PragmaticsPresupposition & Entailment

Presupposition

Definition

Types of Presupposition

Some common Presupposition triggers

Entailment

Definition

Characteristic

Background vs. Foreground entailment

Subtypes of entailment

Presupposition

Definition

Types

Context

1.Definition:

- Presuppositions are implications that are often felt to be in the background — to be assumed by the speaker to be already known to the addressee

Presupposition

• For example: a. The king of France is bald.

         b. The king of France is not bald.          c. Is the king of France bald?         d. If the king of France is bald, he should wear a hat in the winter .

There is a king of France.

Example : Mary’s brother bought three horses

• Presupposition:

Mary exists, Mary has a brother, Mary has only one brother, Mary’s brother is rich.

= speaker’s subjective presupposition, all can be wrong.

• Entailment:

Mary’s brother buy something, bought three animal, two horses, one horse etc.

= the speaker’s beliefs are right or wrong

2.Types2.Types

1. Existential2. Factive3. Lexical 4. Structural 5. Non-Factive6. Counterfactual

2.1 Existential presupposition

• - Speaker is committed to the existence of the entities named

The King of France

the cat

the girl next door

your car

2.2 Factive presupposition

• Certain verbs/construction indicate that something is a fact.

• Example

- We REGRET telling him >>> we told him

- She didn’t REALIZE he was ill >> he was ill

- I’m GLAD it’s over >> it’s over

2.3. Lexical presupposition

is the assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning (word) will be understood.

Examples

She pretended that he had understood  what she meant.

He used to run.4

Andrew stopped running.

You are late again.

You were late before.4

2.4. Structural presupposition

is the assumption associated with the use of certain words and phrases.

Examples

• Wh-question in English are conventionally

interpreted with the presupposition that the

information after the wh-form (e.g. when and

where) is already known to be the case.

Examples

She pretended that he had understood  what she meant.

>> she traveled 4

When did she travel to the USA?

Where did you buy the book?

>> you bought the book4

A non – factive presupposition

Is one that is assumed not to be true.

Examples

She pretended that he had understood  what she meant.

He did not understand what she meant.4

She pretended that he had understood  what she meant.

I imagined that Kelly was ill.

Kelly was not ill4

A counter – factual presupposition

Meaning that what is presupposed is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or “ contrary to facts.”

Counterfactual conditional

Ex : If I had enough money, I would buy that house. → I do not have enough money

If he hadn’t made such a terrible mistake, we would be very happy now.

→ He did make/made a terrible mistake.

An If clause → a complete statement

1

Ex :

They wish they could go on vacation now.

→ They cannot go on vacation now.

I wish I had studied medicine.

→ I did not study medicine.

An embedded clause after wish ⇒ a complete statement

2

Ex:

You shouldn’t have seen such a horror film.

→ You did see/saw a horror film.

You could have talked to the dean.

→ You did not talk to the dean.

A clause with a modal perfect verb form  ⇒ a complete statement

3

Some common Presupposition triggers

Presupposition triggers

Examples

Definite descriptions my son, the boss, Mike

Factive predicates count, make sense, matter, know, regret, realise, resent, find out, discover, see, notice, be aware that, be proud that,…

Counter-factual conditionals

If, unless, without,…

Change of state verbs begin, start, stop, finish, cease, continue, carry on, cease, take, leave, enter, come, go, arrive

Temporal clauses before, while, since, after, during, whenever..

Cleft sentences It is/was …. which/ whom/ that…

Questions Who, what, when, …

Definition of Entailment

a relationship that applies between two sentences/

propositions, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other

because of the meaning of the words involved

a relationship that applies between two sentences/

propositions, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other

because of the meaning of the words involved

Characteristic

• logical consequences following from what is asserted in the utterance

• Sentences, not speakers, have entailments

e.g. a) John beats Tom.

=> b) John beats someone.

c) Tom was beaten by someone.

a) true => b) & c) true

1.2 Characteristic

• Entailments depend on sentence meaning, not the context in which the sentence is used.

• Entailment also happens when one set of objects is included in another. It may be seen as a kind of hyponymic relation.

e.g. Mary loves her dog very much.

=> Mary loves an animal very much.

dog: hyponymy

animal: superordinate

Characteristic

• Entailments can also involves the use of determiners. This is simply the relation of inclusion.

e.g. Every student loves learning English.

=> Most students love learning English.

Characteristic

• logical consequences following from what is asserted in the utterance

• Sentences, not speakers, have entailments

e.g. a) John beats Tom.

=> b) John beats someone.

c) Tom was beaten by someone.

a) true => b) & c) true

Background vs. Foreground entailment

• In one occasion, one sentence can has a number of background entailments but one foreground entailment.

• Foreground entailments which is defined by stress, is more important for interpreting intended meaning.

• e.g.

• Rover chased three squirrels.

=>Rover chased a certain number of squirrels.

• Rover chased three squirrels.

=>Someone chased three squirrels.

• Rover chased three squirrels.

=>Rover chased something.

Subtypes of entailment

Entailment

Assertion Presupposition

Assertion

• A declarative sentence typically asserts that a state of affair exists.