Stone

Earth Crust Rock Stone

Classification of Rock

1. Geological Classification a) Igneous rocks

b) Sedimentary rocks

c) Metamorphic rocks

2. Physical Classification

a) Stratified rocks

b) Non-stratified rocks

c) Foliated rocks 3. Chemical Classification

a) Siliceous rocks

b) Argillaceous rocks

c) Calcareous rocks

Stone is a natural solid formation of one or many

minerals.

There are thousands of types of stone that have been

quarried through the centuries.

Quarries are located all around the world.

STONES

QUARRYING OF STONES

While selecting a quarry site, the points to be borne in mind

are

Availability of sufficient quantity of the stone of desired

quality

Proper transportation facilities

Cheap local labor

Problems associated with drainage of rain water

Location of important and permanent structures in the

vicinity and site for dumping refuse

Stone quarrying (self study)

1. Quarrying with hand tools.

2. Quarrying with channeling machine.

3. Quarrying by blasting.

Seasoning of Stone

A freshly cut stone carries some natural

moisture known as quarry sap making it

soft and workable. The quarry sap is a

mineral solution and reacts chemically

with the mineral constituents when the

stone is exposed to atmosphere after

quarrying. The stone becomes harder and

compact.

Why stone is losing popularity as a building material?

1. Dressing of stones is tedious, laborious and time consuming.

2. Desired strength and quality not available at moderate rates

especially in plain areas.

3. RCC, Steel are alternatives to stones and gives more strength and

flexibility.

4. Stone structure design can’t give freeness and flexibility to the

designer.

Characteristic of good building stone

Appearance- For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-coloured stone is preferred as dark colors are likely to fade out in due course of time.

Structure - A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material.

Strength - A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of weather. Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2.

Hardness- This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc. coefficient of hardness should me more than 14.

Toughness - The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness. The value of toughness index must be more than 13.

Specific Gravity – it should be more than 2.7.

Fire Resistant – it depend upon mineral composition of rock. Lime stone resist fire upto 600C.

Water Absorption – For good stone percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours should not exceed 0.60.

Testing of Stone Acid test - to check weather resistance-100 g of stone

chips are kept in a 5 per cent solution of H2SO4 or HCI for 3 days. Then the chips are taken out and dried. The sharp and firm corners and edges are indication of sound stone. This test is used to test the cementing material of sand stone.

Smith test - Break off the freshly quarried stone hipping to about the size of a rupee coin and put them in a glass of clean water, one-third full. If the water becomes lightly cloudy, the stone is good and durable

Attrition test

To find out the rate of wear of stone which are used in road

construction

Instrument – Deval’s attrition test machine

Sample size – 60mm

Amount of sample – 50N

Duration of test – 5 hours for 30 R.P.M

Size of sieve - 1.5mm

Percentage wear = Loss in weight X 100/initial weight

Deval’s Attrition Test Machine

Crushing test

To find the compressive strength of stone.

Instrument – Universal Testing Machine

Sample Size – 40 x 40 x 40mm

Specimen should be placed in water for 72 hours before

testing.

Load bearing surface is then covered with plaster of paris .

Rate of loading – 13.72N/mm2.

Crushing Strength – Maximum load/area of bearing face.

Universal Testing Machine

Hardness Test

Instrument – Dorry’s testing machine

Sample size – Cylinder of radius 25mm and

height 25mm.

Initial pressure – 12.5N/mm2

Disk is rotated at a speed of 28 R.P.M for 1000

revolution.

Coefficient of hardness = 20 – loss in weight in

gm/3

Dorry’s Testing Machine

Impact Test Sample size – Cylinder of 25mm dia and 25mm

height

Instrument – a steel hammer of weight 20N

Height of first blow is 1cm, second blow is 2 cm

and so on…

The blow at which specimen break is represented

as toughness index of stone.

Water absorption test

Sample size – cube of weighing 0.5 N – W1

Cube is immersed in distilled water for 24 hours.

After 24 hours its weight is again measured- W2.

Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded

– W3

Percentage absorption = W2-W1/100

Density – W1/(W2-W3)

Specific Gravity - W1/(W2-W3)

Preservation of Stone Coal Tar

Linseed Oil – May be applied as raw or boiled. Renewal is

important after every year.

Paint

Paraffin – May be used alone or may be dissolved in neptha

and then applied.

Solution of alum and soap – Proportion 0.75:0.5 N and

then dissolved in 1 litre of water.

Solution of Baryta – It is a solution of barium hydroxide.

Specially used when decay of stone is due to calcium

sulphate.

Stone for specific uses

SEDIMENTARY

• SANDSTONE

IGENOUS

• GRANITE

METAMORPHIC

• MARBLE

STONES •SANDSTONE

•LIMESTONE

•CUDDAPA HARDEST OF ALL STONES.

•KOTA

•MICA

•SLATE

KOTA Variety : Tiles and Slabs as required by the client

Sizes : Length upto 240cms and width upto 75cms

Thickness : 16mm to 100mm

SANDSTONE •Dholpur Offwhite (Natural)

Mint Fossil Desert

•AGRA RED (NATURAL)

Teak Wood Rainbow

•Buff Brown (Natural)

•Mandana (Natural)

•Budhpura Grey (Natural)

•Modak Raj Green (Natural)

•Mint (Natural)

GRANITES

GRANITES MAINLY COME FROM NORTH AND SOUTH REGIONS.

GRANITE IS NON POROUS, HARD, STRONG, DURABLE.

THERE ARE MORE THAN 300 DIFFERENT TYPES OF

GRANITES .

Granites ARE OF TWO TYPES :-

•GANGSO - HARDER

•VERTIVAL - SOFTER THAN

GANGSO

Polished Surface

Rough Texture

TEXTURES

Shape Flat to Round

Granite Countertops Granite Backsplash

Granite Tile Granite Paving Stone

USES OF GRANITE

NAMES OF GRANITES RETAILER

(RS PER SQ/FT)

JET BLACK 165

BLACK 135

SURF GREEN PLAIN 210

LAKHANI RED 255

AKASIA GREEN 190

SILKY BROWN 185

NEW SILKY 200

BLACK GALAXY 190

AMBA WHITE 200

MERRY GOLD 190

SINDURI RED 190

MOKALSAR GREEN 190

RED CATEYES 190

RBI RED 195

BLUE 135

IVORY FANTASY 240

BLUE PEARL 550

BROWN RED 140

TAN BROWN 130

PALVA GOLD 150

THE THICHKNESS OF GRANITE CAN BE OF 16MM ,18MM

,25MM MAINLY OF 18MM.

SIZES OF GRANITES

• 8 * 3 FT

• 9* 4 FT

• 7* 4 FT

• 6* 2.5 FT

MOULDING CHARGES RANGES FROM RS 20 TO 50/SQ FT.

• HALF MOULDING

• FULL MOULDING

• CORNER MOULDING

• SQUARE MOULDING

CUTTING CHARGES OF GRANITES ARE RS15 TO 25.

POLISHES OF GRANITES

MIRROR POLISH

SADA POLISH

HYDRAULIC POLISH

FLAME POLISH

Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite.

It has become an increasingly popular choice for countertops, flooring, fireplaces, foyers, bars, tables, showers, and windows. It graceful style, ability to reflect light, and ease of cleaning have made it the stone of choice amongst the elite.

Uses of Marble

TYPES OF MARBLES

INDIAN MARBLES

SPANISCO

IRAN

TURKEY

GREECE

INDIAN MARBLES

AMBAJI

RAJNAGAR

MAKRANA

GREEN MARBLE

SAPOL

AGARIYA

VANNI

ARNA THE MOST USED OR COSTLIER MARBLE IS MAKRANA

MAKRANA HAS DIFFERENT QUALITIES

•ALBETTO

•ADANGA

•KUMARI

•DUNGRI

•WHITE MAKRANA -

STONE MASONRY

Stone Masonry

The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is

termed as stone masonry where the stones are available in a

abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to the proper

shape, they provide an economical material for the

construction of various building components such as walls,

columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.

Uses

1) Building foundations, walls, piers, pillars, and architectural

works.

2) Lintels, Beams, beams Arches, domes etc.,

3) Roofs and Roof coverings.

4) Cladding Works

5) Dams, light houses, monumental structures.

6) Paving jobs

7) Railway, ballast, black boards and electrical switch boards

Selection of stone for stone masonry:

1) Availability

2) Ease of working

3) Appearance

4) Strength and stability

5) Polishing characteristics

6) Economy

7) Durability

Through

Stone

General Principles

The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard,

tough and durable.

The pressure acting on stones should be vertical.

The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the

requirements.

The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell

shape.

In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the

ends of girders, roof trusses etc large flat stones should be

used

General Principles

The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the

specified faces.

The construction work of stone masonry should be raised

uniformly.

The plumb bob should be used to check the verticality of

erected wall.

The stone masonry section should always be designed to take

compression and not the tensile stresses.

The masonry work should be properly cured after the

completion of work, for a period of 2 to 3 weeks.

As far as possible broken stones or small stones chips should

not be used.

Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher

level.

The masonry hearting should be properly packed with

mortar and chips if necessary to avoid hallows.

The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar

moisture being sucked.

General Principles

Laying The Stone

Decrease the stone thickness from the bottom to the top of wall.

Ensure that the headers in the heart of the wall are the same size as in the face and extend at least 12 in (300 mm) into the core or backing. (Avoid Dumb-bell shaped stones)

Ensure that headers in “walls of 2 feet (600 mm) or less in thickness” extend entirely through the wall. The headers shall occupy at least 20 percent of the face of the wall.

Lay the masonry in roughly leveled courses. Ensure that the bottom of the foundation is large, with selected stones.

Lay the courses with leaning beds parallel to the natural bed of the material.

Regularly diminish the thicknesses of the courses, if varied, from the bottom to the top of the wall. Keep a surplus supply of stones at the site to select from.

Before laying the stone in the wall, shape and dress it so that it will not loosen after it is placed. No dressing or hammering which will loosen the stone will be permitted after it is placed.

Laying The Stone

Clean each stone and saturate it with water before setting it. Clean

and moisten the bed that will receive it.

Bed the stones in freshly made mortar with full joints. Carefully

settle the stones in place before the mortar sets.

Ensure that the joints and beds have an average thickness of not

more than 1 inch. (25 mm).

Ensure that the vertical joints in each course break with the

adjoining courses at least 6 in. (150 mm).

Do not place vertical joints directly above or below a header joint.

If a stone is moved or if the joint is broken after the mortar has

set, take the stone up and thoroughly clean the mortar from the

bed and joints. Reset the stone in fresh mortar.

NOTE: Do not lay the masonry in freezing weather or

when the stone contains frost, except with permission

subjected to the required conditions.

Whenever possible, properly point the face joints before the

mortar sets. If joints cannot be pointed, rake them out to a depth

of 1 in (25 mm) before the mortar sets.

Do not smear the stone face surfaces with the mortar forced out

of the joints or the mortar used in pointing.

Thoroughly wet the joints pointed after the stone is laid with clean water and fill with mortar.

Drive the mortar into the joints and finish with an approved pointing tool.

Keep the wall wet while pointing. In hot or dry weather, protect the pointed masonry from the sun and keep it wet for at least three days after the pointing is finished.

NOTE: Do not perform pointing in freezing weather or when the stone contains frost.

After the pointing is completed and the mortar is set, thoroughly clean the walls and leave them in a neat condition.

Masonry Joints

Types of Stone Masonry:

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction

and degree of refinement in the surface finish, the stone

masonry can be classified broadly in the following two

categories

1. Rubble masonry

2. Ashlar masonry

1) Rubble masonry:

In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly

dressed having wider joints. This can be further subdivided as uncoursed, coursed, random, dry, polygonal and bint.

(i) Uncoursed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and poorest form of stone masonry. The stones used in this type of masonry very much vary in their shape and size and are directly obtained from quarry. Uncoursed rubble masonry can be divided into the following.

a) Uncoursed random rubble b) Uncoursed squared rubble

Uncoursed rubble masonry

a) Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and

edges are removed with mason’s hammer. Generally, bigger

stone blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase

the strength of masonry.

b) Uncoursed squared rubble:

In this type the stone blocks are

made roughly square with

hammer. Generally the facing

stones are given hammer-

dressed finish. Large stones

are used as quoins. As far as

possible the use of chips in

bedding is avoided.

Uncoursed rubble masonry

Regular Course

(iv) Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform

height stones are used in horizontal layers not less than 13cm in

height. Generally, the stone beds are hammered or chisel dressed

to a depth of at least 10cm from the face. The stones are arranged

in such a manner so that the vertical joints of two consecutive

curse do not coincide with each other as shown in figure below.

(v) Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones

are roughly dressed to an irregular polygonal shape. The

stones should be so arranged as to avoid long vertical joints in

face work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone

chips should not be used to support the stones on the facing

as shown in the figure below.

Quoins

Flint rubble masonry (vi) Flint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the

areas where the flint is available in plenty.\

The flint stones varying in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in

length from 15 to 30cm are arranged in the facing in the

form of coursed or uncoursed masonry as shown below.

Dry rubble masonry

This type of masonry is used in the

construction of retaining walls

pitching earthen dams and canal

slopes in the form of random

rubble masonry without any

mortar. The hallow spaces left

around and stones should be

tightly packed with smaller stone

pieces as shown below.

Ashlar Masonry

This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones

with uniform and fine joints of about 3mm thickness by

arranging the stone blocks in various patterns.

The backing of Ashlar masonry walls may be built of Ashlar

masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stones blocks should

be in proportion to wall thickness.

The various types of masonry can be classified under the

following categories are

1) Ashlar fine

2) Ashlar rough

3) Ashlar rock or quarry faced

4) Ashlar facing

5) Ashlar chamfered

6) Ashlar block in course

Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar fine Ashlar rough

Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar rock or quarry faced Ashlar block in course

Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar facing Ashlar chamfered

Facing

Ashlar Masonry

Cornice

A cornice (from the Italian cornice meaning "ledge") is

generally any horizontal decorative molding that crowns a

building or furniture element— the cornice over a door or

window, for instance, or the cornice around the top edge of a

pedestal or along the top of an interior wall.

The function of the projecting cornice of a building is to

throw rainwater free of the building’s walls.

Decorative Cornice

Slope to Drain off

Rain water

Rain water

collection

Channel over

the top of

Decorative

Cornice

SILLS

Stone SILL

Sloped Outer

REVEAL

Chamfered

Quoins

Stone Sill

Edge Drop

Rubble

Masonry

Wall

Min 25Cm Overlap

into the abutting

masonry

Sill as a Ledge in

the Interior

PLINTHS

Traditional Plinth

Plinth in Random Rubble Masonry to receive A Load-Bearing wall Above.

Plinth Platform Conventional Plinth in Rural Areas

Cladding