1. CONTENTS SHELL STRUCTURES DOME AND BARREL ARCH STRUCTURES CONE AND HYPERBOLOID STRUCTURES HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURES FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES TENSION AND SKELETAL SPACE FRAMESTRUCTURES PNEUMATIC AND GRAINS STORAGESTRUCTURES

2. SHELL STRUCTURES 3. SHELL STRUCTURES A Shell is a type of structural element which ischaracterized by its geometry, being a three-dimensionalsolid whose thickness is very small whencompared with other dimensions. In structural terms, by the stress resultants calculated in themiddle plane displaying components which are bothcoplanar and normal to the surface. Essentially, a shell canbe derived from a plate by two means: by initially formingthe middle surface as a singly or doubly curved surface, andby applying loads which are coplanar to a plate's planewhich generate significant stresses. 4. SHELL STRUCTURE IN OCEANOGRAPHIC VALENCIA 5. OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT SHELLS Structures,which keep their shape and support loads,evenwithout a frame, or solid mass material inside, are calledShell structures. Shell structures use a thin, carefully shaped, outer layer ofmaterial, to provide their strength and rigidity. The shapeof a shell structure spreads forces throughout the wholestructure, which means every part of the structure supportsonly a small part of the load, giving it its strength. Examples are Igloos, Egg cartons, Turtle shell, Food or popcans or even bubbles in foam and cream puffs. 6. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF SHELL STRUCTURESEXAMPLES ARE IGLOO , EGG , HAZELNUT , HONEYCOMB 7. ACCORDING TO IS2204 :1962TYPES OF SHELL 8. DOME AND BARREL ARCHSTRUCTURES 9. DOME STRUCTURES A dome is an element of architecture that resembles thehollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a longarchitectural lineage extending into prehistory. Dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segmentsor a shell of revolution, meaning an arch rotated around itscentral vertical axis. A masonry dome produces thrusts down and outward, SoDomes can be divided into twokinds: Simple and Compound, depending on the use. 10. FACTS ABOUT DOME Domes are concave from below, they can reflect soundand create echoes. The earliest domes in the Middle East were built withmud-brick and, eventually, with baked brick and stone. Wooden domes were protected from the weather byroofing such as copper or lead sheeting. Brick domes were the favoured choice for large-spacemonumental coverings until the Industrial Age, due totheir convenience and dependability. The domes in the churches where semi-domes (apse), forexample, echoed the chants of the people. 11. EXAMPLES OF DOMESTAJMAHAL in India is one of the best examples of Dome structures. 12. EXAMPLE OF DOME STRUCTUREDome of St. Peter's Basilica in Romecrowned by a cupola. Designed primarilyby Michelangelo, the dome was notcompleted until 1590ROOFTOP OF BASUNDHARA CITYMODERN DOME STRUCTURE 13. TYPES OF DOME Beehive dome Bulbous dome Cloister vault Crossed-arch dome Geodesic dome Hemispherical dome Onion dome Oval dome Parabolic dome Sail dome Saucer dome Umbrella domeFrom clockwise: Large saucer dome, Umbrella domeand Onion Dome 14. BARREL ARCH STRUCTURES 15. BARREL ROOF A barrel roof is a curved roof that, especially from below,is curved like a cut-away barrel. They have some advantages over dome roofs, especiallybeing able to cover rectangular buildings , due to theiruniform cross-section. The barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault: effectivelya series of arches placed side by side, i.e., one afteranother. It is a form of barrel roof. 16. BARREL ARCH VAULT A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault or a wagonvault, is an architectural element formed by the extrusionof a single curve along a given distance. The curves are typically circular in shape, lending a semi-cylindricalappearance to the total design. Barrel vaults are known from Ancient Egypt, and wereused extensively in Roman architecture. This form of design is observed in cellars, crypts,long hallways, cloisters and even great halls. 17. BARREL ARCH EXAMPLESBARREL ARCH IN A OPEN CLOISTER 18. BARREL ARCH As with all arch-based constructions, there is an outward thrustgenerated against the walls underneath a barrel vault. There areseveral mechanisms for absorbing this thrust. An elegant method is to build two or more vaults parallel toeach other; the forces of their outward thrusts will thus negateeach other. This method was most often used in construction of churches,where several vaulted naves ran parallel down the length of thebuilding. The third and most elegant mechanism to resist the lateralthrust was to create an intersection of two barrel vaults at rightangles, thus forming a groin vault. 19. BARREL VAULT LATERAL DISTRIBUTIONS :Pointed barrel vaultshowing direction of lateralforces. The barrel vault structuremust rest on long wallscreating less stable lateralstress, whereas the groinvault design can directstresses almost purelyvertically on the apexes 20. CONE AND HYPERBOLOIDSTRUCTURES 21. CONE STRUCTURESThe conical structure as an examplehas a diameter at eaves/gutter level of8500 mm and a roof pitch of 40degrees.The dimension from eaves to apex onthe sloping line of the roof can becalculated by simple geometry.This dimension is important in thesetting out and template makingprocedure.The circumference of the roof mustalso be calculated to find the totalconical diameter (3.14 x D)Normally used as roof structures andChannel and I sections are usedRarely used in Residential areas. 22. CONODIAL SHELLS 23. HYPERBOLOID STRUCTURES Hyperboloid structures are architecturalstructures designed with hyperbolic geometry. Often these are tall structures such as towers where thehyperboloid geometry's structural strength is used tosupport an object high off the ground, but hyperboloidgeometry is also often used for decorative effect as well asstructural economy. The first hyperboloid structures were built by Russianengineer Vladimir Shukhov (18531939). The world's first hyperboloid tower is located in Polibino,Dankovsky District, Lipetsk Oblast, Russia. 24. HYPERBOLOID STRUCTURESTHIS HYPERBOLOIDSTRUCTURE IS THE KOBETOWER IN JAPAN. 25. HYPERBOLOID STRUCTURESAN EXAMPLE OF HYPERBOLOIDCartesian coordinates for the hyperboloids can be defined, similar to sphericalcoordinates, keeping the azimuth angle [0, 2), but changinginclination v into hyperbolic trigonometric functions: 26. SHUKHOV TOWER (1898) AN EXAMPLE OF HYPERBOLOID STRUCTURE 27. HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURE 28. HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURES The Hyperbolic Paraboloid form has been used for roofsat various times since it is easily constructed from straightsections of lumber, steel, or other conventional materials. The term is used because the form resembles the shape ofa saddle. 29. HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURES It is usually made up of a combination of four ofintersecting hyper Paraboloids joined together to forma square shape in plan view. This form of structure is often used by architects toroof large span exhibition halls and public buildings. The distribution of various components of forces isobtained to give designers an insight of the behaviorof such complex structures 30. HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURES 31. HYPER PARABOLOID STRUCTURESAn example ofParaboloid structure 32. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 33. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES A thin walled building structure of the shell type. Folded plate structures consist of flat components, or plates,that are interconnected at some dihedral angle. Structures composed of rectangular plates are said to be prismatic. In modern construction practice the most widely usedfolded plate structures are made of cast-in-situor precast reinforced concrete (including prestressed andreinforced-cement structures). The structures are used as roofs for industrial and public buildings. 34. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES The main advantage of folded plate structures over other shells(such as cylindrical) is the simplicity of manufacture. More exact static calculations are based on limitequilibrium and on P. L. Pasternaks and V. Z. Vlasovs generaltheory of shells. 35. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURESOld Sears Store in Florida Present Sears Store in Florida 36. USES OF FOLDED PLATES 37. TENSION AND SKELETAL FRAMESTRUCTURES 38. TENSION STRUCTURE ATensile structure is a construction of elements carryingonly tension and no compression or bending. The term tensile should not be confused with tensegrity,which is a structural form with both tension andcompression elements. Tensile structures are the most common type of thin-shellstructures. Most Tensile structures are supported by some form ofcompression or bending elements, such as masts (asin The O2, formerly the Millennium Dome), compressionrings or beams. 39. TENSION STRUCTURE THE O2 OR THE MILLENNIUM DOME 40. TENSION STRUCTURETypes of structure with significant tensionmembersLinear structures Suspension bridges Draped cables Cable-stayed beams or trusses Cable trusses Straight tensioned cables 41. EXAMPLE OF TENSION STRUCTURE : SUSPENSION BRIDGESTHE AKASHI BRIDGE SPANNING APPROX. 2 KILOMETERS IS AEXAMPLE OF TENSION STRUCTURE. 42. ANOTHER TENSION STRUCTURE BY VLADMIR SHUKHOVThe world's first Tensile SteelShell by Vladimir Shukhov (duringconstruction), Nizhny Novgorod,1895 43. TENSILE STRUCTUREThree-dimensional structures Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontalorientation) 3D cable trusses Tensegrity structures Tensairity structuresSurface-stressed structures Prestressed membranes Pneumatically stressed membranes gridshell fabric structure 44. TENSILE STRUCTUREMEMBRANE ROOF AND CABLE , BICYCLE , TENSGRITY 45. EXAMPLE OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TENSION STRUCTURE 46. SKELETAL SPACE FRAMESTRUCTURES 47. SKELETAL SPACE FRAME STRUCTURES In architecture and structural engineering, a Spaceframe or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigidstructure constructed from interlocking struts ina geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas with fewinterior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of theinherent rigidity of the triangle;flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted astension and compression loads along the length of eachstrut. 48. SPACE FRAME SKELETAL STRUCTURES TYPESCurvature classificationSpace plane covers These spatial structures are composed of planarsubstructures. Their behaviour is similar to that of a plate in which thedeflections in the plane are channelled through thehorizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by thediagonals.Barrel vaults This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch. Usually this type of space frame does not need to usetetrahedral modules or pyramids as a part of its backing. 49. SPACE FRAME SKELETAL STRUCTURES TYPESSpherical domes and other compound curves Usually require the use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids andadditional support from a skin.THIRUMALAI MRTS RAILWAY STATION BARREL SPACEFRAME STRUCTURE 50. SPACE FRAME SKELETAL STRUCTURES CLASSIFICATIONSClassification by the arrangement of its elementsSingle layer grid All elements are located on the surface to be approximated.Double layer grid The elements are organized in two parallel layers with each other at acertain distance apart. Each of the layers form a lattice of triangles, squares or hexagons inwhich the projection of the nodes in a layer may overlap or bedisplaced relative to each other. The diagonal bars connecting the nodes of both layers in differentdirections in space. In this type of meshes, the elements are associated into three groups:upper cordon, cordon and cordon lower diagonal.Triple layer grid Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked by the diagonals.They are almost always flat. 51. SPACE FRAME SKELETAL STRUCTURES CLASSIFICATIONSLAgora SPACE FRAMESTRUCTURE , SPAIN 52. PNEUMATIC AND GRAINSSTORAGE STRUCTURES 53. PNUEMATIC STRUCTURES An air-supported or air-inflated structure which consists ofinternal pressurized air i.e. structural fabric envelope. Air is the main support of the structure, and where access is viaairlocks. It is usually dome-shaped, since this shape creates thegreatest volume for the least amount of material. The materials used for air-supported structures are similar tothose used in tensile structures, namely synthetic fabrics suchas fibre glass and polyester. In order to prevent deterioration from moistureand Ultraviolet radiation, these materials are coated withpolymers such as PVC and Teflon. 54. PNEUMATIC STRUCTURESAIR SUPPORTED PNUEMATIC STRUCTURE 55. PNEUMATIC STRUCTURESAdvantages: Considerably lower initial cost than conventional buildings Lower operating costs due to simplicity of design. Easy and quick to set up, dismantle, and relocate . Unobstructed open interior space, since there is no need forcolumns Able to cover almost any project Custom fabric colours and sizes, including translucent fabric,allowing natural sunlight in. 56. PNEUMATIC STRUCTURESDisadvantages: Continuous operation of fans to maintain pressure, oftenrequiring redundancy or emergency power supply. Dome collapses when pressure lost or fabric compromised Cannot reach the insulation values of hard-walled structures,increasing heating/cooling costs Limited load-carrying capacity Conventional buildings have longer lifespan 57. GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURESA GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURE IN WESTERNAUSTRALIA FOR STORING CORN 58. GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURE Grain storage structures are also known as the bins, or wheatbins, Grain silos spread around the wheat belt ofWesternAustralia at grain importing locationsGRAIN SILOS COMESUNDER THESTORAGESTRUCTURES . 59. OTHER RANDOM MISCELLANEOUSSTRUCTURES 60. A GEODESIC DOME DESIGNED BY BUCKMINSTER FULLER (A NEOFUTURISTIC ARCHITECT) 61. ABOUT BUCKMINSTER FULLER Buckminster Fuller, an American Engineer,invented the geodesic dome in the 1950s Geodesic domes are made from separatepieces of material arranged in triangles,pentagons and hexagons The position of the shapes and their sizes iscritical and needs Maths to work it out Geodesic Domes are the strongest lightweightstructures you can make 62. VLADMIR SHUKHOV TOWER (1922) 63. ABOUT VLADIMIR SHUKHOV Vladimir Grigoryevich Shukhov (1853 1939)was a Russian engineerpolymath, scientist and architect He is renowned for his pioneering works onnew methods of analysis for structuralengineering that led to breakthroughs in Civilas well as Industrial designs. Hyperboloid structures, Diagrid shell structures, tensile structures, Grid shell structures, Oilreservoirs, pipelines, boilers, ships and bargeswere his works. He is also the inventor of the first crackingmethod.