• 84-89% of errors involve vowels (Bowen

2008; Randall & Groom 2009; Dunlap 2012),…

• especially back vowels and schwa (Haggan 1991; Tajeldin 2011; Vaddappalli 2012).

• ability to recognize omitted vowels is 67.13%.

• ability to recall the correct vowel to spell a word is 59.11% (Saigh & Schmitt 2012)