Figurative Language

Comparisons help the reader to understand concepts by drawing parallels between an unknown and a known• Metaphor• Simile• Analogy

Figure of speech comparing two things (without using ‘like’ or ‘as’)

Example:• “Dr. Love […] claims that scientists have found

the glue that holds society together” (Crockett). Compares oxytocin to ‘glue’ to illustrate oxytocin’s

supposed role in human empathy and bonding• “The most evident bridge between morality and

religion is the idea of virtue” (Murdoch 363). Compares ‘virtue’ to a ‘bridge’ in order to illustrate

the idea that virtue connects morality and religion; both morality and religion share concepts of virtue

Figure of speech using ‘like’ or ‘as’ to compare two things

Example:• “Who is the center of the wedding solar

system? The bride. She had the biggest increase in oxytocin. […] Her mother was number two. Then the groom's father, then the groom, then the family, then the friends -- arrayed around the bride like planets around the Sun” (Zak). Compares wedding attendants to ‘planets around the

Sun’ in order to illustrate the central role of the bride and thus her relationship to oxytocin levels

Gives his example extra impact and flare with the added solar system imagery

Extended comparisons often used to argue that if two things are alike in one way, they are alike in other ways as well

Argument from analogy• Doesn’t state that two things are identical, only

similar• Strength of argument depends upon factors

such as the examples used in the analogy, the relevance of the similarities, and the number of shared characteristics between the examples

Examples:• “[H]ow therefore can there be an objective notion

of well-being? Well, consider by analogy, the concept of physical health. The concept of physical health is undefined. […] Notice that the fact that the concept of health is open, genuinely open for revision, does not make it vacuous” (Harris).

• “[W]hy wouldn’t this undermine an objective morality? Well think of how we talk about food […] There is clearly a range of materials that constitute healthy food. But there’s nevertheless a clear distinction between food and poison. The fact that there are many right answers to the question, ‘What is food?’ does not tempt us to say that there are no truths to be known about human nutrition” (Harris).

Arguments from analogy can be refuted using• Disanalogy: Arguing that the two compared

items have many relevant dissimilarities• Counteranalogy: Counterargument related

to the analogy• Unintended consequences: Stating that the

analogy leads to conclusions that undermine the original argument

Watchmaker analogy: “It is ridiculous to assume that a complex object, like a watch, came about randomly. Therefore, one must assume that a complex object, like the universe, must have an intelligent designer in the form of God.”

Philosopher David Hume refutes watchmaker analogy:• Disanalogy: A watch and the universe have many

dissimilarities; for instance, the universe can be disorderly and random.

• Counteranalogy: Some natural objects (like snowflakes) also have order and complexity but are not the result of intelligent design.

• Unintended consequences: Complex objects, such as watches, result from the labor of many individuals; thus the watchmaker analogy unintentionally implies polytheism.

(“Argument from analogy”)

“[W]hy wouldn’t this undermine an objective morality? Well think of how we talk about food […] There is clearly a range of materials that constitute healthy food. But there’s nevertheless a clear distinction between food and poison. The fact that there are many right answers to the question, ‘What is food?’ does not tempt us to say that there are no truths to be known about human nutrition” (Harris).

Refuting Sam Harris’ morality-food analogy:• Disanalogy: Morality and food have many dissimilarities;

morality relates to the mind and philosophy, while food deals with the physical, so the two cannot be compared.

• Counteranalogy: Many poisons are used in medicine, and thus can be considered ‘healthy.’

• Unintended consequences: Many people experience allergic reactions to certain foods, so what may be healthy food for one person may be detrimental to another. Similarly, what may be moral for one person may be immoral to another person. Therefore, comparing morality to food unintentionally supports the view of moral relativism.

“Argument from Analogy.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Oct. 2014. Web. 19 Dec. 2014.

Crockett, Molly. “Beware Neuro-bunk.” TEDSalon. Unicorn Theatre, London, England, UK. 07 Nov. 2012. Conference Presentation.

Harris, Sam. “Science Can Answer Moral Questions.” TED. Long Beach Performing Arts Center, Long Beach, CA, USA. 11 Feb 2010. Conference Presentation.

Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 6th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. Print.

Murdoch, Iris. “Morality and Religion.” A World of Ideas: Essential Readings for College Writers. 9th ed. Ed. Lee A. Jacobus. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. 358-71. Print.

Zak, Paul. “Trust, Morality – and Oxytocin?” TEDGlobal. Edinburgh International Conference Center, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. 14 Jul. 2011. Conference Presentation.