Why Johnny Can’t Solve Problems

The Problem with US Education and What Video Games Have to Do with It

The International Benchmarking ConferenceMarch 2, 2012

Atrium Theatre, The Roblin CentreWinnipeg Manitoba, Canada

Richard Van EckAssociate Professor, University of North Dakota

richard.vaneck@und.edu

Quotations taken from Academically Adrift, by Richard Arum & Josipa Roksa, 2011, University of Chicago, p. 35.

“. . . critical thinking . . . is the hallmark of American education . . . .”

American Association of University Professors, 2005

“[Foreign students should take advantage of] the creativity and diversity of American higher education, its focus on critical thinking, and it unparalleled access to world-class research”

–Margaret Spellings, US Secretary of Education, 2008

“. . . developing a student’s ability to think critically is ‘very important’ or ‘essential.’

99% of college faculty, 2009

Quotations taken from Academically Adrift, by Richard Arum & Josipa Roksa, 2011, University of Chicago, p. 36.

“With a large sample of more than 2,300 students, we observe no statistically significant gains in critical thinking, complex reasoning, and writing skills for at least 45 percent of the student in our study.”

–Arum & Roksa, 2011

“. . . analyzing data for more than three thousand students from nineteen institutions, this study found that students have made no measurable improvement in critical thinking skills during their first year in college.”

–Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education, 2007

The United States Ranks 29th of 40 in Percentage of Students at Each Level of Problem Solving. Only 40% are at or above level 2.

–Problem Solving for Tomorrow, PISA 2003

Why Is This Happening?

Arum & RoksaAccess for AllLack of rigor and preparation in high school

ALSO a matter of experience in earlier grades

Typical School Day in the US

Pianta et al., March 30, 2007 (Science, 315)

Learning in grades 1, 3, and 51,000 students recruited at birth10 cities2,500 classrooms1,000 elementary schools400 districts

ContentBasic skills vs. problem solving

5:1 for fifth; 10:1 for first & third

7% math PS; 11% science

Technology: 2%Richness of methods

Single method91% whole-group/independent

Typical School Day in the US

The Problem With Problem Solving

What do we MEAN by problem solving?Do we know how to DO it?Will our schools SUPPORT it?

Is global warming caused by humans?Are we past the tipping point?

How do we stop or reverse the trend?

Complex Problems & Systems

BostonChicago

If Train A leaves Boston traveling at 60kph, and

Train B leaves Chicago at the same time, traveling at 72kph, then

at what point along their 1628 kilometer journey will they meet?

...or This:

Anyone know the answer?

WHO CARES?

What IS a Good Problem?

Two critical attributes of any problem (Jonassen, 2002)The unknown (goal requires generation of new knowledge)A value to learner in solving the problem

We’re only half-rightNo value in the problems we have students solveGames can tell us a lot about creating value

Games = Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based LearningGoal of game is a problem to be solved

Zoo wolves (police) or werewolves (townspeople)Observe & gather information

Explore environment to gather evidence Farm: Fur, paw printZoo: Fur, data on animals

Formulate hypothesesWolves easiest to testDisprove wolves = evidence for werewolves

Test hypothesesDNA of fur, analysis of paw print disproves wolves, BUT......does not PROVE Werewolves

Revise hypothesesHow to prove or disprove werewolves?

Evidence for Games and Problem Solving

Games are as predictive of academic success as homework is

ETR&D Article, in pressReview of Education Longitudinal Study of 200215,400 grade 10 students across 750 high schools in 2002 & 2004

Evidence for promotion of problem-solving(e.g., Chen & O’Neil, 2008 ; Fery & Ponserre, 2001; Lee Plass, & Homer, 2006; Van Eck & Dempsey, 2002)

Why do they work?

Games & Problem Solving

Games have an unknown and a value to the learner (Jonassen)

Requires short- and long-term goal settingPositive correlation with learningImproves self-efficacy, which is also correlated with learning (Bandura, 1997)

Situated Cognition & Learning

Games situate all learning within meaningful, authentic contexts (Situated Cognition, Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989)

Goal (unknown) drives everythingEverything learned is relevant and applied

Area of a Rectangle: Length x WidthPerimeter of a Rectangle: (Length x 2) + (Width x 2)

Length

Wid

th

Games Manage Challenge

Too Hard

Too Easy

ZPDJust Right

Games Promote Question AskingImproves learning (e.g., Graesser & Person, 1994; Otero & Graesser, 2001; Graesser et al., 1999)

Games Generate Cognitive Disequilibrium (Piaget)

Problem Solving

EngagementToo Hard

Too Easy

ZPD

Games Promote Perseverance Through EngagementSituated problem solving within ZPD

So What?

So if we want to promote problem solving and critical thinking, we have to understand:

What problems areHow to design themHow to situate them in meaningful contextsHow to promote question asking, cognitive disequilibriumHow to manage challengeHow to promote perseverance

Games are a good strategy and a good model

What’s The Problem?

Games and problems are not created equalWorld of Warcraft ≠ TetrisTrains A & B ≠ Global Warming

Have to know what is going on during gameplay that helps or hinders learningHave to map problem typology to game typology

Problem DimensionsIf games are problems, will share key problem characteristicsProblems vary along three dimensions

Problem StructurednessCognitive Composition/Reasoning Type (logical, analytical, strategic, analogical, systems, metacognitive)Required Domain Knowledge

Games should vary along the same dimensionsDifferent types of gameplay should support different types of problems

Grids of Interactivity (iGrids)

Hung, W., & Van Eck, R. (2010). Aligning problem solving and gameplay: A model for future research and design, In Richard Van Eck (Ed) Interdisciplinary models and tools for serious games: Emerging

concepts and future directions, Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

How to capture different types of gameplay? “The smallest unit of interactivity is the choice” (Mark Wolf, 2006)

Action GamesiGrids are archetypes

PlatoThe idealDoes not imply lack of variation

FPS & Sports GamesCall of Duty and Madden 10?Superficial “story” is irrelevantShare key characteristics of gameplay (iGrids), cognitive, structural, and domain requirements

Simulation GamesApperley (2006): puts SimCity and sports games together

Sports better characterized as Action

Frasca (2003): any game that simulates real-world activities

Makes SimCity and Flight Sim the same game

Flight simulator: Simulation Game (a test of coordination of perception, cognition, and muscular control)SimCity: Strategy Game (a test of ability to optimize system by strategically balancing factors)

iGrids for Other GamesStrategy Adventure Role-Playing

Puzzles

Problem Typology11 different problem types (Jonassen, 2000)

Logical problem Algorithm problemStory problemRule-use problemDecision-making problemTroubleshooting problemDiagnosis-solution problemStrategic performance problemCase analysis problemDesign problemDilemma problem

Most-least structure; Least-most complexity

Have to understand what KIND of problem solving we are interested in

Dim

en

sion

1Le

ast

<=

==

Str

uct

ure

==

=>

Most

Domain Knowledge

Cognitive Composition

Dimension 3 Dimension 2

Hung, W., & Van Eck, R. (2010). Aligning problem solving and gameplay: A model for future research and design, In Richard Van Eck (Ed) Interdisciplinary models and tools for serious games: Emerging concepts and future directions, Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Problem-Solving GameMythical town, secret group solving ecological problemsNSESScientific Problem Solving

Scientific method + Engineering methodIdentify problems, propose solutions, get buy-in, implement, evaluate

*Van Eck, R. Hung, W., Bowman, F., & Love, S. (2010). 21st Century Game Design: A Model and Prototype for Promoting Scientific Problem Solving. Proceedings of the International Association of Science and Technology for Development’s annual Computers and Advanced Technology in Education conference, November 22–24, 2009, US Virgin Islands, Calgary, Canada: IASTED.

But Are Schools Ready?

Situating Complex Problems

Authentic problem solving takes time and crosses domainsCommercial games and simulations are expensiveEducational games and simulations are few and far betweenAre we ready for 4-hour cross-disciplinary blocks?Are we ready to invest in training and interactive models?

Engagement

Not used to designing for engagementUnknown plus VALUE to the learner in solvingAre we ready to design for value, relevance, and engagement?

Individualized InstructionToo Hard

Too Easy

ZPD

Lowest Common DenominatorOptimizing challenge means working at different paceAre we ready for some to finish 3rd grade in 2 months, others in 2 years?

Parting Thoughts

No exaggerationProblem solving comes with requirementsNo halfway measuresMust acknowledge the implications and design accordingly