KULIAH 1

PENGENALAN KONSEP TINGKAH LAKU

DAN MODIFIKASI TINGKAH LAKU

Ciri-ciri tingkah laku:

- apa yang orang kata dan lakukan (Actions)

- mempunyai satu atau lebih dimensi (Dimensios) yang boleh diukur (Kekerapan, tempoh masa, intensiti, latensi)

- boleh diperhati, dihurai dan direkod (Observable and Measurable)

- Mempunyai impact kepada persekitaran

- Menurut hukum (lawful) – (hubungan antara tingkah laku dengan peristiwa dipersekitaran)

- dalam bentuk overt or covert.

Pengertian tingkah laku:

Tingkah laku ialah apa yang seseorang itu lakukan dan katakan

Definisi Tingkah laku Manusia

Examples of behavior

Martha sits at her computer and types a letter to her mother

- Action : pressing the keys on the keyboard

- Dimension : frequency of pressing keys, duration of typing

- Is observable and measurable

- Has an impact on environment (produces latter on screen)

- Lawful ( learning process – latter will produces when pressing the keys)

- Overt behavior

Samantha is a 6 year old with an intellectual disability who attends special education classes. When the teacher id helping other students and not paying attention to her, she cries and bangs her head on the table or floor. Whenever she bangs her head, the teacher stops what she is doing and picks her up and comforts her. She tells her to calm down, assures her that everything is all right, gives her a hug, and often lets her sit on her laps.

Kenalpasti kesemua ciri-ciri tingkah laku Samantha.

Action :Dimension:Is it observable?Is it covert behavior?impact on environmentLawful (hukum)

Adakah ini tingkah laku?

- Kecerdasan

- Sikap

- Motivasi

- Kreativiti

- Marah

Definisi Modifikasi tingkah laku

Behavior modification is the field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modifying human behavior

Analyzing: identifying the functional relationship between the environment and a particular behavior to understand the reason for behavior or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did.

Modifying: developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behavior. It involves altering environmental events so as to influence behavior.

{ Behavior Modification Procedures : instruments that are used to help a person change socially significant behaviors, with the goal of

improving some aspect of the person’s life}

* An alternative term for behavior medification is applied behavior analysis

Ciri-ciri Modifikasi Tingkah laku

-Fokus kepada tingkah laku

T/Laku yang boleh diubah bukannya ke atas trait atau label tingkah laku

Tingkah laku boleh diubah dikenali sebagai T.laku sasaran sama ada T/Laku excess atau t/laku deficit (**)

-Berasaskan prinsisp-prinsip tingkah laku

Berdasarkan kajian eksperimen dalam makmal – eksperimen analisis tingkah laku ( analisis tingkah laku) ATAU Analisis tingkah laku gunaan

-Menekankan kepada peristiwa dalam persekitaran masa kini

T/laku dikawal oleh peristiwa (p/ubah kawalan) di persekitaran– MTL digunakan mengawal peristiwa tersebut

-Huraian tepat mengenai prosedur modifikasi tingkah laku

Prosedur MTL perlu digunakan dgn betul kerana melibatkan perubahan tertentu pada persekitaran yang ada kaitan dengan sesuatu tingkah laku. Prosedur yant tepat boleh mengubah persekitaran tingkah laku sasaran.

Ciri-ciri Modifikasi Tingkah laku

- Rawatan yang diamalkan oleh manusia dalam kehidupan seharian.MTL diamalkan oleh guru-guru,penyelia, pensyarah yang bertujuan utk mengubah t/laku. Biasanya orang ini telah terlatih

-Mengukur kepada perubahan tingkah laku- Tujuan utama prosedur MTL mengukur tingkah laku sebelum dan selepas

Intervensi utk melihat perubahannya.- Suatu penilaian berterusan bagi pastikan perubahan kekal.

- Tidak menekankan peristiwa-peristiwa lepas yang menyebabkan sesuatu tingkah laku berlaku

- Penekanan kpd peristiwa persekitaran sekarang yang menyebabkan berlaku sesuatu tingkah laku kerana peristiwa lepas mungkin telah berubah.

-Menolak ramalan yang berkaitan dengan penyebab sesuatu tingkah laku. Bukan andaian kerana ramalan bukan saintifik

Tingkah laku bermasalah

Tingkah laku yang boleh dimotivasikan

1. Tingkah laku berkurangan (deficit) Kurang dimensi bagi sesuatu tingkah laku tertentu Cth- Pekerja yang suka ponteng kerja, - Individu yang tidak beri perhati kepada peraturan - Pelajar yang tidak siapkan esei/ malas belajar - malas

2. Tingkah laku berlebihan (Excesses)Terlalu banyak dimensi bagi sesuatu tingkah laku tertentu Cth: - Individu yang suka menyampuk perbualan orang lain. -Merokok secara berlebihan

Contoh-contoh tingkah laku bermasalah yang memerlukan prosedur modifikasi tingkah laku,

1.Tingkah laku menyendiri diri: Seseorang yang suka bersendirian sama ada dalam kerja atau pergaulan, sedangkan rakan-rakan lain berseronok dan berinteraksi antara satu sama lain.

2.Membuang sampah: Individu yang tidak ada inisiatif membersihkan semula tempat perkelahannya selepas digunakan atau individu yang suka membuang sampah bukannya di tempat pembuangan sampah.

3.Belajar secara tidak berkesan: Belajar disaat akhir, belajar sambil berbual.

4. Memandu dengan laju: Memandu tanpa mengambil kira tahap kelajuan yang dibenarkan ketika di lebuh raya.

5. Fobia: Takut (gayat) menaiki kapal terbang, tempat tinggi atau geli dengan lipas, tikus.

6. Pengurusan pekerja: tingkah laku ponteng kerja. kurang bermotivasi.

7 Merokok secara berlebihan: menghisap rokok sebanyak 1 kotak dalam masa 1 jam.

Contoh-contoh tingkah laku yang memerlukan prosedur modifikasi tingkah laku, Samb

Common Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

• Relies on punishment• Uses bribes• Simplistic or easy• Ignores the real causes of behavior, just treats the

symptoms• Leads to people controlling each other• Ruins intrinsic motivation• Makes people dependent on external incentives• Dehumanizes people• Behavior modification only works with kids and retarded

people

Bagaimana tingkah laku berkembang

Pembelajaran: Tingkah laku dipelajari

Perkaitan antara rangsangan dgn rangsanganGanjaran dan hukumanPemerhatian / permodelanProses kognitifSecara tidak sengaja

Adakah t/laku terhasil dari baka??

Bagaimana tingkah laku berkembang

Kaedah pembelajaran:

Pembelajaran Klasik(Pembelajaran berlaku secara perkaitan antara rangsangan tak terlazim dengan rangsangan terlazim)

Pembelajaran operan(Pembelajaran berlaku secara perkaitan antara rangsangan dan tindak balas)

Pembelajaran Kognitif(pembelajaran berlaku dari aktiviti proses mental)

Bidang-bidang yang mengamalkan MTL

Developmental DisablitiesMental IllnessEducation and Special educationRehabilitationCommunity PsychologyClinical PsychologyBusiness, Industry, and Human Services

(Modifikasi t/laku organisasi/mengurus t/laku organisasi)

Self ManagementChild managementPreventionSports PsychologyHealth Related BehaviorGerontology

Kuliah 2:

Analisis tingkah laku: Memerhati dan Merekod Tingkah laku

* How do you define a target behavior in a behavior modification programme

* What different methods can you use to record a target behavior?

* How does continuous recording differ from interval and time sample recording

* What is reactivity of behavior recording and how can you minimize it?

* What is interobserver reliability and why it is important?

Defining the target behavior

The first step to modification behavior procedure. To define the target behavior , we need to identify exactly what the person says and does that constitutes the behavioral excess or deficit targeted to change.

What is target behavior?

behavior that you want to modify. It also called as behavior assessment.

Why behavior assessment is important?

There are two types of behavioral assessment: direct or indirect. Indirect assessment using interviews, questionnaire, or rating , while direct assessment using direct observation. Why the assessment is important?

- Can help to determine weather treatment is necessary

- Can provide information that helps you choose the best treatment.

- Allows you determine weather the behavior changed after the treatment was implement.

How do you know that you will fails this subjects?----

Peringatan!!!!@ Apabila mendifinisikan tingkah laku sasaran, pengkaji perlu tentukan secara tepat sama ada apa yang dikatakan atau dilakukan itu tingkah laku sasaran yang hendak diubah itu jenis berkurangan atau berlebihan. @ Definisi tingkah laku sasaran itu mesti objektif dan tidak kabur.

How to define of target behavior:

1. Look at the characteristics of target behavior to be record

Topography: Form of a particular response

Amount:

Frequency – The number of instances of the behavior that occur in a given period time

Duration – The length of time that occurs within some period

Intensity: Force of response (utilized instrumentation) . Eg: Voice meter to measure the loudness of voice.

Stimulus control: The conditions under which behavior might be observed to occur

Latency: The time between the occurrence of a stimulus and the beginning of a response.

Quality:

2. Look at the types of target behavior

- Is it an operant behavior

- Is it a respondent behavior

- Determine the alternative behavior

Mendefinisi tingkah laku sasaran

Panas baran (Tantrum).

When Ahmad cries an sobs / lies on the floor and kicks then floor or walls / pounds toys or other objects on the floor

Mengigit jari (Nail- biting).

Any time Ah Seng finger is in his mouth and his teeth are closed together on the fingernail, cuticle, or skin around the nail’.

Asertif (Assertiveness)

When Ali says no to someone who ask him to do something that is not a part of her job / When he asks co-worker not to smoke in her office.

Belajar ? ……….

Jenis penilaian tingkah laku

-Penilaian langsung ( Pemerhatian semulajadi)

-Penilaian tidak secara langsung - ( Menggunakan instrument – soalselidik, temuduga, skala pengkadaran).

Penilaian yang mana lebih tepat?

Merekod tingkah laku

Perkara-perkara diperlukan ketika merekod

* Pemerhati

a professional / routinely assosiated with the client / must have proximity to the client / must have time to observe and record / willing to function as observer

* Bila dan di mana kerja-kerja merekod hendak dijalankan

When - in a specific observation period ( at the time that target behavior

Where- In naturals setting / contrived setting whre the target behavior typically occurs

MEMILIH KAEDAH MEREKOD

Lain aspek tingkah laku sasaran yang hendak diukur, kaedah lain digunakan untuk merekod.

Merekod secara berterusan

(Identify onset and offset (beginning and end) of instance of the behavior)

Method : frequency(amount) / duration / intensity / latency

Merekod hasil: atau merekod hasil tetap

Record the tangible outcome or permanent product of the occurrence of the behavior

indirect assessment method ( using instrument like units product / record number)

MEMILIH KAEDAH MEREKOD

Merekod secara interval

Record the occurrence or nonoccurrent of behavior in consecutive intervals of time during an observations period.

(Type of interval recording – partial interval recording / whole interval recording)

Merekod contoh masa

Record the occurrence or nonoccurrent of behavior in discontinuous interval time (time samples) during an observation period.

Memilih Instrumen merekod:

- Data sheet – most effectively

- Stop-watch

- Others instrument

Rekabentuk kajian

- A – B design ( A = baseline) / (B = treatment)

- A-B-A-B design

- Multiple design

Kad Data kekerapan

Nama:

Pemerhati:

Definisi tingkah laku sasaran:

Tarikh Kekerapan Jumlah

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Kad Data kekerapan

Kad Data Duration

Nama:

Pemerhati:

Definisi tingkah laku sasaran:

Tarikh Duration Jumlah 1 2 3 3 jamDate Onset Offset Onset Offset Onset Offset

Kad Data Duration

1 /1/07 8.00 8.10 9.30 9.45 10.40 10.60 35 minit

Kad Data Interval

Nama:

Pemerhati:

Definisi tingkah laku sasaran:

10 saat interval

10 20 30 4 0 50 Jumlah

Kad Data Interval

Perancangan program modifikasi

Cth:

Tingkah laku : Menghisap rokok

Tingkah laku sasaran: Melenyapkan tingkah laku menghisap rokok semasa waktu bekerja ( 8 pagi – 5 ptg).

Baseline data:

Hari Bil rokok 1 8 2 7 3 7 4 5 5 6

Jumlah 33 (min : 7 batang seminggu)

Sesi Baseline Sesi Treatment

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

S

T

ST

S

T

S

TMin T/Laku

Rekabentuk A-B

Perancangan rawatan (Treatment)

Minggu Hari Sasaran Result

I S R K J

1 33 2 30 3 26 4 20 5 16 6 12 7 8 8 4 9 2 10 0

Data Dasar (A)

Data rawatan (B)Jumlah

hadir cepat

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Sesi

Graf A–B design

Data Dasar (A)

Jumlah hadir cepat

Data Rawatan Data Dasar Data Rawatan (B) (A) (B)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Sesi

Graf A-B-A-B design

Kuliah 3

Peneguhan

Tajuk yang akan dibincang meliputi:

Prinsip peneguhan

Peneguhan positif dan negatif

Peneguhan tidak terlazim dan terlazim

Faktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan peneguhan

Jadual peneguhan.

PRINSIP PENEGUHAN

Peneguhan perlu dalam pelaziman tingkah laku. Dua Kaedah pelaziman tingkah laku dalam proses pembelajaran

Pelaziman klasik (Classical Conditioning)

Pavlov’s discovery of conditioning : Conditioning through association

Model asas :

Stimulus Respond

Semasa Pelaziman: Bell (CS) Food (US) salivation (UR)

Selepas pelaziman: Bell (CS) Salivation(CR)

Pelaziman operan/ instrumental (Instrumental conditioning)

Major Theorists – Edward Thorndike, John Watwon, B.F Skinner

Model asas : Law of effect

R (RESPOND) S (STIMULUS)

Model operan

discriminative Respond Reinforcing stimulus Stimulus

Sd Sr Sr

Sd

Proses Peneguhan

Proses memperkuatkan sesuatu tingkah laku menerusi pemberian kesan segera selepas tingkah laku yang dikehendaki itu berlaku. Apabila tingkah laku itu telah diperkuatkan, ia semakin kerap berlaku pada masa hadapan.

* Tingkah laku yang diperkuatkan itu dinamakan sebagai tingkah laku operan

* Kesan segera yang digunakan untuk memperkuatkan tingkah laku itu dinamakan sebagai peneguh.

Contoh penggunaan peneguhan dan kesan kepada tingkah laku sasaran

•A child cries at night after being put to bed and her parents come to her room to comfort her and calm her down. As a result, the child now cries more often at bedtimes.

•A college student is answering study guide questions for her behavior modification class. When she can’t figure out an answer to a question, she ask her friend who already took the class. Her friend tells her the correct answers. As a results, she is more likely to ask her friend for answer to questions she does,/t know.

3. A woman waiting for a bus opens up her umbrella when its rains………………………………..

4. A teacher smiles at Johnny and praise him when he stays in his seat and pays attention in the classroom………………………

Days

Freq

uenc

y B

ehav

ior

10

8

6

4

5

05 10 20

Baseline Treatment

Kesan Peneguhan

Peneguhan Positif dan Peneguhan Negatif

Keperluan – To increase the probability that the behavior will

occur in the future

Peneguhan Positif:- The occurance of a behavior

- is followed by the addition of stimulus or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus. The stimulus is called Reinforcer Stimulus- which result in the strengthening of the behavior

- Eg:

Response Consequence

Child tentrums in the store And immediately Mum gives him candy

Prinsip PREMACK

Sejenis peneguhan positif.

Kaedah:

Menghubungkan tingkah laku yang tinggi kemungkinan (tingkah laku sasaran), yang menjadi pergantungan tingkah laku laku yang rendah kemungkinan (tingkah laku yang bukan sasaran) bagi meningkatkan tingkah laku yang rendah kemungkinan tersebut.

Cth:

Ibubapa mahu anak lelaki(remaja) menyiapkan kerja sekolah (kurang sasaran) sebelum dia boleh pergi bermain bola (tingkah laku sasaran)

Peneguhan Negatif:- The occurance of a behavior

- is followed by the removal of stimulus or the decrease in the intensity of a stimulus. The stimulus is called

aversive stimulus)- which result in the strengthening of the behavior

eg:

Respond

Consequence

Mun buys he child candy when

he tantrums in the store

And immediately The child stops the tantrum

Tingkah laku mengelak (Escape) dan menafikan (Avoidance))

Tingkah yang berlaku kerana hendak mengelak dan menafikan peneguhan negatif

T/laku mengelak (Escape Behavior ) = The behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred

Tingkah laku menafikan (Aviodence Behavior) = The occurrence of the behavior prevent the presentation of an aversive stimulus.

Cth Escape behavior:A person steps barefoot on the hot asphalt and immediately steps on the grass. Steeping onto the grass result in escape from the heat of the hot asphalt.Cth Avoidance Behavior:A persons put on the shoes the next time she walks on the hot asphalt. Wearing shoes results in avoidance of the heat from the hot asphalt

PeneguhBenda/peristiwa/perkara yang digunakan dalam proses peneguhan

Peneguh tak terlazim = unconditioned reinforcers The natural reinforcement. They have biological importance. (or called as primary reinforcers / unlearned reinforcers)

Eg: food for a hungry persons / water for a thirsty person

Peneguh terlazim = conditioned reinforcers

( a stimulus that was once neutral but became established as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer OR an already established conditioned

reinforcers ( Its called as secondary reinforcer / learned reinforcers)

Eg: praise, television programs

Peneguh sokongan = backup reinforcers

(A stimulus becomes a reinforcers through associated with other reinforcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers. Backup reinforcers can be either unconditioned reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers

Klasifikasi peneguh

Consumable - items that can eat or drink ( cookies, candy,fruit)

activity – opportunities to watch televisyen, look at the picture book

Manipulative – ride a bicycle, surt the internet / play with favorite things

possessional – private room, enjoy some other item that one can posses

Social – affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nod smiles …

( A considerable amount of trial and error may be involved in finding an

appropriate reinforcers for particular individual)

Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan peneguhan

Immediacy – It should occurred immediately after the behavior occurs.

Contingency – when a behavior occur consistently followed by reinforcer

Establishing operations – The events or actions that change the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer ( food is more powerful reinforcer for a person who hasn’t eaten). The establishing operations can influence by:

Deprivation – a type of establishing operation that increase the effectiveness of most unconditioned and some conditioned reinforcers

Satiation - a type of establishing operation that makes a stimulus less potent as a reinforcer.

Instructions / rules – function as a establishing operation.

Characteristics of the consequence – the person / amount or intensity of stimulus

Peneguh kepada pekerja

Special Attention

Praise (praise in front of others) / Reserved parking park / flexible job duties / choice of work partner / …..Company time

Extra break time / choice working hours or days off / Extra meal time/ …...

Monetrary

Promotions / paid days off / company car / pay for sicks day not taken / gift certificates / business cards / tickets for special events…….

Participant

Voice in policy decision / more responsibility / opportunity to learn new skills /…….

Jadual Peneguhan

Pemberian peneguhan lebih berkesan jika diberi secara bersistematik/ berjadual

Klasifikasi Jadual Peneguhan

Jadual Peneguhan Berterusan (CRF) – one in which each occurrence of response is reinforced

Jadual Peneguhan Intermiten (IRF) – responses are occisonally / intermittently reinforced.

Jenis-jenis Jadual

Fixed ratio (FR) = Reinforcer delivered after a certain number of responses. Produces high rate of behavior, with a pause after reinforcement.

(Fixed ratio 5 (5FR) = the reinforcer follow every fifth response)

Variable ratio (VR) = Reinforcer delivered after an average of X responses. Produces high and steady rate of behavior, with no pause after reinforcement

(Variable ratio 10 (VR 10) = the ratio provided after an average of 10 responses)

Fixes interval (FI) = Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time. Produces a low rate of behavior, with an on-0ff pattern The response rate increases near the end of the interval.

Fixed interval 20 (FI20) = the first response that occurs after 20 seconds has elapsed results in the reinforcer.

Variable interval (VI) = Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a variable interval of time. Produces a steady, low to moderate rate of behavior, with no on and off pattern

Variable interval 20 second (VI 20 second) = sometimes the interval is more than 20 seconds and other times is less than 20 seconds.