric and socialized speech

• To learn how the child uses syntax, grammar, and vocabulary in the process of expanding and refining his or her language

• To become aware of differences in language development among individual children

Purposes for Observing Language Development for English Language

Learners (ELLs)

• To determine how ELLs are progressing in learning English

• To determine ELLs individual needs for language experiences

• To determine a child’s dominant language when placed into a bilingual program

Advantages of Observation for Assessment: Validity

Observations are ecologically valid when the observer can:

• observe children engaged in the everyday life of the classroom

• notice the child’s behaviors and the background factors that influence the behaviors

• focus on the behavior or information that is needed

Disadvantages of Observation for Assessment: Validity

The validity of the observation may be in doubt if the observer:

• misses details • focuses on the wrong behaviors• becomes less attentive during the observation

period• experiences observer bias

– when there are preconceived notions about the child, which effect the interpretation

• observes the incident out of context• affects children’s behavior with his/her presence

Observation Guidelines

• Determine the purpose of the observation to identify the site

• Appropriate observer behaviors during observation visit: unobtrusiveness

• Ethics during the observation visit: confidentiality

• Avoiding personal bias

Behavioral and SocialCognitive Approaches

•Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

There are five major approaches to learning.

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• Behaviorism: Behavior is explained by observable experiences.•

• Mental Processes The observable thoughts, feelings, and motives that we experience

• Associative Learning that two• Learning events are connected

• Cognitive: Includes social cognitive, information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivisttah

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Contiguity or Associated Learning

• Learning by simple associations: Pairing• Stimulus → Response• Examples:

– Golden Arches = McDonalds– Times tables (7 X 8 = 56)– States & capitals (Lansing, MI)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli


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Behavioral Approaches to

Learning

Classical Conditioning

OperantConditioning

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936Russian physician/

neurophysiologistNobel Prize in 1904studied digestive

secretions

Behavioral Approaches•Classical Conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

•

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Classical ConditioningUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical ConditioningConditioned Stimulus (CS)

originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR)

learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

• The Water Show• Jeannette was happy when she heard her family’s plan to

go to a water sports show. Then she heard the weather report, which predicted temperatures exceeding 100 degrees. Jeannette suspected that the weather would be hard to bear, but she went anyway to the show. As she watched the water skiers perform their taxing routines to the blaring organ music, she became very sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually she fainted from the heat. After the family outing, Jeannette could never again hear organ music without feeling dizzy and eventually fainting.

• What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? ___________________What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? ___________________• What is the unconditioned response (UR)? ___________________What is the unconditioned response (UR)? ___________________• What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? _______________________What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? _______________________• What is the conditioned response (CR)? _______________________What is the conditioned response (CR)? _______________________

• The Troublesome Shower (example of an acquired behavior via CC)

• Martin is taking a shower in the men’s locker room after working out. While in the shower he hears someone flush a toilet. Suddenly, very hot water rushes out of the shower head causing Martin to get slightly burnt. As he continues to shower, he hears another toilet flushing and immediately jumps out from under the shower head.

• What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? ______________What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? ______________• What is the unconditioned response (UR)? ______________What is the unconditioned response (UR)? ______________• What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? __________________What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? __________________• What is the conditioned response (CR)? __________________What is the conditioned response (CR)? __________________

Pavlov’s Classical Pavlov’s Classical ConditioningConditioning

Neutral Stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Conditioned Stimulus

Conditioned Response

causes an

+

causes a

Unconditioned Stimulus

=

Conditioned Stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Classical Conditioning: An Classical Conditioning: An ExampleExample

Flash of camera (UCS) Blinking (UCR)

Camera (NS) Flash of camera (UCS)

Camera (CS)

Blinking (CR)

causes

+

=

Camera (CS) causes


Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today recommended study of

behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally

accepted by all schools of thought today

Classical Classroom Examples• A first grader feels ill when recess time

approaches because he was beat up on the playground the last 3 days in a row.

• Certain smells that can elicit nauseous sensations (Hopefully NOT from the cafeteria!)

• Speech phobia : cold sweat, shaking knees and hands

• Phobias in general

Behavioral ApproachesClassical Conditioning

• Generalization The tendency of a new stimulus similar to

the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar

response.• Discrimination The organism responds to

certain stimuli and not others.

• Extinction The weakening of the conditioned

response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (

US).65

Behavioral Approaches Classical Conditioning

• Systematic Desensitization reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasing anxiety-producing situations.

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Behavioral Approaches

Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

Thorndike’s Law of EffectBehavior Positive Outcome Behavior

Strengthened Behavior Negative Outcome Behavior

Weakened

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Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner

Elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect

developed behavioral technology

Behavioral ApproachesSkinner’s Operant Conditioning

Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Consequences (rewards and punishments) are contingent on the organism’s behavior.

Reinforcement (reward) increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Punishment decreases the probability that a

behavior will occur.69

Reinforcement ExamplesReinforcement Examples

Primary Reinforcers:

Water Warmth SecurityFood Sex


Reinforcement ExamplesReinforcement Examples

Secondary Reinforcers

Money Grades Stars Praise


Types of ReinforcementPositive reinforcement – giving something that the

person wants that increases the behaviorExamples:

PraiseTeacher attentionRewards

Negative reinforcement – taking away something that the person does not want that increases the behaviorChoresTaking away time-out

Types of Punishment

Presentation Punishment (type I) – giving something that the person does not want that decreases the behavior

Detention

Extra work

Removal Punishment (type II) – taking away something that the person wants that decreases the behavior

Loss of recess

Loss of privileges

Behavioral Approaches

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Generalization

Giving the same response to similar stimuli.

Discrimination

Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.

Extinction

Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.

One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it resulting in extinction

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired

response each time it occurs

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement reinforcing a response only

part of the time

results in slower acquisition greater resistance to

extinction

Reinforcement Schedules

C on tin u ou s

In te rva l R a tio

F ixed

R atio In te rva l

V ariab le

In te rm itten t

Typ es o f R e in fo rcem en t S ch ed u les

Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon

Schedules of Reinforcement:Schedules of Reinforcement:Frequency and PredictabilityFrequency and Predictability

Fixed Ratio: reinforcer given after

fixed number of behaviors Variable Ratio:

reinforcer given after

unpredictable number of

behaviors

Fixed Interval:

reinforcement only at certain periodic times Variable

Interval: reinforcemen

t at some times but not others


Francis sells jewelry to a local gift shop. Each time he completes 10 pairs of earrings, the shopkeeper pays him for them. This is an example of a ___________ schedule of reinforcement.

• A. Fixed ratio

• B. Variable ratio

• C. Fixed interval

• D. Variable interval

Sandra’s mail is delivered every day at 10:00. She checks her mailbox several times each morning, but only finds mail the first time she checks after 10:00. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement

• A. Fixed ratio

• B. Variable ratio

• C. Fixed interval

• D. Variable interval

Vernon is practicing his golf putting. On the average, it takes him four tries before the ball goes in the hole. This is an example of a _________ schedule of reinforcement

• A. Fixed ratio• B. Variable ratio• C. Fixed interval• D. Variable intervalPaula is an eager third-grader, and loves to be

called on by her teacher. Her teacher calls on her approximately twice each period, although Paula is never sure when her turn will come. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement

• A. Fixed ratio• B. Variable ratio• C. Fixed interval• D. Variable interval

Role of Consequences: Role of Consequences: ReinforcementReinforcement

“If you eat your

vegetables, you may have

dessert.”

Premack Principle (“Grandma’s Rule”): promoting less-desired

activities by linking them to more-desired activities


Applied Behavioral AnalysisReinforcement: Prompts and Shaping

Prompts: Added stimuli that are given just before the likelihood that the behavior will occur.

─Get behavior going.

─Once desired behavior is consistent, remove prompts.

Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. ─First, reward any response.

─Next, reward responses that resemble the desired behavior.

─Finally, reward only target behavior.

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Real World Example

Training a cat to use the toilet will involve:Shaping.

Preparing “the training arena.”

Positive reinforcement on a variable schedule.

LO 5.23 Real world example use of conditioning

Menu

Operant Chamber

Skinner Boxchamber with a bar

or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses

Applied Behavioral Analysis

Applied Behavioral Analysis: Applying the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.

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Classroom Uses of Reinforcement

1. Identify behaviors you want from your students, then reinforce them when they occur.

2. Tell students which behaviors you want; when they occur, reinforce them and explain why the behavior is desirable.

3. Reinforce appropriate behavior immediately.


Maintenance of Behavior in the Maintenance of Behavior in the

ClassroomClassroom When teaching a new behavior/skill, reinforcement for correct responses should be:

•Frequent

•PredictableWhen a behavior/skill is established, reinforcement for correct responses should be:

•Less frequent

•Less predictable


Applied Behavioral AnalysisReinforcement

Guidelines for the Classroom:

─Initial learning is better with continuous reinforcement.

─Students on fixed schedules show less persistence, faster response extinction.

─Students show greatest persistence on variable- ratio schedule.

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Applied Behavioral AnalysisIncreasing Desirable Behaviors

.1. Choose effectivereinforcers.

4. Consider contracting.

2. Make reinforcerscontingent and timely.

5. Use negativereinforcement effectively.

3. Select the BESTreinforcement schedule.

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Reward Chart

Token Economy

Applied Behavioral AnalysisDecreasing Undesirable Behaviors

1. Use differential reinforcement by reinforcing more appropriate behavior.

2. Withdraw positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate behavior.

3. Remove desirable stimuli through “time-out and response cost.”

4. Present aversive (unpleasant) stimuli.

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Social, Cognitive, and Behavioral factors play important roles in learning.

Observational Learning occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior.

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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Menu

LO 5.21 Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning

Bandura’s Contemporary Model.

ProductionPoor motor ability inhibits

reproduction of the model’s behavior. Help improve skills.

MotivationWhen given a reinforcement,

modeling increases.

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AttentionStudents are more likely to be attentive to high status

models (teachers).

RetentionStudent retention will be

improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations.

Modeling Violence

Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

Gla

ssm

an/ T

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mag

e W

orks

Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of their seats and make humorous remarks as well.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Theory into Practice

Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain.

Q.2: What does this say about Nick?

7.31

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning

Classroom Use of Observational Learning

Decide the type of model you will be

Use peers as effective models

Demonstrate and teach new behaviors

Use mentors as models Consider the models

children observe in the media

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