Women in informal sector (2)

Female Workers in Female Workers in Unorganized Sector: Unorganized Sector:

Sociological Analysis of Sociological Analysis of GenderGender Inequality Inequality

““I work all the time, all the days…I work all the time, all the days…there is no escape from the grind there is no escape from the grind of work” (a woman’s answer to of work” (a woman’s answer to the question “what do you do?” the question “what do you do?”

““My wife does not work. She is at My wife does not work. She is at home” (a man’s answer to the home” (a man’s answer to the question “what does your wife question “what does your wife do?”)do?”)

The two responses cutting The two responses cutting across the boundaries of caste, across the boundaries of caste, class and religion, a pointer to class and religion, a pointer to the complex nature of women’s the complex nature of women’s work.work.

In fact, women’s work sustains In fact, women’s work sustains societysociety..

Women run households, rear Women run households, rear children, care the aged and the children, care the aged and the sick, toil on farms & in factories, sick, toil on farms & in factories, and perform economic & non-and perform economic & non-economic activities within economic activities within families.families.

They are seen at work in offices, They are seen at work in offices, factories and farms, bust most factories and farms, bust most times, their working hands remain times, their working hands remain invisible.invisible.

Their work is taken for granted Their work is taken for granted and their to survival/betterment and their to survival/betterment of family and society is regarded a of family and society is regarded a natural outcome of their caring, natural outcome of their caring, nuturing and self-effacing nature.nuturing and self-effacing nature.

After Independence, it was the After Independence, it was the historic report ‘Towards Equality’ historic report ‘Towards Equality’ (Report of the Committee on the (Report of the Committee on the Status of Women, 1974) which Status of Women, 1974) which highlighted the neglect of women’s highlighted the neglect of women’s contribution towards economic contribution towards economic activities, especially in the activities, especially in the unorganized sector.unorganized sector.

In the ancient times, as well In the ancient times, as well as in the modern world, as in the modern world,

women workers have always women workers have always formed a major part of the formed a major part of the

working population. working population.

However, in ancient times, However, in ancient times, and as well as in the modern and as well as in the modern

era, women have been era, women have been subjugated to various kinds subjugated to various kinds

of exploitation in the of exploitation in the organized and unorganized organized and unorganized

sectors.sectors.

women had a traditional role women had a traditional role in economic life, where they in economic life, where they played a significant role in played a significant role in

production and marketing of production and marketing of their petty commodities. their petty commodities. commercial enterprises.commercial enterprises.

The economic production of The economic production of women can be broadly women can be broadly

divided into two sectors, viz divided into two sectors, viz Organized and Unorganized. Organized and Unorganized.

The Report of the Committee The Report of the Committee on Status of Women in India on Status of Women in India (CSWI) has drawn particular (CSWI) has drawn particular attention to the condition of attention to the condition of women in the unorganized women in the unorganized

sector.sector.

Though there are disparities Though there are disparities between people from rural and between people from rural and

urban sectors, between the urban sectors, between the educated and the uneducated, and educated and the uneducated, and other standard classifications of the other standard classifications of the

population used in measuring population used in measuring inequality, inequality,

Women are expected to fulfill Women are expected to fulfill responsibilities both within responsibilities both within

and outside the home. and outside the home.

Cooking is exclusively a Cooking is exclusively a woman’s job, that also woman’s job, that also involves in rural India. involves in rural India.

Besides Cooking, Besides Cooking, the processing of the grain grown the processing of the grain grown or brought is done by women,or brought is done by women,along with the other household jobs.along with the other household jobs.

The plantation jobs seem The plantation jobs seem specially to be cut out for specially to be cut out for women . During the rainy women . During the rainy season, a woman gets up season, a woman gets up early in the morning and early in the morning and

cooks food before leaving for cooks food before leaving for the field. In the evening, she the field. In the evening, she

has to cook again. has to cook again.

Weeding is another exclusive Weeding is another exclusive female job. female job.

They have to look after the They have to look after the domestic animals. domestic animals.

But they are not paid for such in-But they are not paid for such in-house jobs. house jobs.

Even she works very hard, she is Even she works very hard, she is deprived of the rightful wages. deprived of the rightful wages.

They are the worst victims of They are the worst victims of wage disparity due to the wage disparity due to the

unorganized nature of unorganized nature of employment. They work for employment. They work for the family & beyond it. The the family & beyond it. The ‘Minimum wage Act’ is not ‘Minimum wage Act’ is not properly implemented for properly implemented for

women in India. women in India.

They are illiterate and They are illiterate and ignorant of their rights and ignorant of their rights and

find it difficult to join find it difficult to join industries as casual labour. industries as casual labour.

Thus, women labourers are Thus, women labourers are financially handicapped and financially handicapped and

are victims of poverty. are victims of poverty.

The concept of ‘informal’ or The concept of ‘informal’ or ‘unorganized’ sector is ‘unorganized’ sector is

difficult to define precisely. difficult to define precisely.

The informal sector has The informal sector has largely been defined by using largely been defined by using the formal sector as a model. the formal sector as a model.

Most often ‘informal sector’ is Most often ‘informal sector’ is defined negatively by defined negatively by

pointing out the absence of pointing out the absence of characteristics that belong to characteristics that belong to

the formal activities.the formal activities.

Informal sector lacks the Informal sector lacks the following characteristics of following characteristics of labour market :-labour market :-

job security, regularity of job security, regularity of work; better earnings; work; better earnings; existence of wage, long term existence of wage, long term benefits; protective legislation benefits; protective legislation and union protectionand union protection

According to the According to the ‘International Labour ‘International Labour

Organization’ (ILO), jobs in Organization’ (ILO), jobs in the informal sector inclusive the informal sector inclusive

of these domestic sector, of these domestic sector, occasional workers and non-occasional workers and non-

remunerative family remunerative family workers. workers.

Characteristics of unorganized Characteristics of unorganized sectorsector Ignorance of tradition bound attitudes Ignorance of tradition bound attitudes

Illiteracy Illiteracy

Lack of skill Lack of skill

Seasonal nature of employment Seasonal nature of employment Heavy physical work at different times Heavy physical work at different times

Long hours of work with limited paymentsLong hours of work with limited payments

Discrimination in wage structures of men and womenDiscrimination in wage structures of men and women

Characteristics of unorganized Characteristics of unorganized sectorsector

Lack of job securityLack of job security Minimum wages Minimum wages

Lack of comprehensive legislation Lack of comprehensive legislation to cover the workers in the to cover the workers in the unorganized sectorsunorganized sectors

Competition in employment and the Competition in employment and the resultant deprival of minimum resultant deprival of minimum wagewage

Characteristics of unorganized Characteristics of unorganized sectorsector

Lack of minimum facilities Lack of minimum facilities at the work placeat the work place

Ill-treatment bondage Ill-treatment bondage

AlienationAlienation

These jobs offer no attraction These jobs offer no attraction but require a great deal of but require a great deal of

physical labour.physical labour.

women continue to search for women continue to search for these jobs for their livelihood these jobs for their livelihood

over the years only to survive in over the years only to survive in the larger world of poverty, the larger world of poverty,

ignorance and ignorance and ill-health. ill-health.

Women’s employment in the Women’s employment in the informal sector is likely to rise informal sector is likely to rise due to various reasons with due to various reasons with

the adoption of the structural the adoption of the structural adjustment program.adjustment program.

. .

Women tend to loose ground Women tend to loose ground in the formal sectors of the in the formal sectors of the economy. economy.

The growth of industrial The growth of industrial employment through sub-employment through sub-contracting appears to be contracting appears to be gaining importance.gaining importance.

Stagnation and falling Stagnation and falling incomes of household dues to incomes of household dues to

poor performance of the poor performance of the economy.economy.

It also leads to an increased It also leads to an increased entry of women into the entry of women into the

labour market. labour market.

Increase in the employment in Increase in the employment in the informal sectors can lead to :the informal sectors can lead to :

1. Globalization1. Globalization

2. Export – oriented 2. Export – oriented industrializationindustrialization

3. Relocation of industries from 3. Relocation of industries from developed to developing developed to developing countries countries

Women workers in urban Women workers in urban unorganised sector can be unorganised sector can be

broadly grouped into the broadly grouped into the ‘self ‘self employed’employed’ and the and the ‘wage ‘wage

employed’employed’..

Among the self employed Among the self employed there are those engaged in there are those engaged in papad making, embroidery papad making, embroidery

work, sari work envelop work, sari work envelop making making beedi beedi making, making,

agarbatti making, match agarbatti making, match splints making retail trading, splints making retail trading, waste paper collection and so waste paper collection and so

on. on.

The wage employed are The wage employed are mostly skilled, semiskilled, mostly skilled, semiskilled,

unskilled and casual workers unskilled and casual workers and contract workers in and contract workers in construction activities, construction activities,

industrial and commercial industrial and commercial enterprises,enterprises,

There are workers who are There are workers who are paid on piece rate basis, and paid on piece rate basis, and lastly, there are paid living lastly, there are paid living full-time domestic servants, full-time domestic servants, child attendants working in child attendants working in different middle class for a different middle class for a

fixed payment. fixed payment.

The majority of women The majority of women workers in the urban informal workers in the urban informal

sector are migrant families sector are migrant families who left the distant home on who left the distant home on account national calamities account national calamities

like drought, or the like drought, or the compulsions of employment compulsions of employment

or marriage or wage or marriage or wage differential between the differential between the

urban and sectors. urban and sectors.

Women, in India, have been Women, in India, have been engaged in a large number of engaged in a large number of agricultural operations, like agricultural operations, like

securing weeding, harvesting securing weeding, harvesting and as part farming, animal and as part farming, animal

husbandry too. husbandry too.

The participation of women in The participation of women in agriculture is higher in all the agriculture is higher in all the southern states, very low in southern states, very low in West Bengal where it is a West Bengal where it is a

taboo for women to be taboo for women to be engaged in fieldwork.engaged in fieldwork.

Though women play an Though women play an important role in agriculture important role in agriculture both as cultivators and as both as cultivators and as

agricultural labourers, women agricultural labourers, women workers are paid less than workers are paid less than

men. men.

The work of the Indian worker The work of the Indian worker farm labourers is seasonal farm labourers is seasonal

and they have to find and they have to find avenues for employing avenues for employing

themselves during the off – themselves during the off – season in other activities for season in other activities for

income generation .income generation .

‘‘Street vendors’Street vendors’ are another are another category of informal workers category of informal workers that are difficult to capture that are difficult to capture

and measure. There are two and measure. There are two kinds of street vendors – kinds of street vendors –

those with fixed location and those with fixed location and those without fixed location those without fixed location

but mobile, like the vegetable but mobile, like the vegetable sellers. sellers.

Home-based workers form a Home-based workers form a broader category of workers broader category of workers in the informal sector, within in the informal sector, within which the home workers are which the home workers are

included. included.

Women participating or Women participating or engaged in domestic work engaged in domestic work

and duties are, excluded from and duties are, excluded from ‘work; and ‘labour force’ ‘work; and ‘labour force’

participation measurement, participation measurement, leading to a miserable leading to a miserable working and economic working and economic

conditions of these women conditions of these women workers.workers.

A large number of women A large number of women workers are employed in the workers are employed in the

construction many women work construction many women work as artisans in trades like as artisans in trades like

decoration of cloth, coir making, decoration of cloth, coir making, care, are bamboo craft, dying care, are bamboo craft, dying

and bleaching of textiles, and bleaching of textiles, earthenware, reed making earthenware, reed making

artistic leather ware, weaver and artistic leather ware, weaver and paper making. paper making.

Women also play a dominant Women also play a dominant role in ‘dairy farming’ or role in ‘dairy farming’ or

operation that is carried out operation that is carried out mostly within the households, mostly within the households,

like milking, feeding and like milking, feeding and bathing of animals, bathing of animals,

processing of milk and processing of milk and cleaning of cattle sheds and cleaning of cattle sheds and

most importantly in most importantly in processing milk. processing milk.

Women are mostly affected Women are mostly affected by changes in mechanisation. by changes in mechanisation. The employment of manual The employment of manual

workers is reduced and workers is reduced and women are generally women are generally

replaced by men; for instance replaced by men; for instance in the agricultural sector in the agricultural sector

where technology has where technology has substituted machinery for substituted machinery for

manual labour. manual labour.

Globalisation also leads to the Globalisation also leads to the casualisation of the work force. casualisation of the work force.

The number of employment The number of employment opportunities created by opportunities created by

casualisation certainly is more, casualisation certainly is more, but are unsecured and low paid.but are unsecured and low paid.

Globalisation has created Globalisation has created new employment opportunities new employment opportunities

for women without loss for for women without loss for anyone else. anyone else.

Problems and DifficultiesProblems and Difficulties

Though the contribution of these Though the contribution of these women workers in informal sector is women workers in informal sector is no less important they have to face no less important they have to face a variety of problems and difficulties:a variety of problems and difficulties:

1.1. women workers are paid less not women workers are paid less not enough to feed herself and her enough to feed herself and her family. Gender-based wage family. Gender-based wage disparities exist across all sections disparities exist across all sections and all occupations. and all occupations.


2.2. Manufacturing sectors Manufacturing sectors appears to be the most appears to be the most discriminatory towards discriminatory towards women coupled with gender women coupled with gender discrimination in inequality discrimination in inequality in access to superior in access to superior positions and promotions. positions and promotions.


3.Women workers are usually termed as 3.Women workers are usually termed as unskilled on their learned skills are in unskilled on their learned skills are in some way connected to care and some way connected to care and reproduction which are after not reproduction which are after not regarded as skills at all. Their education regarded as skills at all. Their education level is too comparatively low. But the level is too comparatively low. But the coming of globalisation, new technologies coming of globalisation, new technologies and just changing markets tend to make and just changing markets tend to make existing skills absolute and require existing skills absolute and require upgradation, new skills, and multi-skills. upgradation, new skills, and multi-skills.


4. The exploration by middleman or 4. The exploration by middleman or contractors, is common among the contractors, is common among the women working in the informal women working in the informal sector. For millions in the sector. For millions in the unorganised sector social security unorganised sector social security measures continues to be a missing measures continues to be a missing link in their struggle for survival. link in their struggle for survival.


5.5. There is no provision There is no provision far ‘Child Care’ and far ‘Child Care’ and ‘material leave’ where ‘material leave’ where caused a negative affect caused a negative affect on the health of both on the health of both mother and child.mother and child.

Women workers are Women workers are considered to be the wealth considered to be the wealth

of a nation and therefore, she of a nation and therefore, she needs social security, decent needs social security, decent life, a share in the prosperity life, a share in the prosperity of nation and the dream of a of nation and the dream of a

good life for her children. good life for her children.

Suggestion for ImprovementSuggestion for Improvement

The minimum wage legislation The minimum wage legislation may strictly be implemented. may strictly be implemented. Guidelines should be issued to Guidelines should be issued to commercial banks to make commercial banks to make provision of certain amount provision of certain amount exclusively for women who are exclusively for women who are working under various self-working under various self-employed schemes. employed schemes.


Co-operatives should be Co-operatives should be opened in cities to provide opened in cities to provide financial support. Besides, the financial support. Besides, the self-employed women worker self-employed women worker should be given recognition should be given recognition through issue of cards or through issue of cards or licenses. licenses.


Furthermore, any scheme of Furthermore, any scheme of social security to benefit social security to benefit women workers mush be women workers mush be decentralized, flexible, user-decentralized, flexible, user-responsive, contributory and responsive, contributory and open to multifinancing, keeping open to multifinancing, keeping in mind their special needs.in mind their special needs.

Thus, the women working in Thus, the women working in the informal and unorganized the informal and unorganized sector must be given all form sector must be given all form of support financial, political, of support financial, political,

legal and social. legal and social.

In most cases, the women in In most cases, the women in the informal sectors are the informal sectors are

subjected to various kinds of subjected to various kinds of exploration, but it is the exploration, but it is the

responsibility of the responsibility of the Government and the Public in Government and the Public in

general to counter such general to counter such exploration.exploration.

Women contribute immensely to Women contribute immensely to the welfare of the family. With the welfare of the family. With soaring prices more and more soaring prices more and more women are seeking paid women are seeking paid employment to make both ends employment to make both ends meet.meet.

Unfortunately those who took Unfortunately those who took voluntary retirement are voluntary retirement are competing for the casual jobs competing for the casual jobs which were once the prerogative which were once the prerogative of uneducated, illiterate, of uneducated, illiterate, unskilled workers including unskilled workers including women.women.

With limited employment With limited employment opportunities for the men folk, opportunities for the men folk, and gross under-employment and gross under-employment due to want of opportunities, due to want of opportunities, now the burden of maintaining now the burden of maintaining the family has fallen on women.the family has fallen on women.

With feminization of labour force With feminization of labour force they find employment they find employment opportunity and work under opportunity and work under exploitative conditions for exploitative conditions for pittance.pittance.

But these grim realities are just But these grim realities are just taken for granted as a temporary taken for granted as a temporary phenomenon which is bound to phenomenon which is bound to be witness during the transition be witness during the transition period from mixed economy to period from mixed economy to market economy.market economy.

If one wants to be realistic one If one wants to be realistic one has to remember’….. the poorer has to remember’….. the poorer the family, the greater its the family, the greater its dependence on women’s dependence on women’s economic productivity…..economic productivity…..

THANK YOUTHANK YOU

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Women in informal sector (2)