ToPaul,whoseideaitwas

Contents

PREFACEINTRODUCTION

Chapter1:ATraditionwithaReasonWhytextilesweretraditionallywomen’swork

Chapter2:TheStringRevolutionLifeinthePalaeolithic

Chapter3:CourtyardSisterhoodHorticulturalsocietyintheNeolithic

Chapter4:IslandFeverBronzeAgehorticulturalsurvivals:Minoansandothers

Chapter5:MorethanHeartsonOurSleevesThefunctionsofclothandclothinginsociety

Chapter6:ElementsoftheCodeSymbolisminclothandclothing

Chapter7:ClothfortheCaravansEarlyurbanmanufactureintheBronzeAgeNearEast

Chapter8:LandofLinenMiddleKingdomEgypt

Chapter9:TheGoldenSpindleOutworkerindustriesfortheelite:TheMycenaeans

Chapter10:BehindtheMythsWomen’sworkasreflectedintextilemyths

Chapter11:PlainorFancy,NeworTriedandTrueLateBronzeandIronAgeurbanindustries

Chapter12:Postscript:FindingtheInvisibleMethodsofresearch

ILLUSTRATIONANDCREDITLISTSOURCESINDEX

Preface

Mymotherlikedtoweaveandsew,soIgrewupwithinterestingtextilesallaround,learningtosewandweaveformyselfatanearlyage.Iwasconstantlybeingmadeawareoftheform,color,andtextureofcloth.Textileshaveaparticularcrossingstructurethatdictateswhatsortsofpatternswillbeeasyandobvioustoweaveor,conversely,hardtoweave.Thuslater,whenIbegantostudyClassicalandBronzeAgeMediterraneanarchaeologyatcollege,Isoonnoticeddecorationsondurablethingslikepotteryandwallsthatlookedasiftheyhadbeencopiedfromtypicalweavingpatterns.ButwhenIsuggestedthisideatoarchaeologists,theyrespondedthatnobodycouldhaveknownhowtoweavesuchcomplicatedtextilessoearly.Theanswerwashardtorefute,onthefaceofit,becauseveryfewtextileshavecomedowntousfrombeforemedievaltimes,outsideofEgypt,wherepeoplegenerallyworeplainwhitelinen.

Unconvinced,Idecidedtospendtwoweekshuntingfordataonthedegreeofsophisticationoftheweavingtechnology,toseeatleastwhetherpeoplecouldhavemadeornatetextilesbackthen.Iexpectedtowritemyfindingsintoasmallarticle,maybetenpages,suggestingthatscholarsoughttoconsideratleastthepossibilityofearlytextileindustries.

ButwhenIbegantolook,dataforancienttextileslayeverywhere,waitingtobepickedup.BytheendofthetwoweeksIrealizedthatitwouldtakemeatleastasummerortwotochasedownandorganizetheleadsIhadturnedupandthatIcouldbewritinga60-pagemonograph.BytheendoftwomoresummersIknewIwasheadedfora200-pagebook.That“littlebook”turnedintoaresearchprojectthatconsumedseventeenyearsandyieldeda450-pagetomecoveringmanytimestheplannedgeographicalareaandtimespan.Itfinallyappearedin1991asPrehistoricTextiles,fromPrincetonUniversityPress.

ForthatbookIhadrestrictedmyselftothehistoryanddevelopmentofthecraft:abigenoughtopic,asitturnedout.AlongthewayIkeptrunningacrosswonderfulbitsofinformationaboutthewomen—virtuallyalwayswomen—whoproducedthesetextilesandaboutthevaluesthatdifferentsocietiesputontheproductsandtheirmakers.WhenItalkedaboutmywork,peopleseemedespeciallyeagerforthesevignettes,storiesthattoldofwomen’slivesthousandsofyearsago.Theyurgedmetowriteasecondbookontheeconomicandsocialhistoryofancienttextiles,ineffectonthewomenwhomadetheclothandclothing.

ThenafriendaskedmetoreadherunfinishedtranslationofthememoirsofNadezhdaDurova,awomanwhohadspenttenyearsdisguisedasamanservingintheczar ’scavalryduringtheNapoleonicWars.Farfromgivingacatalogofcampaigns,battlearrays,andtactics,Durovaspenttheentirewarrecordinghowpeoplelivedfromdaytoday:howsheandherfellowsoldiersinteractedwithhorses,geese,eachother,theweather,andthelocalfolkwithwhomtheywerebilleted.Iamnotnormallyfondofreadinghistory,butthiswasdifferent.Icouldhardlywaitforeachnewinstallment.AsIrealizedthatthesourceofmyfascinationwastheglimpsesintorealpeople’slives,Ibegantounderstandinanewwaywhatmyearlymaterialcontained.(ThisbookhasnowappearedasTheCavalryMaiden,translatedbyMaryFlemingZirin[Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1988].)

ThusIhavetriedtoexploreandpulltogetherwhatrealfactswecandeduceaboutearlywomen,theirlives,theirwork,andtheirvalues,chieflyfromthetechnologicalrecordoftheonemajor

productofwomenthathasbeenwellstudiedasyet—textiles.Ihavealsopaidsomeattentiontowhatlanguagecantellus.Messagesperishastheyareuttered,butlanguageitselfisremarkablydurable.Sometimesitpreservesusefulcluestoamoreabstractandthought-orientedpartofthehumanpastthanmaterialartifactsdo.

Perhapsthemostimportantthingthathasbeenomittedfromthisbook,however,isfiction.RomanticsmayenjoyHollywoodtalesofOogaandOonagruntingaroundthefireofasquatandhairy,stoop-shoulderedPalaeolithicruffian,afterhehasdraggedtheminbythehairfromthenextcave.Idealistsmaysavortherosyutopianvisionsof“lifebeforewar”inaNeolithicageruledbywomentotallyconnectedtothepulseofMotherEarth.Thesestoriesarefun.Butwhat,Iask,waslifereallylike?Whathardevidencedowehaveforwhatwemightwanttoknowaboutwomen’slives?Noevidencemeansnorealknowledge.

Stackedagainstourendlessquestions,whatweknowremainssmall,andnomatterhowcleverwebecomeattrackingdownevidence,ifwewantreality,wearestuckwithwhatfragmentaryfactswehappentohave.Ihavenotinventedanswersjusttofillin,thewayascreenwritermust.Butweknowmuchmorethanhasgottenintothegeneralliteratureaboutwomen’shistory.Thereaderwillfindinthesepagesglimpsesofrealwomenofallsorts—peasants,entrepreneurs,queens,slaves,honestsouls,andcrooks—goodandbad,highandlow.Forallthestrangenessoftheircultures,theyseemrefreshinglylikeus.

WOMEN’SWORK:THEFIRST20,000YEARS

Introduction

“Four,three,two,one—good.Onemorebunchtogo;thenwe’vegottogetdinneron.”Iyankedthelooseknotoutofthelastbundleofpeagreenwarpthreadsandbeganpassingtheends

throughtherowsoftinyloopsinthemiddleoftheloomtomysistertotieuponthefarside.Thethreadsofthewarparethoselyinglengthwiseinthefinishedcloth,andthemosttediouspartofmakinganewclothcomesinstringingtheseontotheloom,oneatatime.Onceyoubegintoweaveinthecross-threads—theweft—youcanseethenewclothforminginchbyinchunderyourfingers,andyoufeelasenseofaccomplishment.Butthewarpjustlookslikethread,thread,andmorethread.AtthismomentIwasbalancingthepatterndiagramonmyknee,countingoutwhichlittleloopeachthreadhadtopassthroughonitswayfrommysideoftheloomtohers.

Fornearlyeighthourswehadbeenworkingonthewarp,betweenandaroundtheinterruptions.Inthemorningwehadwoundofftherequisitenumberofgreenandchocolatebrownthreadsoffineworstedwool,stripebycolorstripe,ontothegreatframeofwarpingpegs—pegsthatholdthethreadsinorderwhilemeasuringthemalltothesamelength.Bylunchtimewewerereadytotransferthewarptotheloom,tyingoneendofthelong,thickbundleofyarntothebeamononeside.Thenbeganthetedioustaskofthreadingtheendsthroughthecontrolloops(heddles)inthemiddleontheirwaytothefarbeam.Itwouldhavebeensimplerifwehadintendedtousetheplainestsortofweave.Butbecauseweweresettinguptoweaveapattern—thefinediagonalpatterncalledtwillthatisusedtypicallytodayinmen’ssuitmaterial(seefig.0.2)—itwastakingfarlonger.

“WhyamIdoingthis?”Ithoughtruefully,glancingatthetime.“We’vespenttheentiredayandaren’tevenreadytostartweavingyet!IfIspentthismuchtimeeverydaywriting,mybookwouldbefinishedinnotime.”Oneforgetsthatlayingintheweft—theactual“weaving”—isonlyhalfthejobofmakingacloth,thesecondhalf.Firstcomestheequallylengthytaskofmaking,organizing,andmountingontotheloomthefoundationsetofthreads,thewarp.Andthatiswhereahelperreallyspeedsthework:afriendtoreceiveandfastentheotherendofeachlongwarpthread,savingallthetimeandenergyofwalkingbackandforth,backandforth,fromoneendoftheloomtotheother.Itisalsomuchmoreentertainingtohaveafriendtochatwithwhilethehandworkproceeds.

Infact,mysisterandIwereactorsinascenethat,withonlyminordifferences,hasbeenrepeatedformillennia:twowomenhelpingeachothersetupaweavingproject.Thelooms,thefibers,thepatternsmaydiffer,buttherelationofthewomentotheirworkandtoeachotherismuchthesame.

Unlikewomenofpastages,however,wewerenotmakingclothforourhouseholds.(WhenourmotherenteredaweavingschoolinDenmarkfiftyyearsago,shewastoldtobeginwithadozenplaindishtowels—ausefulwaytogainskillontheloomandstartone’strousseauallatonce.)Norwereweweavingforsale,forpiety,orforartistry—theothercommonreasons.Wewereweavingathread-for-threadreplicaofapieceofplaidclothlostinasaltmineintheAustrianAlpssomethreethousandyearsago(figs.0.1and0.2).

Figure0.1.Plaidwoolenclothandfur“tam-o’-shanters”fromca.800B.C.,foundinthesaltminesatHallstatt,Austria(seemap,fig.3.1)anddisplayedintheNaturalHistoryMuseum,Vienna.ThemakersoftheseobjectsweretheancestorsoftheCelts,nowlivinginsuchplacesasScotlandandstillfamousforplaidtwillsandtams.(Theoriginalscrapofclothislyingatlowerleftonareplica.)

Figure0.2.Detailofauthor’sreplicaoftheHallstatttwillinfig.0.1,showingtheoffsetpairingofthreadstypicaloftwillpattern.Theoriginalwarpranvertically,constructedingroupsoffourthreadsofgreenandbrown.Theweftranhorizontally,andtheweaverjudgedthewidthofthosestripesbyeyeasshewove.

Itwasthesaltthathadpreservedthehandsomegreenandbrowncolorsaswellastheclothitself,anditwasthecolorthatcaughtmyeyeintheNaturalHistoryMuseuminVienna—thatandtheparticularobjectssurroundingthepiece(fig.0.1).Thetornfragmentofcloth,aboutthesizeofone’shandlaidflat,nestledonanewlyrewovenstripofidenticalclothinsuchawaythattheplaidstripesmatched.Thusthevisitor ’seyecouldfollowthepatternoutwardinbothdirectionsandcomprehendwhatthisancientclothmusthavelookedlikewhenitwasnew.AnditlookedforalltheworldlikeasimpleplaidtwillfromsomeScottishkilt.Furthermore,aboveandbesideitwerehungtwofurryleathercaps,alsofromprehistoricshaftsintheHallstattsaltmines,oftheexactsameshapeasaScottishtam-o’-shanteroraberetfromBrittanyinwesternFrance,anotheroutpostofCelticculture.

Between1200and600B.C.,theerawhenthisclothwasapparentlywoven,theancestorsoftheCelts

werelivinginwhatisnowAustria,Hungary,andsouthernGermany.Manyofthesepeoplewereminers,diggingoutofthemountainsbothmetaloresandsalt.(Saltwasverypreciousforpreservingfoodbeforethedaysofrefrigerators.Thosewhocouldsupplyitgrewrich.)By400B.C.theearlyCeltswerebeginningtofanoutwestwardacrossEuropeintoFrance,Britain,andSpain,wheretheylivetoday,carryingaculturedirectlydescendedfromthatoftheHallstattminers.InaveryrealsenseIwaslookingattheoriginaltamandattheancestoroftheScottishplaidtweedortwill,allproducedbytheimmediateancestorsoftheCelts.(Twill,liketweed,comesfromthewordtwoandreferstoadistinctivemethodofpatternweavinginwhichthethreadsarepaired[fig.0.2].)ThesehabitsofclothandclothingthatweassociatetodaywithCeltsbeganinprehistorictimesandtraveledwiththemthroughspaceandtime.Ihadbeenstudyingthescantremainsofancientclothforalmostadecade,andifonethinghadbecomeclear,itwasthatthetraditionsofclothandclothinginmostpartsoftheworldwereremarkablyancient.Thisdisplaycaseeloquentlysaiditall.

“I’dlovetohaveascarflikethat,”Iannouncedonthespot.SohereIwas,twomonthslater,sittingathome,tryingtoreproduceitfromthediagramsinthescholarlypublication.Ithadtakenmuchhuntingthroughweaversupplycatalogstofindwoolyarnofpreciselytherightcolorsandthickness,yarnthathadalsobeencombedandnotcarded.(Combingtheunspunfiberstolieparallelresultsinastrong,hardthread.Carding,ontheotherhand,makesthefiberlieallwhichway—justliketeasingone’shair—andgivesasoft,fluffythreadlikeourknittingyarn.Mostwoolyarnnowavailableisofthislattersort,buttheprocesswasn’tinventedtilltheMiddleAges.)IfIwasgoingtogotoallthistrouble,IwantedthereplicatobeasnearexactasIcouldmakeit.Ofcourse,ifIhadbegunbyraisingandshearingasheep,cleaninganddyeingthewool,thencombing,spinning,andplyingit,thelongdayspentwarpingwouldseemquiteasmallexpenditure!

AfterdinnerIbegantoweave,whilemyfamilysatnearbychatting.Ittookmehalfanhourtoweavethewideswatchofplaingreenthatprecededthefirstbrownstripe.Havingputalltheintricaciesofthetwillpatterningintothewarp,bythewayinwhichwehadtieditontotheloom,theweavingwasnowstraightforward,anditwentfast.Ireachedthefirstcolorstripesandaddedashuttleofbrownthread:fourbrownrows,fourgreen,fourbrown,fourgreen...Iwaseagertoseewhattheplaidwouldlooklike,andIcursedgentlyasfirstoneshuttle,thentheotherfelltothefloorwhileIworked.Thestripesweresonarrowthatitdidn’tseemworthtyingoffthefinishedcoloreachtime,soIputupwiththenuisance.Anotherfourbrown,fourgreen—anothershuttlehitthefloor.

Suddenlylightdawnedonme.Ithadtakenussolongtoputthewarpthroughthetinycontrolloopsontheloombecausethe

pattern,simpleasitlooked,hadactuallybeenquitecomplicated.Thatwasbecauseboththecolorstripesandwovenpatternstripesweresouneveninwidth:sixteen,nineteen,twenty,eighteen.Notwostripesthatdirectionhadexactlythesamenumberofthreads,andgettingthemallexactlycorrecthadrequiredgreatcare.NowIwascursingatthestripesrunningcrosswise—theweftstripes—becausetheywereinlittletinysetsoffour,anevennumber.

Ihaddonethereplicabackward!Ifmywefthadbeenwarp,itssetsoffourthreadswouldcorrespondtowhatIknewtobethestructureofthewarpontheancientloom,aswellastothetwillpattern.Thustheclothwouldhavebeeneasytowarpup.Conversely,ifmywarphadbeenweft,theslightdifferencesinthenumberofthreadsperstripewouldmakeperfectsense;theweaverhadnotbeencountingbutjudgingbyeyehowfartoweavebeforechangingtothenextstripe.

Farfrombeingunhappyatmymistake,Iwasdelighted.MostfragmentsofprehistoricclothfromtheHallstattsaltmines—andtherearemorethanahundredextant—aretornonallfouredges,soitisnotpossibletotellwhichdirectiontheywerewoventhewayoneusuallydoes,simplybylookingfor

thetypeofclosededgesfoundonlyatthesides.Butbytryingtoimitatetheproduct,IdiscoverednotonlywhichwaythisshredwaswovenandsomecriteriaforanalyzingotherpiecesbutalsoseveralinterestingdetailsabouthowHallstattweaversworked.Theclothendsuplookingmuchthesameeitherway,andthetimehadbeendoublywellspent.Itwasanotherlessontomethattheprocessofrecreatingancientartifactsstepbystepcanshedlightonthelivesandhabitsoftheoriginalcraftworkersthatnoamountofarmchairtheorizingcangive.

Itisnolongerpossibletoknowmostofthedetailsofprehistoricwomen’slives.Fartoomuchhasbeenlostwiththepassageoftime.Eveninearlyhistoricaltimes—inEgypt,Mesopotamia,Greece—verylittleoftheancientliteraryrecordwasdevotedtowomen,sowehavefewsourcestoconsult.Indeed,thelackofclearsourceshasledtoagooddealofguessing,evenwishfulthinking,inbooksabouthowwomenlivedinearlytimes(whenthetopichasnotbeenomittedaltogether).Hereamongthetextiles,ontheotherhand,wecanfindsomeofthehardevidenceweneed,sincetextileswereoneofwomen’sprimaryconcerns.Weknow,forexample,thatwomensometimeshelpedeachotherwiththeirweavingprojects,exactlyasinthemodernsceneabove,becausewesometimesfindtheweftsinancientclothcrossedinthemiddleofthetextile.Thiscanonlyhavebeencausedbytwopeoplehandingspoolsofweftbackandforthtoeachotherastheywovesimultaneouslyondifferentpartsofthesamecloth.Itisatinydetail,butinterestingpreciselybecauseofitsrealness.Wealsoknow,now,thatprehistoricwomensometimeswovetheirpatternsbyeyeratherthanstrictlycounting.

Ofcourse,beingperishable,thetextilesthemselvesarenoteasytolearnabout—justlikemostoftherestofwomen’sproducts(suchasfoodandtherecipesforpreparingit).Therefore,torecovertherealityofwomen’shistory,wemustdevelopexcellenttechniques(seeChapter12),usingnotjusttheobviousdatabutlearningtoferretouteveryhelpfuldetail.Practicalexperimentslikereweavingsomeofthesurvivingancientclothsareacaseinpoint.Amongthethousandsofarchaeologistswhohavewrittenaboutpotteryorarchitecture,howmanyhaveactuallytriedtomakeapotorbuildabuilding?Preciousfew;butwithsomuchdataavailableforstudyinthesefields,scholarsfeltfloodedwithinformationalready,andsuchradicalstepshardlyseemednecessary.Ourcaseisdifferent;wemustuseeverydiscoverableclue.

Theavailablematerialismostrevealingwhentreatedchronologically,startingwiththeStoneAgeandmovingthroughtheBronzeAgeintotheIronAge.Wecanwatchhowthecraftofclothmakingdevelopsandhowwomen’sroleschangewiththechangeoftechnologyanditsrelationtosociety.ButwhenIsay“chronologically,”Imeaninaconceptualwayratherthanstrictlyintermsofyears.Itcouldhardlybeotherwise.At3400B.C.,astheNearEastwasedgingintotheBronzeAge,centralEuroperemainedataNeolithicstageofeconomy,whiletheArcticnorthwasMesolithicandmanyotherpartsoftheworldstilllaydeepinthePalaeolithic(fig.0.3).Tocharttechnologicalstagessoheavilyskewedfromplacetoplaceagainstascaleofabsolutetimeisdifficult.Understandingthebasisofthecategorizationisperhapsofgreaterhelptoareadernotacquaintedwiththesystem.

Figure0.3.Chartofthemainchronologicalperiodscoveredinthisbook.Thescaleislogarithmic.

Whensystematicarchaeologybegantoemergeinthenineteenthcentury,longbeforemodernmethodsofabsolutedatingwereavailable,Danishscholarssuggesteddividingthepre-Romanartifactsintothreesuccessivegroups,basedonthedominantmaterialfortools:stoneonly(oldest),bronze(inthemiddle),andiron(youngest).Thissystemworkedprettywell,butitsoonbecameclearthattheStoneAgewasenormouslylongandneededafurtherdivisionbasedonwhetherthestonetoolswerealwayschipped(OldStoneAge,orPalaeolithic)orsometimesgrounddowntoasmoothfinish(NewStoneAge,orNeolithic).Asmethodsofrecoveringancientremainsbecamemorerefined,scholarsnoticedthatpolishedstonetoolscorrelatedwiththeadventofagriculture.Thegrindingoftoolswasnotunrelatedtothegrindingofgrain.Andgradually,asmoreandmorematerialaccrued,finerdivisionswereinstalledasneeded.ThesimplestsystemwastodivideintoEarly,Middle,andLate;LateintoI,II,andIII;LateIIIintoA,B,andC;andsoon.(ApotmightthusbeassignedtoEarlyBronzeIIA.)Butsometimesothertermsfelltohand.

ThusthelastlevelsofthePalaeolithiceraarethoseuppermostatPalaeolithicsites(whichthemselvesgobackoveramillionyears),andtheseuppermostlayerscorrespondtoasuddenblossomingofallsortsofartsandcraftsinEuropeafterabout40,000B.C.TheerathusrepresentedcametobeknownastheUpperPalaeolithicandwasfoundtoextendtoatleast10,000B.C.—laterinsomeplaces.Itscutoffpointistakentobetheadventofdomesticplantsandanimals,whichmarkthebeginningoftheNeolithic.InEuropethedomesticatedstockswereimportedfromtheNearEastinanever-wideningcircle.Becausethefarnorthernclimatewastooharshforeasyagriculture,however,peopletherecontinuedtoliveaPalaeolithiclife-styleformillennia,augmentedwithafewhandyNeolithicideasborrowedfromthesouth(suchasactivelyherdingthewildreindeer,ratherthanjusthuntingthem).ThisintermediatetypeofculturesoongotnicknamedtheMesolithic.IhavechosentotreattheUpperPalaeolithicandMesolithictogether(inChapter2),followedbytheNeolithic(Chapter3).ThedevelopmentofmetalworkingandofefficientmetaltoolsmarksthestartoftheBronzeAge(althoughagainintheseminalareastherearetransitionalphaseswithvariousnames:CopperAge,Chalcolithic,Aeneolithic).IntheNearEastthebeginningoftheBronzeAgeshortlybefore3000B.C.isaccompanied(ortriggered)byradicalchangesinlivingconditions:Citiesspringupeverywhereandwritingisinvented.Again,theinnovationsarenotunrelatedtoeachother.

BronzeAgetechnologyandurbanizationquicklyspreadtosoutheasternEurope,butsomeaspectsoflifetherecontinuedwithonefootintheNeolithic,aninterestinghybridizationthatallowedtextilestoflourish(Chapter4).ThemainstreamofBronzeAgelifedevelopedfullspeedaheadinMesopotamia(Chapter7)andEgypt(Chapter8),eventuallyreachingGreeceinitsfullformintheLateBronzeAge,midwaythroughthesecondmillenniumB.C.(Chapter9),onlytobecutoffaround1200B.C.bywavesofdestructivemigrationsemanatingultimatelyfromthesteppesofcentralAsia.Afterthedustsettlesandthesmokeclearsaway,wefindtheMediterraneancountriesinpossessionofsomenewwaysoflivingandofanewandmuchhardermetal,iron—inanerasuitablycalledtheIronAge(Chapter12).Ittakesanothertwotofourhundredyears,however,forthecomplextechnologyofironworkingtomakeitswayallthewayacrossEurope,duringwhichtime“BronzeAge”labelsinsomepartsofEuropecorrespondinabsoluteyearsto“IronAge”labelsinotherparts.

Bythemid-firstmillenniumB.C.,whenironwasreachingthefarwestandwhenthisbookends,southernEuropeandtheNearEasthadalreadyexperiencedvastculturaldevelopmentsandredevelopments,whereasmostotherareashadnotyetgottenontheirfeet(China,northernIndia,andCentralAmericaexcepted).Thechaptersthatfollowconcentrateonthisgeographicalareaofearlydevelopmentandforthemostpartomittherest.Ofcourse,thesamemethodsdevelopedherecanbeappliedtothoseothertimesandplacestorecovermoreoftheirhistories.

1

ATraditionwithaReason

Formillenniawomenhavesattogetherspinning,weaving,andsewing.Whyshouldtextileshavebecometheircraftparexcellence,ratherthantheworkofmen?Wasitalwaysthus,andifso,why?

TwentyyearsagoJudithBrownwrotealittlefive-page“NoteontheDivisionofLaborbySex”thatholdsasimplekeytothesequestions.Shewasinterestedinhowmuchwomencontributedtoobtainingthefoodforapreindustrialcommunity.Butinansweringthatquestion,shecameuponamodelofmuchwiderapplicability.Shefoundthattheissueofwhetherornotthecommunityreliesuponwomenasthechiefprovidersofagiventypeoflabordependsupon“thecompatibilityofthispursuitwiththedemandsofchildcare.”Ifonlybecauseoftheexigenciesofbreastfeeding(whichuntilrecentlywastypicallycontinuedfortwoorthreeyearsperchild),“nowhereintheworldistherearingofchildrenprimarilytheresponsibilityofmen....”Thus,iftheproductivelaborofwomenisnottobelosttothesocietyduringthechildbearingyears,thejobsregularlyassignedtowomenmustbecarefullychosentobe“compatiblewithsimultaneouschildwatching.”FromempiricalobservationBrowngleansthat“suchactivitieshavethefollowingcharacteristics:theydonotrequireraptconcentrationandarerelativelydullandrepetitive;theyareeasilyinterruptible[Iseearuefulsmileoneverycaregiver ’sface!]andeasilyresumedonceinterrupted;theydonotplacethechildinpotentialdanger;andtheydonotrequiretheparticipanttorangeveryfarfromhome.”1

Justsucharethecraftsofspinning,weaving,andsewing:repetitive,easytopickupatanypoint,reasonablychild-safe,andeasilydoneathome.(Contrasttheideaofswingingapickinadark,cramped,anddustymineshaftwithababyonone’sbackorbeinginterruptedbyachild’scrisiswhiletryingtopourmoltenmetalintoasetofmolds.)Theonlyotheroccupationthatfitsthecriteriaevenhalfsowellisthatofpreparingthedailyfood.Foodandclothing:Thesearewhatsocietiesworldwidehavecometoseeasthecoreofwomen’swork(althoughothertasksmaybeaddedtotheload,dependinguponthecircumstancesoftheparticularsociety).

Readersofthisbookliveinadifferentworld.TheIndustrialRevolutionhasmovedbasictextileworkoutofthehomeandintolarge(inherentlydangerous)factories;webuyourclothingreadymade.Itisararepersoninourcitieswhohaseverspunthreadorwovencloth,althoughaquicklookintoafabricstorewillshowthatmanywomenstillsew.Asaresult,mostofusareunawareofhowtime-consumingthetaskofmakingtheclothforafamilyusedtobe.

InDenmarkfiftyyearsagoyoungwomenboughttheiryarnsready-madebutstillexpectedtoweavethebasicclothfortheirhouseholds.Iftheywenttoaweavingschoolratherthanbeingtaughtathome,theybeganwithadozenplaincottondishtowels.Mymother,beingaforeignernotinneedofatrousseau,andwithlessthanayearatherdisposaltostudyDanishweaving,consentedtoweavehalfofonetoweltogetstarted.Thenextassignmentwastoweavethreewaffle-weavebathmats.(Indeed,thethreewerenicelygaugedtolastalifetime.ThesecondworeoutwhenIwasincollege,andwestillhavethethird.)Nextcametheweavingofwoolenscarvesandblankets,linentablecloths,andsoforth.MostcomplicatedweretheelaborateapronsforSundaybest.

ThirtyyearsagoinruralGreece,muchhadchangedbutnotall.Peopleworestore-bought,

factory-madeclothingofcottonfordailywear,atleastinsummer.Buttraditionalfestiveoutfitsandallthehouseholdwoolenswerestillmadefromscratch.Ittakesseveralhourstospinwithahandspindletheamountofyarnonecanweaveupinanhour,sowomenspunastheywatchedthechildren,girlsspunastheywatchedthesheep,bothspunastheytrudgedorrodemulebackfromonevillagetoanotheronerrands(fig.1.1).Thetoolsandmaterialswerelightandportable,andthedoubleuseofthetimemadeboththespinningandthetrudgingorwatchingmoreinteresting.Infact,ifwereckonupthecleaning,spinning,dyeing,weaving,andembroideringofthewool,thevillagersappearedtospendatleastasmanylaborhoursonmakingclothasonproducingthefoodtobeeaten—andthesepeopleboughthalftheirclothingready-made!

Figure1.1.SeventeenthcenturywoodcutofwomenintheBalkansspinningwhiletraveling.Spinningwassuchatime-consumingyetsimpleandnecessaryjobthatwomenfrequentlyspunthreadwhiledoingotherthings.

Recordsshowthat,beforetheinventionofthesteamengineandthegreatfactorymachinesthatitcouldrun,thissortofdistributionoftimeandlaborwasquitenormal.Mostofthehoursofthewoman’sday,andoccasionallyoftheman’s,werespentontextile-relatedactivities.(InEuropementypicallyhelpedtendandshearthesheep,plantandharvesttheflax,andmarketanyextratextilesavailableforcashincome.)

“Sowhyisit,ifwomenweresoenslavedbytextileworkforallthosecenturies,thatthespinningjennyandpowerloomwereinventedbyamanandnotawoman?”Ayoungwomanaccostedmewiththisquestionafteralecturerecently.

“Th[e]reason,”toquoteGeorgeFoster,writingaboutproblemsinpotterymaking,“liesinthenatureoftheproductiveprocessitselfwhichplacesapremiumonstrictadherencetotriedandprovenwaysasameansofavoidingeconomiccatastrophe.”Putanotherway,womenofallbutthetopsocialandeconomicclassesweresobusyjusttryingtogetthroughwhathadtobedoneeachdaythattheydidn’thaveexcesstimeormaterialstoexperimentwithnewwaysofdoingthings.(Myhusbandboughtandlearnedtouseanewword-processingprogramtwoyearsbeforeIbegantouseit,forexactlythesereasons.Iwasinthemiddleofwritingabookusingtheoldsystemandcouldn’taffordtotakethetimeoutbothtolearnthenewoneandtoconverteverything.Iwasalreadytoodeepinto“production.”)EliseBouldingelaborates:“[T]hegeneralsituationoflittlemarginforerrorleading

toconservatismmightapplytothewholerangeofactivitiescarriedoutbywomen.Becausetheyhadsomuchtodo,slightvariationsincareoffarmordairyproductsorpotterycouldleadtofoodspoilage,productionfailure,andaconsequentincreaseinalreadyheavyburdens.”Therichwomen,ontheotherhand,didn’thavetheincentivetoinventlaborsavingmachinerysincetheworkwasdoneforthem.

Andsoformillenniawomendevotedtheirlivestomakingtheclothandclothingwhiletheytendedthechildrenandthecookingpot.Oratleastthatwasthecaseinthebroadzoneoftemperateclimates,whereclothwasspunandwoven(ratherthanmadeofskins,asintheArctic)andwheretheweatherwastoocoldforpartoralloftheyeartogowithoutawarmingwrap(asonecouldinthetropics).ConsequentlyitwasinthetemperatezonethattheIndustrialRevolutioneventuallybegan.

TheIndustrialRevolutionwasatimeofsteamengines.Alongwiththelocomotivetosolvetransportationproblems,thefirstmajorapplicationsofthenewenginesweremechanizationsofthemakingofcloth:thepowerloom,thespinningjenny,thecottongin.Theconsequencesofyankingwomenandchildrenoutofthehometotendthesehuge,dangerous,andimplacablemachinesinthemillscausedthedevastatingsocialproblemswhichwriterslikeCharlesDickens,CharlotteBrontë,andElizabethGaskell(allofwhomkneweachother)portrayedsovividly.Suchafactoryistheantithesisofbeing“compatiblewithchildrearing”oneverypointinJudithBrown’slist.

Westernindustrialsocietyhasevolvedsofarthatmostofusdon’trecognizeDickens’spicturenow(althoughitstilldoesexistinsomepartsoftheworld).Wearelookingforwardintoanewage,whenwomenwhosodesirecanreartheirchildrenquietlyathomewhiletheypursueacareerontheirchild-safe,relativelyinterruptible-and-resumablehomecomputers,linkedtotheworldnotbymulebackorthesteamlocomotive,orevenacar,butbythetelephoneandthemodem.Fortheirpart,thehandloom,theneedle,andtheotherfibercraftscanstillformsatisfyinghobbies,asthey,too,remaincompatiblewithchildwatching.

Spinningandweavingweresuchcommonhouseholdactivitiesformillenniathateveryoneundoubtedlyknewhowtheyworked,whethereverperformingtheactionsornot.Butnowthatfactorymachineshavetakenoverthesejobs,mostAmericanshaveengagedinweavingonlyasachildhoodgame—suchasweavinglittlepotholdersoutofthestretchyloopsinakit—andhaveneverencounteredspinning.Abriefdescriptionofthesebasicprocessesisthusinorder.

Weavingclothrequiresthreadofsomesort,andthreadismadefromfibers,sowemustbeginwiththefibers.

Imagineyourselfwithahandfulofcoarsefibers,orbetteryet,gogetsome.Notcotton:cottonhairsareextremelyshortandfinesoyoucan’tseehowtheybehave.(Theyarealsonoteasytospinforthesereasons.)Imagineinsteadahankofwooljustasitcomesoffthebackofasheeporgoat;youmayhaveseenitstucktothefenceofacageatthezoo.Ortakethelong,coarsefibersfromarottedplantstemorfromapieceofoldfrayedropeortwine.(Ropeusedtobemadechieflyfromhemp,thespeciestowhichmarijuanabelongs,butnowitisusuallymadefromsynthetics,whichareslipperyandthereforehardtoworkwith.)

Tomakethreadoutofthesefibers,youmusttwistthemtogetherlongwaysafewatatime.Althougheachindividualfiberisweak,twistinganumberofthemtogethercanmakeathreadthatisquitestrong.Aneasywaytodothisistotakeasmallbunchoffibersandrolloneenddownyourthighwiththeflatofyourhandwhileholdingtheotherendtight(fig.1.2).Thusoneendgetstwistedwithrespecttotheotherend,lockingthefiberstogetherintheprocess.

Figure1.2.Fiberswilllockintoastrongthreadwhentwistedtightlytogether.Asimplewaytomakeashortthreadistoholdtheendsofsomefibersinthelefthandandrolltheotherendofthebundledownone’sthighwiththeflatoftherighthand.

Ifthefibersyoubeginwitharealsoverylong,thatmaybeallyouhavetodo.Hemp,forinstance,growstwelvefeethigh,soyoucanmakeatwelve-footstringbydoingnothingmorethanaddingtwisttothenaturalfibers.Flax,whichgivesthefinematerialwecalllinenwhenitisprocessed,growstofourfeet,whilesilkfibers,whichareunwoundfromthecocoonofaspecialspeciesofmoth,maybeasmuchasathousandyardslong(andincrediblythin).Butmostfibersarenotthatlong.Woolisatbestonlyafewinchesinlengthandusuallymuchshorter;cottonisshorterstill.Soweneedsomewaytomakethreadlongerthananyonesinglefiber,extendingitaslongasweplease.

Toaccomplishthat,imagineoverlappingtheendofonebundleoffibersovertheendsofthepreviousgroupbeforeaddingthetwistthatlocksthemtogether.Butyoucanseethatwewillgetlumpyspotsattheoverlapandthinspotsinbetween.(Someancientthreadisactuallymadethatway.)Whatwereallyneedisawaytokeepaconstanttrickleofoverlappingfibersflowingintothethreadaswemakeit,insteadofaddingthemindiscretebunches.Todothis,weneedsomepreparationandasimpletool,thespindle.

First,thefibersyoudrawfrommustbelooseandnottangledtogethersoyoucangettheexactamountyouneedatalltimes.Otherwiseyouwillsuddenlyfindyouhavepulledabigclotofthemallatonce—orworse,gottentoofewsomewhere,sothethreadgetstoothinandbreaks.

Therearetwobasicwaysofarrangingthefibersforspinning,asyouloosenthem:layingthemparalleltoeachotherorencouragingthemtolieeverywhichwayinafluffymass(thisispracticalonlywithfairlyshortfibers).Youcanmakethemsitparallelbycombingthem,muchthewayyoucombyourhairtogetthetanglesout.Thenyougetaverystrongthread(calledworsted)thatisalsoveryhardtothetouch,becauseithasnofluffiness.Thefibersallarepackedinclose,lyingrightnexttooneanotherastheytwist.Men’swoolsuitstodayareusuallymadeofworstedthread,forlongwear.

Ifyouwantsoftness,however,youcanusecardingpaddlestoloosenthetanglesinthefiberswithoutactuallycombingthem.Theseflatboardswithhandleshavelotsoflittlebentteethtopullthefibersapartsotheylieinalldirections.(ThenamecomesfromtheLatinwordforathistle,carduus,becauseinancienttimestheteethofthistlesweresetintoboardsforfluffingfiber.)Theprocessofcardingismuchliketeasingyourhairtomakeitfluffy.Theproblemwithyarnfromcardedfiber,however,isthatitisratherweakandbreakseasily.Modernknittingyarnsarealmostinvariablycarded,andtheycanaffordtobebecausetheknittedloopsmaketheclothstretchyenoughtooffset

therelativeweaknessoftheyarn.Sweatersknittedfromthesecardedyarnsfeelsoftandevenspongy.Onceyouhaveyourfibersprepared,youarereadytospin.Thecrudestway,andprobablythe

oldest,istheonewehavementioned:takingasmallbunchoffibersandrollingoneenddownyourthighwiththeflatofyourhandwhileholdingontotheotherend.Buttogetaconstantstreamoffibersflowingintothethreadasyoumakeit,youneedonehandtoholdthepreparedfibers,anothertoaddthemtothethread,athirdtokeeptwisting(thecoreoperation),andafourthtoholdthefinishedthread—becauseifyouletgoofthenewyarnatthisstage,itwillinstantlyballupinasnarllikeanangryrubberbandandthenstartcomingapart.Timeforsometools:Wedon’thavefourhands.

Aspindleisbasicallyjustastick,usuallyaboutafootlong.Whentheendofthenewthreadhasbeenattachedtothetipofthestick,turningthestickwillforce

theendofthethreadtoturn,too,addingtwisttothefiberstomakethethread.Butwhensomethreadhasbeenfinished,itcanbewoundaroundthesticktokeepitfromtanglingwhilestillmoreisbeingspun.Thusthetoolthattwistsisatthesametimethetoolthatholds.Thatreducestheneededhandstothree.

Howtogetitdowntotwo?Onehandmustalwaysbeusedforthecrucialjobofaddingthefibersatacontrolledrateintothenewthread,whilesomehowthespindlemustbekeptturningandthefibersupplymustbeheldnear.

Onesolutionistolaythefibersupplydownontheground,turnthespindlewithonehand,andusetheothertoflickthefibersafewatatimeintothegrowingthread.ThisishowancientMesopotamianwomendidit,aswellasruralwomentodayintheSudan.(Itispracticalifandonlyifthefibersarequiteshort—lessthanacoupleofincheslong.)

Theothersolutionistoholdthefibersanddropthespindle—aftergivingitaquickflicktostartitspinninglikeatop(fig.1.3).Ithangsintheairlikeayo-yo,whirlingmerrilyonitsthread,whilethespinnerusesonehandtoholdtheunspunfiberandtheothertocontrolthefeedingofthefibersintothetwist.Whenthenewthreadgetssolongthatthespindlereachestheground,youhavetostopandwindeverythinguponthespindleshaftandthenstartthespindletwirlingagainintheair.ThisisthewayEuropeanpeasantsspin,andapparentlyalwayshave.Ithastheadvantageofbeingentirelyportablesincenothinghastobelaiddown.Infact,IhaveseenGreekvillagewomenspinningquitehandilywhileridingsidesaddleonmuleback.Inordertobeabletocarryabigsupplyofrawmaterial,onecanbindthepreparedfibertoalongstickorboard,calledadistaff(fromanoldworddis-,meaning“fuzz,fiber,”plusstaff,afuzz-stick).

Figure1.3.Womanspinningwithadropspindle,depictedonaGreekvaseofca.490B.C.

BackintheNeolithicerapeoplediscoveredthattoreducewobbleasthespindleturnsandtoprolongthespinitishelpfultoaddalittleflywheel—asmalldiskcalledaspindlewhorl.Spindlesareusuallywooden;whorlsaremostoftenofclay.Butonecanuseanapple,apotato,orarockforthewhorlifnothingelseisavailable.Contrarytopopularassumption,itdoesn’thavetobeperfectlyroundaslongasthespindleshaftgoesthroughtheverymiddleofit.

Spinningthiswayisslow,butfarfasterthanrollingthethreadonthethighwithnospindle.EarlyintheMiddleAges,however,anewinventionappeared:thespinningwheel.Justwhoinventeditisstillunknown,althoughanoldChinesedeviceforwindingthreadmayhavebeentheinspiration.Thefoot-poweredspinningwheelallowedpeopletospinaboutfourtimesfasterthanwiththedroppedspindle,soitwasmuchindemand.Buttheprincipleisexactlythesameaswithahandspindle:Pullfibers,twistthem,andwindupthethread.Finallyinthelateeighteenthcentury,earlyintheIndustrialRevolution,amannamedJamesHargreavesinventedamechanicalspinningmachine(laternicknamedthespinningjenny)becausehewasdistressedathowhardhiswifeanddaughtershadtoworktospintheirincreasinglylargequotasofthreadforthenewpowerlooms.Thewomeninhisfamilyweredelighted,buthisneighborsbecamefiercelyjealousofthe“unfair”competitionandranhimoutoftownafterwreckinghisfirstmachine.

Tokeepthethreadfromuntwistingwhenitistakenoffthefilledspindle,themostefficientremedyistoplythethread.ThewordcomesfromFrenchplier,meaning“tobend,”becauseifyoutakeaspunthread,benditinhalf,andletgo,thetwohalveswillbrieflytwistaroundeachotherandleaveyouwithanicethreadoftwicethethicknessthatwillnolongertrytocomeundone.Tryit.(Thesamecanbeaccomplishedbytwistingtwoseparatethreadstogetherintheoppositedirectionfromthatinwhichtheywerespun.Thisisthenormalwaytodoit.)

Spinning,incidentally,isaveryrestfulactivity.Thatisagoodthing,becauseittakesanenormousamountoftimetomakethreadbyhand.Likeknitting,itispleasantlyrhythmicandcanbedonesittingdown,withnophysicalexertion,justpatience.

Onceenoughthreadhasbeenmade,weavingtheclothcanbegin.Weavingconsistsofinterlacing

twosetsofthreadsatrightanglestoeachother.Butbecausethreadisveryfloppy,likespaghetti(unlikethematerialsthatmatsandbasketsaremadeof),itisalmostimpossibletoweavetheonesetofthreadsthroughtheotherwithoutonegroup’sbeinghelddowntight—thatis,puttingtensionononesetofthreads.Thesetthatispulledtightiscalledthewarp,andtheframethatholdsthewarpfastisknownastheloom.Thesecondsetofthreads,whichneedstobeinterlacedintothefirst,iscalledtheweft(anoldpasttenseoftheverbweave—thatis,“whathasbeenwovenin”).Theenterprisingreadercantakeafewshortlengthsofstring,layhalfofthemoutparallelonatable,andtryweavingtheotherhalfintothematrightangles.Theproblemswillbecomeclearimmediately.

Inthesimplestweave,calledplainweave,eachthreadofeithersetgoesoveroneandthenunderonethreadoftheoppositeset(fig.1.4).Youcanseeclothofthissortinanyhousehold;simpleitemslikesheets,pillowcases,andhandkerchiefsarestillmadethisway.(Ifyouhaveneverthoughtbeforeaboutthestructureofcloth,takeacloselookatasheetorhandkerchiefrightnow.)Itisalsopossibletoweavevariouspatternsintotheclothbyhavingtheweftgooverandunderdifferentnumbersofwarp.

Figure1.4.Inthesimplestweave(plainweaveortabby),eachthreadpassesalternatelyoveroneandthenunderonethreadofthethreadsatrightanglestoit.

Tomakethesestructures—toweave—somehowonehastopushtheweftundersomeofthewarpthreadsbutoverothersontheloom.Onecandothisthetediousway,usinganeedletotaketheweftoverorunderonelittlethreadatatime,rowafterrow.(Thistechniqueisknownasdarningandisstillusedasawaytomendsocksbythosewhodon’tjustthrowholeysocksaway.)Oronecantrytoliftatoneswoopallthewarpthreadsthathavetobegoneunder,leavinginplacealltheonesthattheweftmustgoover(fig.1.5).Thismassiveliftingformsalittlepassagewaycalledashed(inaverticalloomitlookslikethedouble-pitchedroofofatoolshedslantingofftoeitherside),andthroughthispassagetheweavercaninsertawholelineofweftatonce.

Howtoraisetheselectedwarpthreadssonothinggetstangledup?Thatisnotaneasyproblem.Thenormalwayistopasseachthreadthroughaseparatelittleloop,aheddle(fig.1.5),inthemiddleoftheloom,andtheheddlesinturnaretiedtobarsabovethewarp(theheddlebars).Thewarpthreadscanthenbecontrolledbyraisingtheloopsinlargegroupsbymeansofthebars,muchthewaythesustainpedalonagrandpianoraisesawholerowofdampersatonce,althoughthedampers(likeheddles)canalsoberaisedoneatatime.

Figure1.5.Diagramofhowthewarpthreads,stretchedbetweentwobeams(hollowcircles),areseparatedintotwoalternatingsheds(openings)toallowthewefttobeinserted.Top:Theweft(arrow)ispassedthroughtheshedformedbyusingashedbar(hatchedoblong)todepresseverysecondthread—i.e.,halfthewarp.Bottom:Theweft(arrow)goesthroughtheoppositeshedformedbyraisingthesamehalfofthewarpwithheddleloopsattachedtoaheddlebar(hatchedcircle).Toorientthisdiagramforaverticalloom,rotateitninetydegrees(clockwiseforawarp-weightedloom,counterclockwiseforatapestryloom).

Infact,itseemstohavetakenseveralmillenniaofdarningtheweftinatasnail’spacebeforesomegeniusfiguredouttheprincipleoftheheddle—apparentlyintheNeolithic(about6000B.C.?),somewhereinnorthernIraqorTurkey.FromtheretheideamusthavespreadslowlytoEurope,totheOrient,andeventuallybyboattoSouthAmerica.Itissuchadifficultconceptthatitmayhavebeeninventedonlyonce.Butitiswhatmadeweavinganefficientprocess.

What,then,isthehistoryofthisrelationshipbetweenwomenandtextiles?Whendidwomenbegintotakeupanddevelopthefibercrafts?Howdidwomenandtheirspecialworkaffectsociety,andhowdidthesocietiesaffectthem?Theseinteractionswillformthestoryofthisbook.

1NoticeBrown’sstipulationthatthisparticulardivisionoflaborrevolvesaroundreliance,notaroundability(otherthantheabilitytobreast-feed),withinacommunityinwhichspecializationisdesirable.Thusfemalesarequiteabletohunt,andoftendo(asshepointsout);malesarequiteabletocookandsew,andoftendo,amongtheculturesoftheworld.Thequestioniswhetherthesocietycanaffordtorelyonthewomenasagroupforallofthehuntingorallofthesewing.Theanswerto“hunting”(andsmithing,anddeep-seafishing)isno.Theanswerto“sewing”(andcooking,andweaving)isyes.

2

TheStringRevolution

...athreefoldcordisnotquicklybroken.—Ecclesiastes4:12

Somefortythousandyearsago,atthebeginningofthelastphaseoftheOldStoneAge(calledtheUpperPalaeolithic),humanbeingsbegantoactverydifferentlyfromthewaytheyeverhadbefore.Forsometwomillionyearstheyhadfashionedsimplestonetools,andforhalfamilliontheyhadcontrolledfireandhuntedcooperativelyingroups.Butfortythousandyearsago,asthegreaticesheetsthathadcoveredthenortherncontinentsretreatedbyfitsandstarts,humansstartedtoinventandmakenewthingsatatremendousrate,likeaslow-ascendingfirecrackerthatsuddenlyexplodesintoathousandsparksofvariedcolor,shootinginathousanddirections.

Thesenewlycreativehunter-gatherersproducednoveltools—suchasawls,pins,andvariouschisellikeburins—buttheyalsobegantosculptanimals,people,andotherinformation(possiblycalendrical)onpiecesofivoryandboneandtomakequantitiesofbeadsforadornment.PeopleoftheUpperPalaeolithicpaintedpicturesofanimalsanddrewaroundtheirownhandsoncavewalls;thisistheperiodofthefamousStoneAgepaintingsfromLascaux,Altamira,andothercavesinFranceandSpain.Justasimportant,andmoretoourpurposehere,theseancestorsinventedstringandsewingandthusprovidedthefirstchapterinthestoryofwomen’slongassociationwiththefibercrafts.

Asnearaswecanplaceit,theeventoccurredtwentytothirtythousandyearsago,rightinthemiddleoftheUpperPalaeolithic.Whileotherswerepaintingcavesorknappingfancyflints,somegeniushitupontheprincipleoftwistinghandfulsoflittleweakfiberstogetherintolong,strongthread.

Howdoweknowthis?Nothingsoperishablehassurvivedthosetwenty-fivetothirty-fivethousandyears,althoughbysomemiracleonebitofneatlyspunandpliedcordagehasmadeitthroughfromabout15,000B.C.(seebelow).Ourearliestevidenceisindirect.Weinferthishumbleyetcrucialinventionfromsignificantchangesinotherobjectsofasturdiernature.

TheUpperPalaeolithiccultureknowntopalaeontologistsastheGravettian(fromthenameoftheFrenchsitewhereitwasfirstrecognized:LaGravette,ontheDordogneRiver)seemstohavesprungupincentralandeasternEurope,spreadinggraduallywestwardalongthesouthedgeofthegreaticesheettosouthernFranceandSpain.RadiocarbondatessuggestthattheGravettianculturelastedroughlysixthousandyears,from26,000to20,000B.C.Duringthisvasttimeneedlesbecomecommon,andbeadsofshell,tooth,andboneturnupwithincreasinglysmallholes.Thesmallerbeads,moreover,begintooccurarrangedinneatrowsacrossthebones(sometimestheskulls)ofthedeceased.Clearlythesebeadshadbeensewnontogarments,madeprobablyofhide.InacaveneartheMediterraneanborderbetweenmodernFranceandItaly,anadolescentyoungmanwasfoundcarefullyinterredwearingacaporhairnetsewnorstrungwithfourtidyrowsoftinyshellbeads.Hisbodylayprotectivelyaroundthatofasmallerandmucholderwoman—hismother?—whoworea

braceletofsimilarbeads.Fromsuchartifactsaloneonecandeduceaknowledgeofsewing.Butthereisproofthatatleast

someofthethreadinusehadbeentwistedtogetherfromsmallnaturalfibers,ratherthancutfromlong,stringybodypartslikegutorsinew.Itcomesfromabonesculptureofawomanwearingaskirtmadeofstring(fig.2.1).

Figure2.1.SmallPalaeolithicVenusfigurefoundatLespugue,France,carvedofboneca.20,000B.C.(Gravettianculture).Thewomanwearsaskirtmadeoftwistedstringssuspendedfromahipband.Suchskirtsseemtohavebeenassociatedwithchildbearing.

Thissmall,plump“Venusfigure”(anicknameforallthelittlebone,stone,andivoryfigurinesofwomenfromthePalaeolithic)comesfromLespugue,insouthernFrance,andisprobablyoflateGravettianmanufacture.Herskirtconsistsoflongstringshangingdownthebackfromahipband,andtheancientsculptorhastroubledtoengravethetwistsineachstring.Furthermore—adetailIdidnotnoticeuntilIbegantomakemyowndrawingfromalarge,clearphotographobtainedfromtheMuséedel’HommeinParis—thesculptorhasshownthestringsfrayingoutatthebottomintoamassofuntwistedfibers.Thesecannotbethongsofsineworhide;theycanonlybetruetwisted-fiberthread.

Wedon’tknowhowearlytodatethisgreatdiscovery—ofmakingstringaslongandasstrongasneededbytwistingshortfilamentstogether.Butwheneverithappened,itopenedthedoortoanenormousarrayofnewwaystosavelaborandimprovetheoddsofsurvival,muchastheharnessingofsteamdidfortheIndustrialRevolution.Soft,flexiblethreadofthissortisanecessaryprerequisitetomakingwovencloth.Onafarmorebasiclevel,stringcanbeusedsimplytotiethingsup—tocatch,tohold,tocarry.Fromthesenotionscomesnaresandfishlines,tethersandleashes,carryingnets,handles,andpackages,nottomentionawayofbindingobjectstogethertoformmorecomplextools.(Nets,forexample,worksoefficientlythatnowadaystheyaremostlyillegalforcatchingfish

infreshwater.Sportsmendon’tconsidernettingsufficiently“sporting,”andfurthermore,innotimetherewouldbenofishlefttospawnmore.)Sopowerful,infact,issimplestringintamingtheworldtohumanwillandingenuitythatIsuspectittobetheunseenweaponthatallowedthehumanracetoconquertheearth,thatenabledustomoveoutintoeveryeconicheontheglobeduringtheUpperPalaeolithic.WecouldcallittheStringRevolution.

Whatwasitliketoliveinthisbusynewworld,sodifferentfromagespast,yetaworldstillwithouthouses,stoves,andrefrigerators,withnothingbutrocksandwildplantsandanimalstosupplyallone’sneeds?Thestonesandbonesofarchaeologyyieldbutadryandlifelesspicture,andaveryincompleteoneatthat.

Wecanrecognizeanancientcampsite(ifweareluckyenoughtofindone)bysmalldepositsofashesandcarboninplaceswhereacontrolledfireburned.StonetoolsofthePalaeolithicmaywellhavesurvived,too,knownbytheirdeliberatelychippededgesandregularshapes.Butstoneisahardmediumtowork.Ancientpeopleundoubtedlyusedsoftermaterialslikewood,leather,andbarkwhereverthesewoulddothejob,butthesesofterthingsalmostneversurviveeventwothousandyears,letalonetwentythousand.Sowemustrecognizethatwehavelostmostofthetoolsandtrappingsofthattime.Furthermore,materialremainstelluslittleabouttheintangiblepartsofculture:aboutmarriageanddinnerrecipesandhowtheworldwascategorized.(Anyonewhohaseverlearnedasecondlanguageknowsthatdifferentcultureslookattheworlddifferently,fromwhatcolorsandhowmanyofthemformtherainbowtowhoiscountedaskin.)

Usingtheexcavatedfindsasafirmpedestal,however,wecannowturnabackward-lookingspyglassbuiltfromthelinguisticreconstructionofearlylanguagestocatchsomelivelyglimpsesofthatarchaicworld.Words,asithappens,sometimessurvivethemillenniabetterthanmaterialobjects,andtheydosobestinareasinwhichtheculturechangedonlyveryslowly—asinthefarnorth,wheretheintensewintercolddiscouragedimmigrants.1

AllacrossEuropetothenorthofthelinguisticallynumerousIndo-Europeans2livespeakersoftheUraliclanguagefamily(fig.2.2).TheirmoderntonguesincludeFinnish,Estonian,andLappishinthenorthwest,plusMordvinandagreatmanyothersinRussia,allthewayintoSiberiajusteastoftheUralMountains.Hungarian,too,belongstothisgroup,itsspeakershavingmovedintocentralEuropefromtheUralsonlyathousandyearsago.Butasnearaswecantell,theUralicspeakersofthefarnortharethe“original”inhabitantsofthatarea,atleastsincethelateIceAge.Thatis,theyfollowedtheretreatingicesheets—andthegreatherdsoftundraanimals—intothenewlyemerginglandtowardtheendofthePalaeolithic.WhiletheinhabitantsoftheNearEastandsoutheasternEuropebegantosettledownanddevelopnewideasofexploitingplantsandanimalsthroughdomesticationandfarming(thestagewecalltheNeolithic:seefig.0.3andChapter3),thepeoplenorthofthisbusycentercontinuedforthousandsofyearsinmuchtheoldway,adoptingonlyafewnewideasfromtheNeolithicsouth.ThisshorttransitionalphasewecalltheMesolithic,orMiddleStoneAge.Itlastedtherefromroughly10,000to4000B.C.orlater.

Figure2.2.TreechartshowingtherelationshipamongsomeofthelanguagesintheUralicfamily,whichextendsacrossmuchofnorthernEurasia.OvermanymillenniathemodernUraliclanguages(atthebottom)haveslowlydivergedinformfromacommonparent(atthetop).

TheSwedishscholarBjörnCollinderspentmuchofhislifecollectingandcomparingthevocabularyofthevariousUraliclanguages.UsingthewordsthatappearedinseveralUralicbranches,hedividedhismaterialintothosetermswhichwereclearlyloans(mostlyfromIndo-Europeansources)andthosewhichwerenot—termsalreadypartofthelanguagewhenthespeakersofearlyUralic,likethoseofearlyIndo-European,begantospread.Readingthroughthe“native”partofCollinder ’scomparativedictionaryislikegoingonavisualwalkthroughtheMesolithicorthelatePalaeolithic.Withthepossibleexceptionoftermsthatmayalreadyrefertoherdingreindeer(semidomestication),andasingletermreferringtometal,thenativeexpressionscommontotheselanguagessufficetoaccountonlyforaMesolithiceconomy,whereaswordsforagricultureandthespecificmetalsarelaterborrowings.3(TheitalicizedexpressionsinwhatfollowsrepresenttheEnglishmeaningsofwordsinthevocabularycommontoUralicspeakers.)

Wesee,throughtheterms,thatthislandwaslittledifferentfromthetundrazoneofthefarnorthtoday.Forexample,theirwordstellusthattheylivedamongrivers,lakes,swamps,andforests.Theyencounteredsnowstormsandsnowdriftsandtrampledsnow,buttheyalsohadaverbforkeepingwarm,aswellaswordsforfireandcoals.Summerwas,understandably,calledthaw-time.

Whatmightlifehavebeenlikeonabrightmorninginthawtime?Theprimeobjective,ofcourse,wastogetfoodfortheday—andmoreifpossible,topreserveforthewinterahead.Asinotherpreagriculturalsocieties,withnocropstoprovidearegularfoodsource,thewomenandchildrenundoubtedlyspentmuchofthedaygatheringwildplantfoodclosetocamp(afairlysafetask),whilethemenwanderedfartherafieldhuntinganimalfood.Todealwiththeyoungestchildrenwhiletheygathered,thewomenhadportablecradles,probablymadefromshortpolesandsofthides.Tohelpintheircollecting,theyfashionedcontainerssuchasbasketsandbirchbarkpails,bypeelingthebarkfrombirch,willow,andlindentrees.

Amongthetastiestthingstocollectwerethevarioussortsofwildberriesandseedsthatripenedthroughthesummer,aswellaseggsfromthenestsofthemanybirdsthatroostedthere.(Asforspecies,wehearofgrouse,sparrows,andcrows.)Butthesepeoplealsoknewofintoxicatingmushrooms,whichtheyalmostcertainlycollectedfromtimetotimeforritualpurposes.Narcoticsofallsortsseemalwaystohavebeenindemandforhallucinogenicrituals.Bytheirmeanstheparticipantscouldquicklycometoseetheinhabitantsofthespiritworld—deadancestorsandthelike—ofwhomtheycouldinquireaboutthefuture,curesforillness,lostobjects,orothermysteries.

Collectinghaditslittlehazards.Avarietyofstickerbusheslikenettle,thistle,andwildrosegrew

inthearea,forwhichtheinhabitantshadasinglename.Afterall,whatyouneededtoknowaboutthemwasnottheirbotanicalclassificationbutthepracticalfactthatthoseplantswerethekindthathurt!Theforagersalsoencounteredsnakes,lizards,worms,ants,and—scourgeofthetundra—hungrylittlefliesandmidges.Itiswithreliefthatwecatchsightofbutterfliesamongtheflyingswarms.

Thethingscollectedmayhaveincludedmorethanfood—forexample,thesoftlocalmosses,usableasstuffingforcushionsandsleepingpads.Foralthoughtheseearlypeopledidnothavepermanenthouses,theybuiltseasonalsheltersofwoodandperhapshides,toshelterthemselvesascomfortablyaspossiblefromtheelementswhiletheymovedaroundatintervalstofollowthechangingsourcesoffood.Infact,theyhadaspecialwordfortentpoles,whichtheycouldhavefashionedfromaspenorpoplar,spruce,fir,oranyoftheotherabundanttrees.

Theyalsobuiltraisedwoodenstorageframesforhoardsoffoodtobepreservedforleanerseasons.Theseedskeptwelljustastheywere,whileberries,fish,andthinstripsofmeatcouldbedriedforlateruse.Buttokeepthesepreciousstoressafefromtheprowlingwolvesandotherpredators,theyhadtobuildprotectivefences.

Whilethewomengatheredplantsandeggs,themenpresumablysearchedoutmovingprey;interestingly,theydesignatedhuntingandfishingwiththesameword.Asweaponstheycouldusenets,lines,traps,arrows,andknives.Tostalktheirprey,theyhadregularpaths,andtheyknewhowtofordstreams.Thequarrymusthaveincludedanimalslikereindeerandhares,aswellasfishofallsorts—especiallytypesofsalmonandpike.Thesnareswehearofmayhavebeenusedtocatchbirdsaswellasfish.Ifthekillorthecatchwasbigenough,sledgesmadewithrunnerscouldservetodragorcarryithome.

Backatcamp,whenthefoodwasbroughtin,therewasmuchtodo.Themeatcouldbecutupwithknives,sometobedriedandpreservedforwinter,sometobeeatenonthespot.Wedon’tknowwhodidthecooking,butwecandeducethatsouporporridgeoftengracedthemenu.Tomakeit,theyboiledtheingredientsinwaterandfishedthemoutofthecookingpotwithaladle.Theyalsoknewhowtoroastfoodonaspit.Fatandoilweresoimportanttothiscold-climatedietthattheymeritedseveralterms.

Therewereotherjobsbesidespreparingthefood.Thewarmfursofhares,reindeer,andfoxesneededtobepreparedandpreservedforwinterwrapsbycarefullyscrapingthehides.Thebasketsandbirchbarkpails,aswellasthehuntingandfishingnets,lines,andsnares,neededmakingandlatermending.Tomanufacturethelatterandtosewthehides,stringwaspreparedfromfiberplants(which,likethestickerbushes,gotasinglecatchallfunction-basedname)orfromstringybodyparts—indiscriminatelygut,sinew,veins,ortendon.Thesepeoplealsoknewhowtotwistvariousfibersintoropetotiethingsupandintothinnerthreadtostitchonpatchesandfastenerswiththehelpofaneedle.

Intheirbagsoftools,besidesknives,needles,andstring,theyhadpicks,flints,combs,scoops,andglue,alongwithborersforboringholes.Theytellustheyalsoknewhowtocarve.Ofsomeoftheseearlyactivitieswehavethephysicalremains,butwewouldn’thaveknownaboutgluing,forinstance,iftheyhadn’tleftthewordsbehind.

Duringatleastsomemonths(moon-ths)oftheyear,thecampsmusthaveincludedmorethanjustamotherandfatherwiththeirchildrenbecausetermsforboththeolderandyoungermaleandfemalerelationsofbothhusbandandwifehavecomedowntous.Sowecanimaginethemsittingaroundthecampfireofaneveninginlargergroups,makingandmendingtoolsandwrapswhiletheyswappedinterestingstoriesoftheiradventures,oftheirfriendsorcomradesandofthewomen’ssuitors.

Sometimespeoplewouldwrangle,admonish,orcurseandsometimesgethigh.Buttheyalsoknewhowtogivepresentsanddistributegoods.Itisnoteworthythatthewordforlanguagealsosometimesmeant“thenews,”“areport,”or“alegend.”Despitethefriendsandrelativeswenoticed,therejustweren’tverymanyhumansaroundyet,andnewsofanythingatall,evenanewtechniqueortool,musthaveseemedveryinteresting.(Togetasenseofthis,imaginehowhungryfornewsyouwouldfeeluponbeingreleasedfromasnowboundhutinAlaskaaftersixmonthsofwinter.)

Itwouldhavebeenpeoplelivinginaworldmuchlikethisone,around15,000B.C.,whoproducedouroldestpreservedfiberartifact(fig.2.3),aneatlymadespecimenfoundaccidentallybytheabbotA.GloryasheandotherarchaeologistswereworkinginthefamouspaintedcavesofLascaux,insouthernFrance.Herecountstheincident:

Abouttwointhemorning,exhaustedwiththeworkofcopyingtheengravingsontheceilingoftheapse,myhelpers...andIweregoingtorelaxbyhuntingfornewdrawingsandbyexploringnewgalleries.Ipickedupacompactlumpofclaywhichsealedthisfissure[runningbetweentwogalleries];theclodbrokeintoseveralpieces,whichItookintomyhandswiththeintentionofpulverizingthemtoverifytheirmakeup.AsIexaminedtheprofileofthefirstbit,...Inoticedafineblacklinewhichcrossedthesurfacefromoneendtotheother....MechanicallywiththetipofthebladeofmypocketknifeItappedattheunexpectedblackline

...Thelittlelumpofclaysplitopenintotwoslabsliketheleavesofabook.Isawimmediatelythecarbonaceousimprintofasortoffilletwithtwistedlinesstretchingtheentirelengthofthelump.Iinterpretedthisastheremainsofaplaitedvine,orsomesuchthing.Thesecondpieceopenedthesameway,butthepositiveandnegativetracesappearedtome

torepresentamorecomplicatedinterlace.Thethirdlumpbrokebothlengthwiseandcrosswise,andthefourthwasnottouched,toserveaswitness...Intriguedbytheseunexpectedfinds,wedissectedsquarebysquaretherestoftheclay

covering,buttoourgreatdisappointmentwecoulddisclosenothingfurther,exceptfornumerousparticlesofsootaseverywhereinthislayer,resultingprobablyfromthedebrisofthetorches...whichhadonceservedforlight....Seen[later]inthecrisplightofday,therewasnodoubtpossible:thefreshimprints,bothconcaveandconvex,inthefirstpiecepresentedtheveryclearcharacteristicsofatwistedcordformedofseveralstrandsonwhichonecoulddistinguisheventhepuffinessoftheirtwists.”

Figure2.3.Earliestpreservedstring,reconstructed:aheavycordtwistedfromthreetwo-plyfiberstrings,foundfossilizedinthepaintedcavesofLascaux,France,ca.15,000B.C.

Laboratoryanalysisshowedthepiecetohavebeenmadefromvegetablefiber—toofardisintegrated,alas,forteststodeterminetheplantspecies—andtwistedfromthreetwo-plycords(fig.2.3).Thepliedcords,moreover,hadeachbeenformedbytwistingtheircomponentstrandsintheotherdirectionfromthatinwhichtheyhadoriginallybeenspun.Suchoppositetwistingkeepsthecordfromcomingapartoncefinished(seeChapter1)—animportantprinciplethatcraftworkershaddiscoveredevenatthisearlydate.AbbotGloryconcludedthatthethreefoldcordhadprobablyservedtoguidetheseearlypeopledownthedarkandtreacherouspassagefromonegalleryofthecavetotheother.Nor,astheproverbsays,wasitquicklybroken.

Weknowforafact,then,thattwistedfiberstringandthreadwereavailableinthePalaeolithicandthatby15,000B.C.peoplepossessedasmuchskillasanyonecouldwishformakingcordage.Afterall,theyhadprobablybeenpracticingforfivetotenthousandyearsalready.Contrarytowhatoneoftenreadsintheliterature,Palaeolithicpeoplesdidnotneedtowaitforthedomesticplantsandanimalsofthenextgreatera,theNewStoneAge,orNeolithic,tohavefiberstouse.FortherelativelyshortlengthsofstringnecessaryforPalaeolithictasks,anabundanceofrawmateriallayforthetakinginthewild.

Eventodaypeopleunaccustomedtobuyingeverythingtheywantready-madewillmanufacturebitsofstringandropeonthespot,usingwhateverisathand.ASwedisharchaeologistexploringcentralAsiainthe1930sdescribedChinesecamelpullersinMongoliawhowould“simplysnatchatuftfromacamelsheddingitshairandinamomentturnitintoapieceofstringforrepairingapack-saddleorthelike,bytwiningitagainstthethigh....”Intheabsenceoftameanimals,however,wildplantswilldoquiteaswell.Flax,hemp,nettle,ramie,jute,sisal,esparto,maguey,yucca,elm,linden,willow—thelistofusableplantsgoesonandon,inboththeNewWorldandtheOld.Indeed,alltheearlieststringandthreadthatwepossessconsistofplantfiber,startingwiththecordfromLascaux,from15,000B.C.andcontinuingwiththefindsofstringandclothpreservedfromearlyNeolithicsitesintheNearEast,between7000and5500B.C.,andtheearliest-knownartifactsofcord,netting,andbasketryintheNewWorld,datingto8500to6500B.C.

Normustonegothroughthelongandlaboriousprocessoffreeingthefibersfromthewoodymatrixwithinwhichtheygrow,aswedowithourcropsoffiberplants.Thewinterweatherdoesthatquitewell,ifnotsoefficiently,toloneplants,slowlyrottingawaytheplantmaterialaroundthefibers.Ihaveonlytowalkoutintomyyardandcollectoffthebackfencethelong,dew-rettedfibersofthepassionfruitvinethatvolunteeredtogrowtherelastyear.SinglythefilamentswillreadilysnapifItugatthem,butcollectedinabundleandgivenafewtwistsaroundeachother,theyformayard-longhankofstringasgoodasanyfromthestore.

Thetransientlife-styleofthePalaeolithichuntersandgathererswouldhaverequiredsuchanat-needandon-the-spotapproachtomakingstring.Ifyouhavenosettledhome,youmustcarryallyourpossessions,soyoutendnottoacquiremuch—nomorethanabsolutelynecessary.Itisthusstillwiththe!KungofsouthwesternAfrica,whocontinuetopursueahunter-gathererwayoflife.AcquisitivenessisaNeolithicinvention.Stringnetstocatchamealandcarryithomeforthefamily,pluswrapstokeepwarmandafewsmalltoolsandlightcontainerstoholdandpreparethefood,forthousandsofyearswerepossessionsenough.Theheaviercraftslikepotteryawaitedtheadventofpermanenthousestostorethingsin.

Hencethefirstcraftotherthanchippingstonebladesandcarvingwoodenimplements(anotherperishedproduct)andthefirstimportantcraftnotdangeroustothechildrenmusthavebeenthefashioningofobjectsofandwithstringandfibers.Wehavenodirectrecordofwhodidwhatchoresinthatdistanttime,butwewillnotbefaroffinsurmisingthatthewomenwerealreadyinvolvedinthisinnocuoustaskwhiletheytendedtheirtoddlersaroundcamp.

Itisalsoonacarvingofawomanthatwefoundourfirstclearevidenceforfiberstring.Let’sreturntolookatthiswomanagain(fig.2.1).Herskirtisfashionedofcordssuspendedfromatwistedhipbandandhangingonlyintherear.AlmostalltheVenusfiguresarecompletelynaked,butafewotherswearclothing.AllthesecomefromUkraineandEuropeanRussia,whichlieasfartowardtheeasternendoftheGravettiancultureasLespugueliestowardthewestern(seemap,fig.2.4).AfewoftheVenusesfromthesiteofKostienkiwearsimplebandsorsashes,buttheVenusofGagarino(fig.2.5a)sportsastringskirt:ashorter,tidierskirtthanherFrenchsister,andthistimehangingonlyinthefront,butcoveringjustaslittle,whichistosay,nothingatallofwhatmodernWesternculturedemandsthatawomankeepcovered.

Figure2.4.MapoftheareaofEuropeinwhichPalaeolithicartifactsoftheGravettianculturearefound,showingregionsandsomeofthesitesinwhichancientormodernevidenceoccursforstringskirts(seefig.2.1and2.5–2.9).Thedashedlineindicatestheapproximate

southwardextentofthenorthernicesheetatthestartoftheUpperPalaeolithic.

Askirtsoskimpy,madeofloosestrings,can’thavebeenverywarm,anditcertainlydoesn’tanswertoournotionsofmodesty.Sowhatwasitfor?Whydidpeoplewhoownedsolittlegotoallthetroubleofmakingandwearingagarmentthatwassononfunctional?Andwhat’smore,whydidwomenchoosetowearsuchathingforsomanythousandsofyears?Wehaverepresentationsofwomeninlittlestringskirts,hereandthereinthissamebroadgeographicalareathroughthenexttwentythousandyears,andeven,around1300B.C.,someactualstringskirtspreservedorpartiallypreservedforusinthearchaeologicalrecord.

Figure2.5.StoneAgefigurinesofwomenwearingstringskirts:from(a)Gagarino,Russia(ca.20,000B.C.);(b)Šipintsi,westernUkraine(ca.3500B.C.);(c)Vinča,Serbia(4500B.C.);(d)CrnokalačkaBara,YugoslavMacedonia(ca.3000B.C.).Comparefigs.2.6–2.8.Thebindingsonthefeetof(d)lookverymuchlikethecrudebastshoeswithclothlegbindingsusedbyRussianandUkrainianpeasantsintothiscentury.

DuringtheNeolithic,aspeoplesettleddowninoneplacetopracticethenewartoffarming(makingitmucheasierforustolocatewheretheylived),wefindanincreasingarrayofclayfigurinesofwomeninstringskirts,fromsitesincentralandeasternEurope—theoldheartlandoftheGravettianculture.(InthisareatheNeolithic,orNewStoneAge,lastsfromshortlyafter6000B.C.totheintroductionofmetal,around3000B.C.)WehavesuchstatuettesfromvariouspartsofUkraineandtheBalkans(fig.2.5b–d).

InDenmarkandnorthernGermany,moreover,inadditiontofigurines,wehavetheremainsofstringskirtsonthebodiesofyoungwomenburiedinlogcoffinsduringtheBronzeAge,lateinthesecondmillenniumB.C.Oneoftheseskirts(fig.2.6),madeofwoolencordsstainedarichbrownbytheacidicgroundwaterthatpreservedit,iscomplete;wecaninspectitsmodeofmanufacture.Thethickpliedcordsthatformtheskirtwereanchoredbybeingwoventhroughanarrowbeltband,fromwhichtheyhungdowntoalengthofaboutfifteeninches.Atthebottomtheyhavebeencaughttogetherbyatwinedspacingcord,whichservestokeeptheminorder.Belowthat,theendshavebeenloopedintoanornamentalrowofknots,makingthebottomedgesoheavythattheskirtmusthavehadquiteaswingtoit,likethelong,beadedfringeonaflapper ’sdancedress.Thebeltbandonwhichalldependsissolongthattheskirtwaswornwrappedaroundtwice,ratherlowonthehips,andtiedinthecenterfrontwiththegenerousendsoftheband.Otherfindsoflesswell-preservedstringskirtsshowmuchthesamedesignfeatures,exceptthatsomewerefinishedoffatthebottombyencasingtheendsofthecordsinlittlemetalsleeves(fig.2.7).These,too,wouldhavegiventheskirtaconsiderableswishtoit,bytheirweight,aswellascaughttheearwiththeclickandtheeyewiththegleamofthemetal.

Figure2.6.StringskirtofwoolpreservedonthebodyofayoungwomanfoundatEgtved,Denmark,anddatingtothefourteenthcenturyB.C.(BronzeAge).Sheworeitwrappedaroundtwiceandslungratherlowonthehipssoitreachedtojustabovetheknees.TheskirtisnowdisplayedintheNationalMuseuminCopenhagen.

Figure2.7.Remainsofayoungwomanlaidtorestinashortstringskirtandotherfinery,fromØlby,Denmark(BronzeAge).Theendsofthestringswereencasedinlittletubesofbronze.Therowsoftubes(largelyfusedtogethernowbyoxidation)showhowshorttheskirtwas:theoriginalminiskirt.

Europeanscholarswerehorrified,whenthecompleteskirtwasdugupatEgtved,thattheirancestressesshouldhavewornsoindecentanapparelandproclaimedthattheladymusthavewornalinenshiftunderneathit,nowdisintegratedwithouttrace,tohidehernakedness.Thefigurinesindicate

otherwise.TheEgtvedgirlatleastworeawoolenblouse,butthespryyounggirlsinthebronzeimageswearnothingatallbutastringskirtofthesamedesign,andarathershorteroneatthat.

Innocasedothestringskirts—whetherPalaeolithic,Neolithic,orBronzeAge—provideforeitherwarmthormodesty.Inallcasestheyarewornbywomen.Tosolvethemysteryofwhytheyweremaintainedforsolong,Ithinkwemustfollowoureyes.Notonlydotheskirtshidenothingofimportance,butifanything,theyattracttheeyepreciselytothespecificallyfemalesexualareasbyframingthem,presentingthem,orplayingpeekaboowiththem.InalltheVenusfiguresthebreasts,belly,andpubicareaareheavilyemphasized;thatishowthesculpturescametobecalledVenuses.Hands,feet,andheadareoftenbarelycarvedatall.Tous,withourmoderncitystandardofslim“fitness,”thesewomenmayseemunattractivelyfat.Butmanyotherculturesviewplumpnessastheessenceoffemalebeauty,asourownculturedidin,say,Rubens’sday.Ofcourse,fatplayedadifferentrolethen.Awomanwhobecomestoothinwillbecometemporarilyinfertile(asmodernfemaleathletesdiscover).Soafatwomanisinafarbetterstatetosurviveandtosupportherchildwithherownmilkduringseasonalfamine.Inshort,obesityhelpsensuresuccessfulreproduction.

Ourbestguess,then,isthatstringskirtsindicatedsomethingaboutthechildbearingabilityorreadinessofthewoman,perhapssimplythatshewasofchildbearingage,havingreachedmenarchebutnotyetmenopause,orperhapsthatshehadreachedpubertybutwasnotyet“married”(whateverthatmighthavemeantintheparticularsociety:stillavirgin,orstillwithoutchild,orstillwithoutaregularmate)—inotherwords,thatshewasinsomesense“available”asabride.Thenotionofmarriage,asopposedtomeremating,issoimportanttothehumanracethattheneedtonegotiatethisproblemhasbeenseriouslysuggestedasoneofthemostpowerfuldrivestowardthedevelopmentoflanguage.4Indeed,clearsignalsastothemarriagestatusofwomenarecommonaroundtheworld,fromthetinygoldbandaroundthefourthfingertosignsvisiblefromfaraway,suchasthesquashblossomhairdooftheunmarriedHopigirlandtheglitteringcoin-coveredcapofthenewlywedMordvinwife.Dependinguponthesociety,suchamarkermightcarrywithitaconsiderablesenseofhonorandspecialness,certifyingtheweareraspossessingthemysteriousabilitytocreatenewhumanlife.

Ifthisisthecase,thenwedowelltolookatthegentlycomicaltalewhichHomertells,inthefourteenthbookoftheIliad,ofhowHerasetabouttoseduceZeus.

Hopingtodivertherall-powerfulhusband’sattentionfromthebattlefieldofTroyforawhile,Heragoestoherdivineapartmentstodressherselfinawaythatherspousewillnotignore.Shewashes,putsonperfume,braidsherhair,anddonsa“divinegarment”andgoldenjewelry.Thenshecarefullytiesaroundherself,forthisspecialoccasion,her“girdlefashionedwithahundredtassels.”FinallyshegoestoAphrodite,goddessofsexuallove,andaskssweetlyifshemightborrowAphrodite’sgirdleaswell.Inotherwords,tomakeverysureofherquarry,sheaskstousethedivinearchetypeofallsuchgirdles,intowhich,Homersays,“havebeencraftedallthebewitchments—initareLoveandLustandFlirtation—persuasionthathasstolenawaythemindofeventhecarefulestthinkers.”Aphroditeobliginglytakesoffherspecialgirdle(shewearsitconstantly,itseems,asabadgeofheroffice)andplacesitinthehandofthequeenofthegods,instructinghertoputitonunderthefoldofherbreast.(ThisistheliteralwordinganddescribesexactlyhowtheVenusofGagarinowearshers.Butthemoderntranslators,notunderstandingthegarment,usuallytamperwiththepassage.)AphroditetellsHerathatwiththisgirdleon,“whatyouwishforinyourmindwillnotgounaccomplished!”

Nordoesit.ZeusspotsHeracomingtowardhimacrossthemountaintops,forgetseverythingelse,anddemandsthatsheliewithhimthenandthere.

Whatcouldthisbe,this“girdleofahundredtassels,”butourstringskirt?Theformisright,infactunique,andthesignalthatZeuspicksup—thatithastodowithmakinglovetoawoman—isveryclosetowhatwehavesurmised.ThatthearchetypicaloneisownedbyAphroditefallscloserstill;inherhandswemightalmostcallitamatinggirdle.

Thestringskirtisstillaliveandwell,preservedinmanyafolkcostumeintheoldheartlandoftheGravettiancultureoftwentythousandyearsago:south-centralandeasternEurope(seefig.2.4).What’smore,thesymbolicfunctionthatwededucedfromtheancientexamplesispreservedrightalongwiththeform.

FartotheeastlietheMordvins,justeastofMoscowandwestoftheVolgaRiverandUralMountains.TheyspeakaUraliclanguagerelatedtoFinnishandtheothernorthernmostlanguagesontheEuropeancontinent(seefigs.2.2and2.4).WellintothiscenturycustomhaditthataMordvingirlwoulddonalongblackstringapronatthetimeofherbetrothal(fig.2.8a).Hangingonlyintheback,likethatoftheVenusofLespuguebutwider,itmarkedherasawife.Itsfunction,claimsaFinnishwomanwhohasresearchedthelocalcostumesthoroughly,wasthatof“thesymbolofamarriedwoman,”andassuchit“belongedtothesamecategoryasthewoollenandoftenfringedloindrapingsoftheSouthernGreatRussians,theBulgarians,theSerbsandtheRumanians.”Womenworeverysimpleonesforeveryday,butquiteelaborateonesforfestiveoccasions.

ThetypicalpeasantcostumeinmostofthecentralBalkansandUkraineconsistsofawhitechemiseofsoftvegetablefiber(linen,hemp,ormorerecentlycotton),overwhichthewomanusuallywearsapairofaprons,oneinthefront,theotherintheback.AmongtheVlachsofeasternSerbiaandintheBanatareaofRomaniajusttotheeast,aswellasamongtheWalachiansofsoutheasternRomania(fig.2.8b),thesolid-wovenpartoftheapronisremarkablyshort,halftoseven-eighthsofthelengthbeingoccupiedbyanenormousfringepredominantlyofblack(Serbia)orred(Romania).Furthermore,thewomendecoratethefrontapron,atleast,withawovenpatternoflozenges,generallytakenasapowerfulfertilitysymbol.Theselozenges,usuallywithlittlecurlyhooksaroundtheedge,rathergraphically,ifschematically,representawoman’svulva.InpartsofRomaniatheyoung,unmarriedwomanattachedtoherapronatthewaistachainwithringsandkeyshangingfromit—anotherunsubtleimageofthemechanicsofsex.Butifshereachedtheageofthirtywithouthavingbornechildren—woman’smostimportantworkinanexpandingsociety—shehadtomovethechaintothebottomofhercostume,toshowsymbolically(itissaid)thatshehadtrampledandwastedherchildbearingcapacityandduty.

Figure2.8.Stringskirtsamongrecentfolkcostumes:(a)Mordvin,backapron(black);(b)Walachian(Romanian),frontapron(red,wornwithabackapronidenticalexceptfornothavingthelozengepattern);(C)YugoslavMacedonian,frontapron(redwithblack;seefig.2.9fortheaccompanyingsash);(d)Albanian,frontapron(blackwithredlozenges).(Seemap,fig.2.4,forlocationsoftheseareas.)

Allthesemotifsreinforceoneanother.InmedievalRussiatheironlockplatesofthestoreroomsandstoragechestswereoftenwroughtintheformofahook-surroundedlozenge,whileasfarbackasthemid-firstmillenniumB.C.keystowomen’sjewelryboxeswerebeingmadeinphallicshapes.

Theimageofinsertingthekeytounlockthebountyofthestorehouseneedsnofurtherexplication,anditlinksthering-and-key“jewelry”directlytothelozengesontheapronstheyadorn.Everything—lozenge,ringandkey,andstringapron—isclearlytheretopromote,protect,andcelebratefemalefertility.

Farthersouth,inMacedonia,thereremainmanyvestigesofthestringskirt,alldoneinfieryreddishorange.AfriendbroughtmeaMacedonianoutfitfromhercostumecollectiontotryon(seefigs.2.8cand2.9).Thefrontpartconsistedofashortwovenapronwithapieceappliquédontoitthatexactlyframedthepubicboneunderneath.Belowthishungaweightyfringenearlydoublethelengthofthesolidpart.Wetieditontomeandbegantowrestlewiththeotherhalf,agirdleperhapstwelvefeetlong,wovenwithwhiteandblackthreadsinoppositedirectionsandterminatinginagreatfierycascadeofredfringeateitherend(fig.2.9).Icouldn’thelpnoticingthatthesefringesweredividedandwrapped,redividedandwrappedagaininanever-wideningpattern,muchthewayIknewsomeoftheBronzeAgebeltendstohavebeenworked.

Figure2.9.Redandblackwoolenfringedsash,usedtoformbackofstringskirtoncostumefromDrenok,inYugoslavMacedonia(seefig.2.8c).SurvivingBronzeAgesashesfromEuropeshowasimilarmethodandpatternofdividingandwrappingthethreads.

“OK,westartbyholdingoneendagainstonesideofyourrear,”saidmyfriend,“thenwrappingthiswholelengthofbeltbandaroundyouaboutsixtimes...andtuckingtheotherendthroughsoithangsnexttothefirstone....WhatIreallyneednowisahooktomakethemstaytogether....Oh!”sheexclaimedinsurprise.“There’salittlehookrightherewhereIneedit;Inevernoticeditbefore.”Proofthatwehadputitonright,thehookanchoredthetwoendsofthegirdlebesideeachothersotheyformedasolidmassofapronandfringeintheback.Becausethewoolofthefringehadbeencombedbeforespinning,thefiberslaymaximallyclosetogether,creatingaverydense,almostuncomfortablyhardcord,whichwassoheavythatitswungwithalifeofitsown.

Thatwasthegreatestsurpriseofall:theindependentlifeofwhatnowenvelopedme.Idancedaroundtheroomfromonemirrortothenext,fascinatedbythewaytheheavyfringesmoved,completelydifferentlyfromanyothergarmentIhadeverworn.Ifeltexhilarated,powerful;Iwantedtomakethemswishandjump,seewhattheywoulddonext.MyfriendlaughedandadmittedthatitmadeherfeelthesamewaywhensheworethecostumeandthatshewasalwaysasreluctantasItotakeitoff.FordaysafterwardIponderedtheunexpectedstrengthoftheexperience.

Asenseofpowerfulness?Isthatapartofthesymbolismoftheskirt?Theabilitytocreatenewlifemustsurelyhavebeenviewedasaformofultimatepower.Exhilarationinwearingit?Wasthat,too,partofthereasonwhythisgarmentlastedfortwentythousandyears?

Howeverthatmaybe,Ialsobegantorealizethattheotherbrightorangy-redMacedonianaprons,whichhavemuchlargerwovenpartsthanthisonebutalsomuchheftierfringesthanthetypicalEuropeanapron,were“changedlaterforms”ofthestringskirt,aslinguistswouldsayofwordsevolvingthroughtime.(Theprocessesareremarkablysimilar,asweshallsee.)SuchapronsexistnotonlyintheYugoslavianarea,butalsointhesectionofMacedonianowruledbyBulgariatotheeast.Tothewest,Albanianwomen(fig.2.8d)stillwearstringapronswithlongblackcords(liketheVlachandMordvinones)andwiththelozengesacrosstheirverynarrowwoventops(likeSlavicandRomanianones).

Greece,too,preservestracesofthestringskirt—forexample,intheArgolid(seemap,fig.2.4).MostwomennowwearmodernWesternclothingthere,butsomeofthemstillpossessstringskirtsforchildbearingemergencies.Thewomen’sfolkcostumeofoldertimeshadincludedaspecialgirdleknownasazostra,madeofredwoolinakindofknotlessnettingcalledsprang.5Itwasworkedtoabouttwelvefeetlong,withadeepfringe.“Thewomenof[thetownof]Kephalovrissoconsiderthezostraassacred,”theresearcherstellus.“Theyplaceitontheabdomenofthewomanwhohasadifficultlabourandmaintainitdoesworkwonders....Veryfewoldwomenstillknowhowtomakeazostra.Youngwomeninherititfromtheirmothersandusuallyrefusetopartwithit,astheyliketokeepitasacharm.”Ihavehearditsaidisalsosoughtifthegirlishavingtroubleconceiving.Onecoulddescribeitasatalismantohelpouttheforcesofmodernmedicinewherethecrucialage-oldmatterofbearingchildrenisatstake.

Theverynameforthisspecialgirdleisancient:zostrafromClassicalGreekzōstēr.Itcomesfromthesamerootasthewordzōnē,meaning“belt,”whichHomerusedforthehundred-tasseledgirdlesofHeraandAphroditeandfromwhichEnglishzonehasbeenborrowedwithaslightshiftofmeaning(nowabeltofland).TheancientGreekwordis,infact,achangedlaterformoftheIndo-Europeanwordforabelt—anykindofbelt—thatisalsopreservedinAlbanian,Slavic,Baltic,andIranian.

Languagesconstantlychange,butonlyslowlyandaccordingtosomefairlyregularprinciples.Asaresult,linguistscanreconstructmanyofthedetailsofearlierformsoflanguage.Wehavealreadyappealedtolanguagesourcesandwilldosoagainmanytimesinthisbook,sincethetermsfortheproductsofwomen’swork,likefoodandclothing,generallysurvivelongerthantheobjects

themselves.Unfortunatelyoneoftheprinciplesbywhichlanguageschangeisthroughloss.(Forexample,theoldtermsforthetrappingsofahorse-drawnbuggyaredroppingoutofourlanguagebecausewenowusecarsinstead.)Asaresultofsuchlimitations,thefartherbackintimewego,thelesswecanreconstruct;wearedoingwellwhenwehaven’tlostsightofourquarrybythetimewegetbacktothestartoftheBronzeAge.

AndsowefinditwithIndo-Europeanwordsforclothing.IhavementionedtheIndo-Europeanfamilybefore.Thishugegroupoflanguages(fig.2.10)alreadyextendedacrossmostofEuropeandhalftheNearEast(allthewaytothemiddleofIndia—hencethenamewehavegivenit)beforeColumbussailedtothe“NewWorld.”ThenumeroustongueshaddevelopedfromasinglelanguageorcloselyrelatedgroupofdialectsapparentlyspokeninafairlysmallareaintheNeolithic,probablyinsoutheasternEuropeneartheCaucasus.EarlyintheBronzeAge,however,thespeakersoftheseconstantlyandgraduallychangingdialectsbegantofanoutacrossthecontinents,losingdirectcontactwitheachother.SowhathadonceexistedasasingleIndo-Europeanlanguage,wherepeoplecouldunderstandoneanother(ifonlyimperfectly,thankstoregionaldifferences),slowlybecameasetofmutuallyunintelligible—butstillcloselyrelated—languages(fig.2.10).SuchareGreek,Albanian,andSlavic;suchalsoarethe“Romance”languagesofwesternEurope(French,Spanish,Italian,etc.,allofthemchangedlaterformsofthe“Roman”language,Latin)andthe“Germanic”groupfarthernorth(includingEnglish,German,Dutch,Danish,Swedish,andNorwegian).Thereconstructedlanguagefromwhichallthesemoderntonguescameisknownforconvenienceasproto-Indo-European,sincewedon’tknowwhatthoseearlypeoplecalledthemselves.

Figure2.10.TreechartoflanguagesintheIndo-Europeanfamily,which—beforeColumbus—extendedfromnorthwesternEuropetonorthernIndia.ItisnowthedominantfamilyoftheNewWorldaswell.Comparefig.2.2,showingatreeoftheUraliclanguages.TheAnatolianbranch,clearlyrelatedtotheothers,mayinfactbesisterratherthandaughtertotheIndo-Europeanfamily.

Whatstrikesmesoaboutthiswordfor“belt”—zōnē,zostra,andtheircousins—isthatitisoneofonlytwotermsthatwecanreconstructforclothinginproto-Indo-European.Theotherterm,

significantly,isthegenericwordforclothingwhichHomerusesforthevagueother“garment”thatHeraputsonfirstasshedressestovisitZeus.Thatwordisheanon,fromthesameIndo-Europeanwordrootasvest,vestment(whichwehaveborrowedintoEnglishfromLatin)andrelatedalsototheGreekHestia,LatinVesta,thenameofthegoddessofthehearthandhome.(Thesemanticconnectionbetween“clothes”and“hearthandhome”seemsoriginallytohavelaininthingsthathelpyoukeepwarm.)Thus,whenwereconstructlinguisticallybackasfaraswecaninEurope—admittedly,merelytoabouttheEarlyBronzeAge(thirdmillenniumB.C.),whentheIndo-Europeangroupsbegantolosecontactwithoneanother—weseeonlyageneralwordforawarmingwrapandawordforabelt.Clothesdon’tgetmuchsimpler.

Canthispictureberight?Isthisallthatthesepeoplewore?Yes,inessenceitseemsso.Slightlylatersomeofthesespeakersborrowedthenotionofthetunic,wordandall,fromtheirSemitic-speakingneighborstothesoutheast.Butthreegarments—whitetunic,belt,andoblongortubularoverwrap—remainedthebasisoftheEuropeanpeasantwoman’scostumefromthenuntilthepresent.Eventhemodernbusinesswomanwhowearsawhiteblouse,woolenskirt,andbelttoworkdressesinabarelychanged,laterformofBronzeAgeEuropeanclothing.Afterall,ifitworkswell,whyalterit?Fashionabledetailsmaycomeandgo,butthefundamentalsofhowweclotheourbodiesareremarkablyconservative.

The“stringskirt”or“tasseledgirdle”appearstohavebeenfundamentaltowomen’sclothinginthatpartoftheworldsincelongbeforetheBronzeAge,andithasretainedoneoftheoldandfundamentalnames.

ThePalaeolithicisaremoteerathatendedmorethantenthousandyearsago,yetityieldssomeremarkablysharpdetails.Peoplewerealreadymakingadiversearrayofthingsfromtwistedfibers,oneofwhich,thestringskirt,wasspecificallyassociatedwithwomenandwithwomen’sabilitytobearchildren.Wecanguess,therefore,thatwomenwerealreadyheavilyinvolvedwiththemakingofthreadandsuchclothingasexisted,aspartoftheirwork.Note,too,thatthisfirsttypeofclothingforwhichwehavegoodevidenceissymbolicratherthanpurelyutilitarianandsuggeststherelativeimportanceofwomenandtheirwork.

WithinthePalaeolithic,“fibercraft”wouldhavebeenlargelyamatterofpeoplemakingshortlengthsofstringspecificallyforthejobofthemoment.Fibersfromwildplantswouldhavesufficed,strippeddirectlyfromtreesorvines,ornoticedandgatheredaftertherainandsunhadrettedthemnaturallybydisintegratingtherestofthestemandleavingthefibersbare.Butitprobablydidn’ttaketheremainingtentofifteenthousandyearsofthePalaeolithicforpeopletofigureouthowtospeednaturealongbyhelpingwiththerettingprocess.(Thearchaicverbtoretmeans“tomake[something]rot,”justastofellatreemeans“tomake[thetree]fall.”)

Fromthebeginningofthenextageinthefarnorth,theMesolithic,wehavewell-madehuntingandfishingnetscomposedoffiberstrippedfromthebarkofelmsandwillows,fromsitesinFinlandandLithuania.Thistechnologyfitsperfectlywiththelinguisticdatafromproto-Uralicandsuggeststhatpeoplehadalsolearnedearlyofthestrengthandpliabilityofthesematerials.Barkfibersareasusefulformakingbaskets,mats,fences,andweirsasformakingstring.

Wealsohavetheevidenceforthefashioningofstringskirts.TheGravettianskirtsshowthesimplestofdesigns;thecordsmerelyhangfromatwistedbeltband.Nodoubtthewomentowhomitwassoimportantanobjectputsomethoughtandtime,overthemillennia,intomakingitsturdier,perhapsalsoneaterandmorebeautiful.Thedesignoftheearlieststringskirtthathassurvivedintact(thatfromEgtved,Denmark)socloselyresemblesthepeculiarwaythatawarpwastraditionally

preparedinEurope(upuntiltheintroductionofnewloomsinRomanandmedievaltimes)6thatIhaveoftenwonderedwhetherwomeninEuropehadalreadyinventedweavingitselfduringPalaeolithictimes,asawayofmakingastrongerandbetterstringskirt.

Stringseemssuchasimple,almostinevitableinvention,yetitsappearancewasamomentousstepdowntheroadoftechnology.Inventedearly,itwasknownworldwide.Weaving,onthecontrary,ismuchmorecomplicatedandmayhavebeenthoughtuponlyonce,muchtoolatetospreadwithhumankind.Manycultureswerestillignorantofitasthiscenturybegan.

1Onedoesn’thaveatermforsomethingonedoesn’tknowyet,soifanancienttermforsomethingexists,whatthewordsignifiedmusthavebeenaknownentity.ThusaPalaeolithichuntercouldnothavehadwordsforriflesandphantomjetsbutwouldhavehadtermsforknivesandnetsoncetheobjectswereinvented.Oneofthebeautiesoflanguageisthatitallowsustodevisewordsforwhateverwewanttotalkabout.2TheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,whichhappenstoincludeEnglish,Spanish,French,Russian,andmostoftheotherlanguagesofEurope,isoneofthelargestintheworldtoday,thanksinparttoitsexpansionacrosstheWesternHemisphere.Fartheroninthischapterisamoredetaileddiscussionofthefamily.Seefig.2.10.3Evenforthemetal,thereisnolinguisticconsensusonwhichmetalwasmeant,andtherefore,thetermprobablyreferredoriginallysimplytometalsingeneral.Pure,softmetaloccurshereandthere,andweknowthatsuchmetalwaspickedupandusedlongbeforepeoplelearnedtosmeltit.(SeeChapter3.)4Theargumentisthatmonogamyisamoresuccessfulstrategyofreproductionforwomenthanpolygamybecause,byobtainingtheservicesofasinglemale,awomancanbetterprotectandfeedherchildren.Forthemale,however,thebeststrategyforrepresentationintheongoinggenepoolispolygamy—aslongasthechildrensurvive.Butifthechildrenseriouslyrequirehishelp,thenmonogamymaybenecessary.Inthatcaseheandhisfamilymaywantrecompenseforwhatheisgivingup,whilethewomanandherfamilymaywantassurancesthathewillnotletdownhisendofthebargain.Itistheseintricaciesofnegotiationthatlanguagecanmakeplain.5ThemethodofmanufactureplusthecolormakemewonderwhetherweperhapspossessagirdleofjustthissortfromtheBronzeAge.TwowoolentextileswerefoundatRoswinkel,inthenorthernNetherlands,onebeingafragmentofredknotlessnetting,liketheGreekzostra,andtheotherabeltwovenwithalternatinggroupsofthreadsinawaythatsuggestsnumbermagic(seeChapter6).SprangitselfdatesbackinEuropetotheNeolithicatleast.6Bothweremadebyweavinganarrowribbedbandandpullingtheweftofthatbandoutagreatdistancetoonesidetoformthefringeorthewarpthreads,asthecasemightbe.

3

CourtyardSisterhood

Menmayworkfromsuntosun,Butwomen’sworkisneverdone.

Welshrabbit:oddmentsofcheesemeltedwithleftoveraleandservedovertoastforsupperwhenthehuntersfailtocomehomewitharabbit.

TowardtheendofthePalaeolithicera,sometenthousandyearsago,thewaywomeninparticularlivedtheirlivesbegantochangedramatically,astheresultofaseeminglysmallbutnewidea.Heretoforefamilieshadalwaysbeenonthemove,shiftingfromonetemporaryabodetoanotherassourcesofreadyfoodcameandwentwiththeseasons.Now,asthegreaticesheetsandthevastherdsoftundraanimalsretreatednorthwardacrossEurope,somehumansintherapidlywarmingsouthstoppedfollowingtheanimalsandbegantosettledown,obtainingtheirfoodlocally.Theerathatfollowed,withitsmultitudeofculturalchanges,wecalltheNeolithic,orNewStoneAge.

Thesesettlersdidn’tknowit—theywouldnothavepossessedsuchaconceptyet—butthislifeofpermanentabodesstartedthegreatestpyramidschemeofalltime.Apyramidschemestartssmallandgetsbiggerandbigger,leavingthelastpeopletopayforall.(Chainlettersareoftenofthissort.)Whenyousettledown,youbegintoacquirethingstomakeyoursurvivalandthatofyourchildreneasier;soonyouneedmoretoolsandhelpers—offspring—tocarefortheever-increasingnumberofthingsandsurvivingchildren.AttheendofthePalaeolithic,around8000B.C.,theentirecontinentofEuropecontainedscarcelyfivehundredthousandpeople—roughlytoday’spopulationofFlorence,Italy,orDenver,Colorado.PopulationexpertsestimatethatEarthasawholehadfivemillionhumansthen,lessthanhalfofwhatgreaterLosAngelesalonehastoday.Ittookthenextfifteenhundredyearsforthatnumbertodoubletotenmillion.Today,bycontrast,wearedoublingourbillionsofworldinhabitantsinameretwenty-fiveyearsandhavenearlyreachedwhatwillbetheultimatelayerofthispyramid,onewayoranother,aswerunoutoffreshwaterandbreathableoxygen,nottomentionwoodandmetals.WefindourselvesstuckwiththefinalbillforsomefivehundredgenerationsofuncontrolledacquisitionandchildproducingbegunintheNeolithic.

Insum,settlingdownchangedradicallytherelationshipofpeopletooneanotherandtotheenvironment,asitalteredhowpeoplenowcametobehave.Tounderstandtherelationsbetweenwomenandtheirnewworkinasedentaryworld,wemustthereforefirstunderstandwhatmadesettledlifesuchanovelproject.

Whydidpeoplestopbeingnomadic?Archaeologistsusedtodebatethequestioninchicken-or-eggform:whetherpeoplefirstdiscoveredhowtodomesticateplantsandanimals,thensettleddowntotendthefieldstheyhadplanted,orwhethertheysettledfirst,thenbegantamingwhattheyfoundinthevicinity.Itwasevenarguedforawhilethatpeoplestoppedmovingaroundbecausetheyhadinventedpottery,acommoditytooheavyandbreakabletocarryabout.Butwenowknowthattrue

potterywasinventedseveralthousandyearsafterpermanentsettlementsbegan.EvidencefromrecentexcavationsinTurkey,Syria,andIsraelshowsthatatleastinsomecases

peoplesettledfirst,thendomesticatedtheirfoodsupply.Hugestandsofwildgrainbegantoflourishinthatarea,asaresultofthewarmingpostglacialclimate,fromabout10,000B.C.on,andpeopleapparentlybegantofinditpossibletoliveoffthiswildgrainandtheanimalsitsupported.ThusearlysettlementsiteslikeAinMallahainSyriaandSuberdeinTurkey(fig.3.1)giveevidenceofpermanentdwellingsandstoragepits,butonlywildfood.Furthermore,thefirstsignofdomesticationthatwehave,presentatsomeoftheearliestsettlements,isnotsomethingthatwaseaten:Itisthedog.Thiscreature,whichwillinglychoosesahumanastheleaderofitslifelongpack,washumankind’sfirstfriend,itseems,aswellasitsbest.

Figure3.1.MapofNeolithicandothersitesimportanttotheearlyhistoryoftextiles.

Theveryactofstockpilingripegrainforwinterinthenewvillagecouldwellhaveledpeopletotheideaofhelpingnatureoutbyplantingseedthemselves.Awomangoingtothefamilystoragebinduringtheearlyspringrainsmightfindthatthelastofthewinterstorewasalreadysproutingintonewplants.Orperhapssomegrain,droppedonthewayhomefromtheharvest,hadsprungupjustoutsidethedoorstep.Alittlewaterduringdryspellsandalittleweedingduringwetonesensuresthecrop—inamostconvenientplace.

Butsoonaninterestingsymbiosisdevelopsbetweenthehumansandtheirfavoriteplants.Whenitripens,wildgrainbreaksoffveryeasilyfromthestalkitgrewon(asanyoneknowswhohasgottenasockfullofseedsjustbywalkingthroughafieldoftall,drygrass).Thatishowtheplantspreadsitsseedstopropagate.Inthewildaseedthatdoesnotfalloffthestalkeasilyislesslikelythanitsmorereadilydehiscentneighborstosettleintoagoodspottogerminate,butconverselyitismorelikelytobesittingtherewaitingtobefoundwhenthehumancollectorcomesby.Thevarietiesofgrainthusselectrapidlytowardkindsthatclingfirmlytothestem,oncepeoplegatheringandsowingseedcomeintotheequation.Infact,theplantbecomesdependentuponthehumanstowrestleitsseedsfreeandplantthem.Suchchangesinseedformconstitutesomeoftheclueswehavethatpurposefulplanting

beganbetween10,000and7000B.C.Animals,too,changeunderdomesticconditions.Withtheold-stylePalaeolithickills(theonly

alternativetodailyforaging),ittendedtobefeastorfamine:Everyonegottogetherandroundedupaherdofsomethingtasty,slaughteredthelot,gorged,andthenwenthungryagain.Dry-curingastockofmeatcouldhelpeventhingsout,butthenyouhadtohaulitabout,andmeat,evendried,isheavy.Onceyousettleinoneplace,however,differentproblemsandsolutionsarise.Ifyoukillabiganimalfarfromyourpermanentresidence,youmustsomehowconveythemeatbackhome.Youcannolongerbringhometoit.(TheremainsofanimalbonesattheearlyvillageofSuberdeshowhowthehunterstheresolvedthisproblem.Insteadofcarryingthelargestandheaviestbonesallthewayhome,thevillagerscutthemoutatthekillsiteandusedthehideasabaginwhichtodraghomebytheshankstherestofthecarcass,nowconsiderablylightened.Thiscausesapeculiarlyskeweddistributionofbonesatthedwellingsitethatarchaeologistshavenicknamedtheschleppeffect.)

Butwhatifyouroundedupsomemiddle-sizeanimals,nottoobigtohandleandnottoosmallforthebother,walkedthemhomeontheirownfourlegs,andstoredthemalive,inapenfulloffodder,untilyouneededthemonebyoneforfood?Refrigerationonthehoof,asitwere.True,thejumpyoneswillprobablybreaklooseorgetkilledfirstfortheirtrouble,butthemoredocileonesmightlasttillspringand,likethegrain,mightthenbefoundquietlyreproducing.Thusselectionincaptivitytendstowarddocilityandsmallerbitingequipment—shortermuzzle,lessprominentincisors,weakerneckmuscles—andlessofapremiumoninvisibilitytopredators.(Protectionfrompredatorsovermorethanonegenerationallowsvariationsinhairgrowthandcolorthatwouldotherwisemaketheanimalnonviable.)Thesetraits,too,showupinthearchaeologicalrecordfromtheearlyNeolithicon.

Tothehothead,being“kept”isexploitation;tothedocile,symbiosis.It’spartlyinhowyoulookatit.Individualsthatcouldnothavesurvived“inthewild”canliveouttheirlivesunderprotection.(Antsgrowgreatflocksofaphidsbyprotectingthem,then“milk”themfortheirsugar.Exploitationorsymbiosis?)Humansthemselves,comparedwithotherprimates,showthetypicalsignsofdomesticationintheirreducedjaws,claws,neckmuscles,andhair—womenevenmorethanmen.Wepartiallydomesticatedourselvesfirst.Inanycase,manyotherspeciesthrivedunderhumancare,andthehumansrearrangedtheirlivestocarefortheplantsandanimalsthatnowcametodependonthem.

Thesenewlaborarrangementsdifferedfromoneregiontoanotherasafunctionofjustwhichdomesticanimals,ifany,becamecriticaltothelocalfoodsupply.Plantsinthemselvesarecompatiblewithchildraising,butsomeanimalsarenot—especiallythelargedraftanimalsusedforplowing.Thusfarmingsocietiestendtodivideintotypesdependingonwhethertheplantsaregrownusingaplow(agriculture,meaning“fieldculture”)orbyhand-tendingalone(horticulture,“gardenculture”).

Butitwasnotuntilsomefourthousandyearsafterpeoplehadbegundomesticatinganimalsthattheystartedtoharnesscreaturestopullplows.Soournexttaleisofhorticulturalsettlements,wherethewomenwereusuallyinchargeofthekitchen-gardensandthusofthemainfoodsupply,alongwiththeyoungchildrenandtheburgeoningfiber-crafts.

Permanentabodeschangedwomen’slivesdramatically.Notleast,itallowedwomentostopcarryingtheirchildrenaround.Womentodaywhobelongtohunter-gatherersocieties,suchasthe!KunginsouthwesternAfrica,spacetheirchildrenthreetofouryearsapart.Theycan’tphysicallyhandlemorethanthat,andthatnumberofchildren(consideringthattheydon’tallsurvive)isquitesufficienttokeepthepopulationgoingwithoutoverloadingtheresourcesoffoodandwater.Butoncethefamilysettlesdown,carryingthesmallchildrenconstantlyisnolongernecessary,sothebabies

maycomeoftener,andthereisalwaysneedformorehandsonafarm,somorebabiescometobewanted.Furthermore,theriskofdiseaseandepidemicisfargreaterwherelargernumbersofpeopleliveinclosequartersandamongtheirownrefuse.Cholera,typhoid,plague,anddiphtheriaallwerediseasesspreadbysuchconditions,terrifyingintheirspeed,devastatingintheirtoll,andcheckedonlyrecentlybymodernsanitation,immunization,andantibiotics.Babiesarethemostvulnerabletosuchattacks;thus,underthoseconditions,babiessoonneededtocomemoreoftentobalanceoutthehigherdeathtoll.

ThisnewNeolithicethicofbearinglargenumbersofchildren(stillpracticedbymanytoday,evenwheremodernmedicinenowkeepsmostofthesechildrenalive)isevidentbothintheincreasinglyrapidriseofpopulationduringtheNeolithicandintherepresentationsofpeople:almostalwayswomen,andusually—unlikethefewmalefigures—fat.ThesenumerousfigurinesseemtobecontinuationsofthePalaeolithicVenusfigures,butwithsomemarkeddifferences.

AtJarmo,aNeolithicvillagethatflourishedaround7000B.C.inIraqiKurdistan,plumpwomenaremodeledsittingdowninsteadofstanding—perhapsamorecharacteristicposeinastationarylife.Jarmoisoneoftheearliestvillagesweknowwithfirmevidenceofbothplantsandanimalsbeingdomestic.By6000B.C.atÇatalHüyük,insouth-centralTurkey,weseeastrongandovertpreoccupationwithfertilityandchildbirth.Amidafrighteningarrayofbulls’heads(plasteroveractualskulls,withenormoushorns),weseeanolessscaryplasterwallreliefofapregnantwomanwithherlegsspreadandherarmsraised,concentriccircleslikeabull’s-eyeonherstomach(fig.3.2).Inanothercaseasculptedmanandwomanlieinclosefrontalembrace,andstillanotherstatuetteshowsanenormouslyplumpwomansittingasshebeginstodeliver(fig.3.3).Butthisisnoordinarysceneofbirthing:Thelady’shandsrestonapairofformidablefelines,perhapslionesses,suggestingthatsheisinsupernaturalcontroloflife.1Manyotherfigurinesofplumpwomen,mostlyeithersittingorlying,oftenwithchildrenclamberingonthem,comefromtheslightlylatersiteofHacilarnearby.Theheightofthisreverenceforobesewomen,however,comeswiththerecliningsculpturesfromearlyMalta(fig.3.4).Suchfemales—specialpriestesses?queens?—mayremindthemodernobserverofnothingsomuchasatermitequeen,whoseonlyjobistoliequietlyallherlife,eatingfoodandbearingyoung—plump,pampered,paleandimmobile.OrtheymayremindoneofOdysseus’descriptionofhismenarrivingatthepalaceofthekingofLaistrygonia(possiblyinthevicinityofMalta):

Andwhentheyenteredthefamedhalls,theycameuponhiswife,whowasbigasamountainpeak;andtheywereappalledather.

Figure3.2.Reliefsculptureofapregnantwoman,fromthewallofashrineattheearlyNeolithictownofÇatalHüyük,inTurkey.Thehands,feet,andfacearemostlygonenow,butthepreservedpartsoftheskinarecoveredwithtinyred-painteddesigns,mostlyformsoflozengesbuthereandthereresemblingplants.Theyprobablyimitatebodypaintusedmagicallytohelpawomanthroughthedangerousandpainfulordealofchildbirth.

Figure3.3.Claystatuetteofanobesewomangivingbirthwhileseatedwithherhandsonapairofwildanimals;foundattheearlyNeolithictownofÇatalHüyük,inTurkey,ca.6000B.C.

Figure3.4.Neolithicfigurineofarecliningwoman,fromtheMediterraneanislandofMalta.AlltheearlyfemalesculpturesfromMaltashowgreatobesity.

Settlingdownandbeingabletogrowasmuchofsomethingasonewantednotonlychangedthepatternsofchildbearingbutalsoinevitablychangedthetypesoftaskstobeparceledout.Inthefibercrafts,vastnewsuppliesmadeitnowpossibletoconsidermakingbigpiecesofclothratherthanjustnarrowbandsandbelts.Buttodothat,thecraftswomanfirsthadtoredesignherloom.

OurearliestclearproofofwovenclothcomesonceagainfromJarmo,Iraq,intheformoftwolittleclayballswithtextileimpressionsonthem.Theclothsarefineandneatlywoveninnotonebuttwodifferentweaves,detailsdemonstratingclearlythatpeoplehadbeenweavinglongenoughtohavebecomehighlyskilledatit.Unfortunatelynovestigesofweavingequipmentorworkspacesturnedupatthissite,sowecan’tsaywhethertheJarmoweavershadsolvedtheproblemsoflargeloomsyet.AlookatalltheNeolithicevidencefortextilestogetheryieldsmoredata,however.

Byplottingthisevidenceinbothtimeandspace,wecandiscerntracesofatleasttwolargeNeolithicloomsofquitedifferentdesign,andwesee,furthermore,thattheloomtypesspreadinroughlyoppositedirectionsacrossthelandscapefromtheinnovativeareawhereJarmoandÇatalHüyüklie.Oneoftheseisthehorizontalgroundloom(fig.3.5),stillusedtodaybyBedouinwomenintheNearEast.Thisdevicemigratedmainlysouthandsoutheast:throughMesopotamiaandtheLevant,downintoEgypt,andapparentlyeventuallyallthewaytoIndia.Sincethisloomismadeentirelyofwoodensticks(seldompreservedandhardtorecognize),mostofourevidenceforitcomesfromrepresentationsofitsuse.Inthesedepictions,incidentally,whereveronecantellthegenderoftheweavers,theyarewomen(cf.fig.7.5).

Figure3.5.WoodenmodelofaMiddleKingdomEgyptianweavingshop,showingtwohorizontalgroundloomspeggedoutforuse.Twoweaverssquatbesidethewarptohelpeachotherwiththeweaving.ThistypeofloomhasbeenusedintheNearEastfromsometimeintheNeolithicuntilthepresentday.Otherwomenareshownprocessingflax,spinning,andmeasuringwarpthreadonpegsonthewall.EleventhDynasty,ca.2000B.C.

Theothertypeisthewarp-weightedloom(fig.3.6),setnearlyvertical,whichwasstillbeingusedtwenty-fiveyearsagobywomeninruralScandinavia.Thisloom,bycontrast,canbetracedspreadinglargelynorthandwestacrossEuropefromafocalcenterinHungary.Itismucheasiertotracethanthegroundloombecause,althoughmostofthisloom,too,wascomposedofwood,thewarpwaskepttightbyaseriesofweights,whichweregenerallymadeofbakedclayandhencearemuchlessperishable.Althoughrepresentationsofthisloomarefarfewerandlater,thosewehaveshowwomenonceagainastheweavers.

Figure3.6.Womenweavingtogetheronawarp-weightedloom,asdepictedonaGreekvaseofabout560B.C.(Seefig.9.4fortheentirescene.)Onthisloomthewarphangsdownfromabeamsupportedovertheweaver’shead.

WhatIfindmostfascinatingaboutthesetwoearlyloomsisthatneitherislogicallyderivablefromtheother,butbothareeasilyderivedfromthesimplebandloom.Withabandloom,theweavernormallytiesthenearendofthewarpinasinglebunchtoapostorherownwaistandthefarendtosomethingelse,likeatreeoranotherpostorherbigtoe.Iftheweavingistiedtotheweaver,thetensiononthewarpthatisnecessaryforweavingisprovidedbysimplyleaningback.Itcouldn’tbesimpler.Asonewishestomakeawiderandwiderfabric,itispossibletospreadoutthenearendofthewarponabar,ratherthanattachitallinasinglebunch.Butasthespreadincreases,ifthefarendisstilltiedinasinglegroup,thewarpthreadsdevelopasteepanglethatmakestheweavingdifficult.Thatendneedstobespread,too.If,then,youtakethebarattheweaver ’send(calledtheclothbeam)andhangitup,tyingstonesontothebottomofthewarpinlittlebunchestoprovidethenecessarytension,youhavethemakingsofthewarp-weightedloom.Butifyoustaketheclothbeamtotheground,andstakeanidenticalbarsomeyardsawaytowhichyoucantietheotherendofthewarp,threadbythread,tokeepthetension,youproducethegroundloom.

Thusthetwotypesofloomappeartohavebeenindependentwaysofsolvingtheproblemofhow

tomakewidercloth.Onceinvented,theyspreadoutward,meetingandcompetingwitheachotherinTurkey,itseems,butotherwisecreepingslowlyforthousandsofmilesinoppositedirections.Itisinteresting,too,thattheseminalzonesfortheselargeloomsaretheareasinwhichflaxfirstbecamedomesticated,thestretchfromnorthernIraqtosouthernEurope.SuchdeductionsstrengthenmyhunchthatthePalaeolithicwomenofsouthernEuropehadalreadyinventedbeltweaving(aspartoftheirconcernwithsymbolicbelt-basedclothinglikethestringskirt)andthatknowledgeofthisusefulcrafthadspreadsoutheastbyearlyNeolithictimestotheareaswheredomesticationwasinvented.

Consider,too,thegeographicalareaswhereeachloomcametobeused.EgyptandMesopotamiaarehot,dryregionswhereitseldomrains.Awomancangooutdoorsandstakeoutherloomasbigasshepleasesfordays,weeks,orevenmonthswithoutfearofdisaster.NotsoinEurope,wheresnowcoversthegroundhalfthewinterandrainisfrequentallsummer.Outdoorsisnoplaceforaloom,butneithercanthefamilyaffordtohavetheweavingalloverthefloorofthelivingspace.Sohangitfromtherafters,orpropitonthewall!Ittakesalmostnofloorspacethatwayandisprotectedfromtheelements.

IntheTiszaValleyinHungary,excavatorshaveduguptheremainsofseveralNeolithichutsfromaround5500B.C.,someequippedwithsetsofclayloomweightsalongwiththecookingpotsandothersimplegear.Inonecottage(fig.3.7)theweightssatinaheapbesideapairofstoutpostholesnearonewall.Sincethesepostshavenodiscoverablefunctioninholdinguprooforwalls,theyalmostcertainlyformedthesupportsforaverticalwarp-weightedloom—aloommeasuring185centimeterswideandthusaccommodatingacloth4to5feetinwidth.Furthermore,weseethatthewomanofthehousehadcleverlysetupherloomsoshewouldgetthebestlightonitduringtheday,sinceitfacesthedoorway,andalsosetitnearthehearthaswell,soastogetlightfromthefireatnightandduringthelong,darkwinters.Apparentlywomenalreadyexpectedtoworklonghours.

Figure3.7.Cutawayreconstruction(fromthefloorplan)ofasixth-millennium-B.C.NeolithichouseatTiszajenő,Hungary.Inadditiontothehearthandastoragejarsetintothefloor,onecanseethereconstructionofawarp-weightedloom,setupataslightangletothewallsothatitcouldreceivelightfromthedoorwayindaytimeaswellasfromthehearthfireatnight.

InEuropeconditionsintheNeolithicandEarlyBronzeagesfostereda“courtyardandoutrider”economy.Therewerenodraftanimals,sothewomenwiththeirchildrenunderfootcouldtakeresponsibilityfortheentirebasicfoodsupply:cereals,legumes,andsuchotherfruitsandnutsasmightbeavailable,pluseggsandanoccasionallambormuttonstew.Thatfreedthementogooutsidethecommunity(outriders)forotherresourcesentirely,ifneeded,returningatintervalswiththeircontributions.Sincewardidnotyetconstitutesignificantlymoreofaproblemthanithadinthe

Palaeolithic,themendidnothavetostayhomeallthetimesimplyfordefense.(Therarityofwarfarehadtodowithboththesparsenessofthepopulationandthelackofgreatdifferencebetweenhavesandhave-nots.)Weseefamiliesclusteringtheirhousestogetherintolittlevillagesformutualaidandsupport,butfences,whenpresent,seemtobedesignedmoretokeepsheepandchildreninthanenemies—otherthanwolves—out.

Insuchaworldthewomencouldbringtheirsmallercraftsoutintothecommunalyardingoodweather,tochattogetherandhelponeanotherastheyworkedandwatchedthechildrenplay.Thechildren,inturn,couldplayathelping,pretendingtodowhatthebigfolksdo,aschildrenwill.Suchplaycanfunctionasasortofvocationalkindergarten,teachingthechildrenthebasicstepsinprocessesthattheywillhavetomasterinearnestlater.Fortextileworkalone,inadditiontospinningthethreadandusingittosew,makenets,andmend,theseactivitiesincludedthemanystepsofpreparingthedriedflaxorhempforspinning.Firstthewomenplacethedriedplantsinastreamorinthedewlongenoughtorottheunwantedpartsofthestemawayfromthetoughfibers—aprocesscalledretting.Thentheybeatandtwistloosethewoodypartsofthestem(calledbreakingorbraking)andcombthefibersuntiltheyarefreeandclean(calledhackling;adog’shackles,whenraised,looklikethecoarseteethofahacklingcomb).ArchaeologistshavefoundtoolsforbreakingandhacklingflaxinthemuddylakebedsthatsurroundedsomeoftheNeolithicvillagesinSwitzerland,alongwithhanksofflaxinallstagesofpreparation.Unfortunatelytheywerenotfoundinsuchawayastogiveusfurthercluestohowtheinhabitantsorganizedtheirwork.

Intendingtheirgardenplots,onceagainthewomencouldworktogetherwhilethechildrenplayedorsleptnearby,aswecanseefromthemanyethnographicstudiesofhorticulturalsocieties.InEuropewellintothiscenturythewomenoftensangorchantedritualsongstosettherhythmoftheendlessrepetitivemotionsofhandworkinthefields.Theslow,droningchantalsohastheinterestingcognitiveeffectofbluntingone’sawarenessofthepainofachingmusclesandofthelengthoftimespent.Here,too,thechildrencouldlearntheirfuturetasksbitbybit,intheprocessbecomingparticipatingmembersofthesocialcommunity.IrememberhowproudIwasasachildoffourtobesenttothetopoftheapricottreetopickthelastofthefruit.Itwaswartime,foodwasscarce,andIwasthebestandlightestclimber.Icouldcontributesomethingnooneelsecould.

Ifthesummersencouragedthissortofsisterhood,Europeanwintersinvitedcommunalworkevenmore.Whenthefarmiscoveredinsnowandmodernelectronicentertainmentsaremillenniaintothefuture,howdoyouwhileawaythetime?Youcarryonwhatsmallandusefulcraftsyoucan,givingyouasenseofbetteringyourlife,andyoumakeitmorefunbyhavingapartyatthesametime.JustasthepioneerwomeninruralAmericagottogetherforsewing,quilting,andhuskingbees,justasHungarianfarmwomenstillhaveregular“workparties,”sothewomenofprehistoricEuropegatheredatoneanother ’shousestospin,sew,weave,andhavefellowship.Howdoweknowthis?Fromtheclothitself.

AlloverDenmark,preservedbytheboggygroundwater,lietreasuresofBronzeAgeinformationintheformofwonderfullypreservedburials.Bogwaterishighlyacid,andacidpreservesskinandleather,hairandwool,hornandfingernailsalmostperfectly.Manytimesithashappenedthatapeasantcuttingpeatforfueloutinthebogshascomeuponawell-preserveddeadbodyandcalledinthepolicetoseewhohadrecentlybeenmurdered.Fingerprintingtheperfectswirlsonthevictim’shandsyieldsnothinginthepolicefiles,butarchaeologicalsleuthingsoonshowsthatdespitetheperfectlypreservedface,hairdo,andwoolenclothing,thedeceaseddiedsometwotofourthousandyearsago.

AtthesiteofTrindhøj,straightwestofCopenhagenontheDanishmainlandofJutland,aman

wenttohisgravearound1300B.C.wearingapatchworktunic,awhitefringedshawl,andahugebrowncloakwovenofcoarsewool.TwoDanisharchaeologists,MargretheHaldandH.C.Broholm,analyzedtheweaveofthecloakanddiscoveredthattheweftthreadsinthisenormousclothoftencrosseachother,shiftingfromonerowtothenextrightinthemiddleofthetextile.Theonlypossibleexplanationisthatseveralweftbobbinswereinuseatonce.Thatis,threewomenhadtohavebeenweavingonthisclothsimultaneously,passingthebobbinstoeachotherastheymetinthemiddlesomewhereandthenchangingtheshed.Otherclothsshowsimilartelltalesigns.

Wehavemoreevidenceofwomenworkingtogether.AfamousClassicalGreekrepresentationofthewarp-weightedloom(figs.3.6and9.4)showstwowomenworkingbesideeachotherattheirloom(whileothershelppreparethewoolandfoldthefinishedcloth)inexactlythewaythattheethnographerMartaHoffmannfoundNorwegianandFinnishwomenstilldoingtwenty-fiveyearsago(seeabove).Theloomisoftensowidethatthismusthavebeenfairlycommonpractice,althoughitwasnotabsolutelynecessary.Homer,forexample,depictstheladyCalypsoworkingaloneonherdesertisland:

Andshe,singingindoorswithabeautifulvoice,woveatherloom,walkingupanddownwiththegoldenbobbin.

Beingalone,Calypsohadtoprovideherownentertainment,too.PrehistoricwomeninHungaryalreadyprovidedentertainmentforeachother.Inacharmingscene

fromaHallstatturn(fig.3.8),weseeonewomanspinning,anotherweavingatagreatwarp-weightedloom,twootherswiththeirhandsabovetheirheadsasthoughtheyweredancing,andafifth,shorterfigure(maleorfemale?)holdingastringedinstrumentthatiseitheralyreoraframeformakingthekindofplaitingcalledsprang.

Figure3.8.Womenspinning,weaving(onawarp-weightedloom),andentertainingoneanotherwithmusicanddance.ThesceneisincisedonavaseoftheHallstattculture(mid-firstmillenniumB.C.),fromSopron,Hungary.Comparethetriangular-lookingcostumeswithmodernHungarianfolkcostumes(fig.3.9).

InthissamepartofEurope,wellintothiscentury,womenwearingclothesremarkablysimilartotheHallstattones(fig.3.9)stillmetatoneanother ’shousesforworkingbees.Thecontinuityisremarkable.Perhapsthemostcommonactivitybefore“modernization”wasspinning,sinceittooksomuchlongertospinthantoweaveagivenamountoffiber;estimatesputitatseventotentimesaslong,usingahandspindle.(Howmuchtimeittooktospintheyarnforagivenareaofclothdepended,ofcourse,uponhowthicktheyarnwas,exactlyasinknitting.Fineyarntakeslongerperunitofweighttoworkup.)Girlsweretaughttospinwhentheyweretenortwelve,andtheylookedforwardtothattime,sincespinningisapleasanttask.Itisalsoanactivityeasilydroppedandeasilyresumedintheexcitementofcourting.Forthemencametotheseworkplaces,too,whetherindoorsorout,bringingtheirsmallcraftsofleatherandwood—buttheycameprimarilytoentertainthewomenandkeepthemcompany.Talesweretold,songssung,andmusicandgamesplayed,especiallythosegameswewouldcalldances.Thesamewordservesforboth“dance”and“game”inmanylanguages—forexample,igrainSerbo-Croatian.

Figure3.9.Hungarianvillagegirlswearingcostumessimilarintheirpeculiarshapetothosedepictedintheareatwenty-fivehundredyearsearlier:seefig.3.8.(Fromaphotographtakenca.1950.)

Whenoneishavingsomuchfun,itishardtostop,andthatmayinpartexplainapeculiaranomalyintheNeolithicevidencefromcentralEurope.ArchaeologistswouldpegtheseStoneAgepeopleaslivinginasubsistence-leveleconomy—forcedtoworkfairlyhardjusttofeedthemselvesandtostaywarmanddry.Bythismodel,littletimeandenergywouldremainforfunandfrolic.ClothsurvivespoorlyinmostofEurope,subjecttothedestructiveeffectsofalternatingwetanddryweather;yetoursurvivingtextilesfromtheNeolithicareastonishinglyornate.ClearlytheseNeolithicwomenwereinvestinglargeamountsofextratimeintotheirtextilework,farbeyondpureutility,farbeyondourconceptof“subsistencelevel.”

LiferemainshardinthesesamepartsofruralcentralEuropetoday,yetthetraditionofmakingfancyclothpersiststhere.Duringthelong,boringwintersnotmuchusefuloutdoorworkispossible,sotheenergyoverflowsintoindoorcrafts.Furthermore,onefindstheattitudethatifyouhavetomakeabedspreadoracushionanywayandwillhavetouseitfortherestofyourlife,youmayaswellmakeitprettyandbeabletoenjoyboththemakingandtheusing.

HowdoweseethisloveofembellishmentintheNeolithic?Take,forexample,thelinensofSwitzerland,datingfrom3000B.C.,fromsuchsitesasRobenhausen,Irgenhausen,Schaffis,andMurten,whichlieclusteredaroundthelakesinthecenterofthecountry.Thewomenwhomadethemlivedinaswamp,squashedbetweenforestandlake,farfromthecentersofEuropeanculturedownstreamonthemiddlereachesoftheDanube.Tostayabovethelakeshoremud,theinhabitantsdrovehundredsofwoodenpilingsintothesoftgroundtostabilizeitbeforelayingtheirclayhearthsandbuildingtheirwoodenhousesontop.Littlecorduroypathwaysoflogsjoinedthehousestooneanotherandtothehighergroundwheretheforestsbegan,helpingthevillagersstaydry-shodastheymovedabout.Thefrequencywithwhichtheyaddedpilingshowstheconstanturgencyofkeepingaheadofwetandrot.Whateverfellintothemuckbelowwaslostforgood—tothem,butpreserved

forus,sincetheperpetuallysoggy,airless,alkalinelakemudhappenstopreserveplantmaterialquitewell.(Notethatalkali,whichdestroysanimalremains,hasexactlytheoppositeeffectfromacidbogwater,whichdestroysplantsbutpreservesanimalskinandhair.)

Thuswefindquantitiesofwoodentools—ararityonmostarchaeologicalsites—frombowls,ladles,pounders,andtillingstickstothepanoplyofutensilsneededtoprepareflax:breaks,hacklingboardswithlittlethornssetintotheminneatrows,andspindleswithclaywhorls.Wefindhanksofspunthreadreadyforuse(allthatlabor,onlytobedroppedintothemire!)andclayloomweights—sometimesinarowacrossthefloor,showingthattheloomwasinusewhentheparticularvillagewaseventuallydestroyed.Thetrailofloomweightsindicatesthatthewarp-weightedloomanditsassociatedweavingtechnologyhadspreadhereduringthefourthmillenniumB.C.,movinguptheDanubefromitshomeincentralHungary.Wefindbasketsandbagsofallsorts,andtextiles—fancyones.

Stripes,checkers,triangles;braidedfringes,knottedfringes,beadwork,andfancyedges.Weavingstripesintotheclothwithanextrapatternweftwasthemostcommon,butsometimestheweaversputintrianglesorsquares,whichisnotasimpletasklikestripes.Anespeciallyelaboratepiece(fig.3.10)fromthesiteofIrgenhausen,nearZurich,hastriangleswithinacomplicatedpatternofcheckers-within-checkers-within-checkers,formedbylacinginawholehandfulofpatternwefts.EmilVogt,whopainstakinglyanalyzedalltheblackenedremainsofthislargecloth,concludedthattherewouldhavebeennopointinweavingthepatterninthatparticularwayunlesstheweaverhadbeenusingatleastthreehuessothepatternswouldstandout.Wouldthatweknewwhatthesecolorswere!WhenworkersattheNationalMuseuminZurichwoveareplica(fig.3.10),theyusedconservativebrownandbeigeonwhite,butweknowthatplantsandothersubstancesproducingreds,blues,andyellowsgrewinthearea,too,andthatsomeofthesedyeswerealreadyinuseelsewhereinEurope.

Figure3.10.ModernreplicaofaNeolithiclinenclothfoundinalakebedatIrgenhausen,Switzerland,datingto3000B.C.oralittleafter.Theoriginalfragmentsaresoblackenedthatwecannolongerdeterminetheoriginalcolors,butcarefulanalysisoftheweavestructure(whichmadeitpossibletoweavethisreplica)showsthatatleastthreecolorsmusthavebeenemployed.(SwissNationalMuseum,Zurich.)

TheStoneAgeclothmakersoftheSwisslakeshoresdidnotstopwithaddingcolor,however.Thecreatorofanothertextile,foundatMurten,piercedgroupsoflittlefruitpitsandsewedthemcarefullyontotheclothoneithersideofsomewovenstripes.Someonealsoattachedthispiecetoasecondclothbymeansofhalfadozenrowsofknottednetting,thusgivingelasticitytothejoin.Forclothing?

Aboveallelse,theseweaverslovedfancyborders.Theribbedsideborderswerenotdifficult,buttheuniqueproblemsofsettingupawarp-weightedloommeantthattheclothhadtobeginwithaspecialedgingatthetoptosecurethewarpthreads.Then,havingneatlyframedtheclothonthreesides,theseweaversthrewalltheiringenuityintodevisingabottomborder.Onecanimaginethewomenworkingtogetherandeggingeachotheronastheyfinishedoffthebottomedgesoftheircloths.Thefanciestinvolvedweavingaravelproofbandrightacrossthewarpendswithitsowndecorativepatternofribsandtriangles,whileanyendsleftafterallthatwerebraidedandknottedintoafringeforgoodmeasure.

TheinhabitantsofNeolithicSwitzerlandwerenottheonlyEuropeansmakingfancyfabrics.WecatchmoreglimpsesincentralGermany,wherethedeadwerelaidtorestingreatossuaries,theiroakraftersapparentlydrapedwithpatternedtextiles.(Weseefromthisthatclothalreadyservedotherpurposesthanjustclothingpeople.)Periodicfiringoftheossuariesfromtheoutside,probablytokeepdowntheodorandcontagion,preservedbitsofthefabricwhereinsufficientoxygenmadethe

clothcharratherthanburn.Althoughmostoftheactualscrapsofclothwerelostagainduringrecentwars,wecanseestripes,checkers,andlotsoflittlechevronpatternsasweperusethesketchesmadeatthetimeofdiscoveryinthelatenineteenthcentury.

NeitherGermanynorSwitzerlandstoodatthecenterofthisEuropeanweavingculture,however,butinitsbackwaters.Its“frontwaters”layinHungaryandalongthelowerDanube,wherethewarp-weightedloomfirstdeveloped.Withthetextilesinthebackwaterssoornate,whatthenmusttheyhavebeenlikeatthecenterofthetradition?Backin5000B.C.,alongtheTiszaRiver,nearlyeveryhousehadtheweightsforaloomalready,whilelateron,thefigurinesfromHungarysportfancypatternsontheirpersons,sometimesapparentlyasbodypaint(stillfoundinremotepartsoftheBalkanstoday)butsometimesalsoonclothing.

AllovercentralEuropewomenwereinventingmoreandmoreelaboratetextiles,regardlessofmoderneconomists’models.Oneofthekeyissuestounderstandingthis“extravagance”istime.Notonlywerethereinfinitelyfewerentertainmentstuggingatone’sattentioninapreindustrialruralsetting,butexpenditureoftimewasviewedverydifferentlyfromthewayitiswithinanindustrialeconomy.Tous,timeismoney—tobe“saved,”“spent,”“budgeted,”“invested,”or(horrors!)“squandered.”Forthem,moneywasirrelevantbecauseithadn’tbeeninventedyet,norwoulditbeforanothertwenty-fivehundredyears.Sotherewasnothingtoweightimeagainst;itsimplywaswhatitwas.Furthermore,itwasanautomaticresource,unlikefoodormaterialgoods(includingmoney).Timewasthusconstantlyavailableforusetopromotesurvival,whetherdirectly(e.g.,bypreparingfoodandbuildingshelter)orindirectly—thatis,bytryingtoelicitsymbolicallywhatwaswanted.Thelatterisausethatmanyofushaveforgotten.Ethnographicparallelsworldwideshowthatenormoustimeisoftenputinto“simply”decoratingpeopleandthingswithefficacioussymbolsbelievedtopromotelife,prosperity,andsafety(cf.fig.3.2).Forexample,manyaSlavicfolkcostumeisdecoratedwithredembroideryatneck,sleeve,andhem.Boththedesignsandthebloodredcolorcarrysymboliclifepowers,whilethepotentsignsarecarefullylocatedtowardoffsicknessdemonsthatarelookingforopeningsthroughwhichtoattack.Thus“art”isatoncepleasingandthoroughlyfunctional—adoublewinner.

WeavingwasnottheonlycraftintowhichartistictimeandenergywerebeingpouredintheNeolithic.FromHungaryonsouththroughtheeasternBalkans,allthewaytoThessalyinGreece,wefindaprofusionofastonishinglyelegantpotterycoveredwithsophisticatedswirlingdesigns.TheideaofbakingacontainermoldedofclayinordertomakeithardandwaterproofhaddevelopedintheNearEastaround6000B.C.andsoonspreadtosoutheasternEurope.Thereisnodirectevidenceofwhethermenorwomenweremakingthepottery,evenwhenweseethebakingoftheclaymovingsoonfromlow-temperaturefiringinthefamilyhearthtomuchhotterfiringincourtyardovens.ButacasehasbeenmadethattheelaboratepainteddesignsthatsoondevelopedinsoutheasternEuroperepresentedavarietyoffertilitysymbols,coreamongwhichareeggs.ThepaintingoftheeggsthemselvesatEaster,thetimeofrenewedgrowth,isstillanimportantannualritualintheBalkansandUkraine,andthedesignspaintedonthemarerepletewithancientsymbolism.IntheUnitedStates,onthecontrary,themeaningissofarweakenedthatpaintingEastereggsisnowviewedasachildren’spastimewhilethehighlyfertilerabbitsassociatedwiththemhavedevolvedintocommercializedcuteness.Onceagain,femalefertilitywasadominantthemeamongtheculturesoftheNeolithic,andthewomenmayhavebeeninchargeofthisnewcraft,too,withitscargooffertilitysymbols.Totheseargumentswecanaddthatvasemakingwascertainlyanothercourtyardartandwouldcombinewellwithchildrearing.Theresultingpottery,moreover,wasusedchieflyforthewomen’sdailychoresofstoring,cooking,andservingthefood.

Strongparallelstomanyofthesearchaeologicaldetailscanbefoundinanothercultureoverflowingwithwomen’scourtyardarts,theHopioftheAmericanSouthwest.Therethepotting,vasepainting,basketmaking,andweavingallarewomen’swork,andalthoughtheweavingofpatternedrugsisrecent,theelaborateno-two-pieces-alikepaintingofpotsisnot.(Ihaveoftenbeenstruck,infact,bythesimilaritiesbetweentheHopi-PapagodesignsandthoseofNeolithicAnatoliaandsoutheasternEurope.)CertainaspectsoftheHopidesignsaretraditionaltotheculture,butotherfeatureshavetypicallybeenhandeddownfrommothertodaughterwithinthefamily,forthewomenworkedtogetherconstantlyandlearnedprincipallyfromoneanother.Indeed,awomanlivedherwholelifeinthedwellingsownedbyhermotherandhermother ’sclan,whereasthemandividedhistimeandallegiancebetweenhiswife’shousehold(towhichhecontributedthefoodheproduced)andthatofhisownmother,wherehehadmanyritualduties.Asforproperty,thematrilinealclanownedtheplotsoflandinwhichthemainfoodsuppliesofcornandsquashweregrown.Themendidsomeofthecroptendingbutalsospentmuchoftheirtimeoutpasturingtheflocks,whichtheypasseddownfromfathertoson.Thusthewomenremainedpermanentlysettledinasingleplacewhilethemenspentagreatdealoftheirtimemovingaround.Inshort,HopisocietywashorticulturalinmuchthesamewayastheNeolithicandEarlyBronzeAgesocietiesofEuropeseemtohavebeen.ForthatreasonthePuebloIndianshavesometimesbeenusedasamodelfortryingtounderstandthearchaeologicalrecordinNeolithicEurope.

ThustextilesflourishedintheearlyhorticulturaleconomiesofsoutheasternEuropebetween6000and2000B.C.,whenthewomencouldhandlethesubsistencefarmingandthecraftswhilethemencouldgooutofthecommunitytohunt,fish,tendflocks,andbarterforluxuriessuchasshellbeadsandobsidianblades.Obsidian,orvolcanicglass,ismuchsharperthanflintbutisfoundinonlyaveryfewplaces.Settlerswanteditparticularlyforscythinggrain,andmenhadtoestablishhugetradenetworkstoobtainit,astheplantingofdomesticgrainspread.

IntheNearEast,althoughwehavelittleinformationontextilesduringthisperiod,wehavedataonfood.TheysuggestthatthestyleoflifemayhaveparalleledthatinEurope,sinceatfirstthefieldsofgrainthatprovidedthecentralfoodwerehand-tended.Ifanything,however,lifeinpartsoftheNearEastmusthavebeenharder,forthewomenspentsomanyhoursoftheirlivesathardlaboroverheavystonegraingrindersthattheworkpermanentlydeformedtheirbones.Archaeologistshavefoundthetoe,knee,andshoulderbonesofthewomenintheearlyfarmingvillagesofnorthernMesopotamiatobesquashedanddeformedinwayscausedbypressurefromkneelingandpushingheavyobjectswiththearmandshoulder—clearlythemetate-likestonegrindersthatwefindonthesites(cf.fig.8.7).Norwerethemenalwaysouthunting,fortheirbonesoftenrevealthesamedeformities.

Thepictureconjuredupbytheseandotherexcavationdetailsisnotsuchapleasantone.SouthernEuropeprovidedafairnumberof“orchardcrops,”suchasnuts,olives,andediblefruits(fig.4.1),whichrequirerelativelylittleworkforafairreturnoffood.Theforests,moreover,althoughmakingtheclearingoffieldsforgraindifficult,aboundedingame.InSyriaandIraq,ontheotherhand,wefindanabundanceofsicklesandstonegrindersforcuttingandgrindingcerealsbutmuchlessevidenceformostothertypesoffood,althoughpeopleherdedsheepandgoatswheresuitablegrazingexisted.Wheatandbarleygrewcopiouslyinwetyearsandstoredwell,butconvertingthemintothemajorfoodsupplywaspunishinglyhardwork.Thesecondmostcommonfoodcamefromthelegumefamily,includingpeas,lentils,andchickpeas,whichweassociatewithNearEasterncuisineeventoday.Eatenregularlytogether,thecerealsandlegumesprovidethebodywithcomplete

proteinsandthuswithaviablediet,evenwithouttheadditionofmeat.Developingadietnotdependentuponmeatwasfortunate,becausearound4000B.C.cameameat-

relateddiscoverythatsoonbroughttheNeolithictoaclose.PeopleinMesopotamiabegantorealizethattheirprimarydomesticanimals—sheep,goats,andcattle—couldbeexploitedinafarmoreefficientwaythanbykillingthemfortheirmeatandhides(thesoleuseforwhichtheyhadbeendomesticated).Keptaliveandusedefficiently,theycouldprovideaconstantsupplyof“secondary”products:ofmilkfoods,wool,andmusclepower.Theoldstrategyallowedonlyonechanceatfoodandclothingfromeachanimal—onefeast,onehide—andyougotthemaximumofmeatfortheminimumofcarebyslaughteringwhenthecreaturehadbarelyreachedadulthood.Butnowpeoplesawthatifyoukeptatleastthefemalesalive,youcouldmilkthemforyearsandcouldeatthemeatintheendanyway,althoughitwouldn’tbesotender.

Ifcattlewerecentraltothischange,soweresheep.Theinbreedingofdomesticsheepoverthousandsofyearshadledtosomevarietiesthathadafairamountofwool,whichmoltedeveryyearinthespring.Wildsheep,andthustheearlydomesticsheep,hadcoatsthatwerepredominantlyhairy—technically,kempy—withsomeunderwool.Thecoarsekempsareratherstiffandsimplyshatterlikedrycrackersifyoutrytotwistthem,whereastheunderwoolissoshortanddownyfinethatitwadsupanddoesn’tspineither.Sosheephadtochangealotbeforetheyhadusablewool.Itseemstohavebeenabout4000B.C.thatpeoplerealizedtheycouldgetasteadysupplyofclothingfromthelivesheep.Aroundthattimeweseeashifttokillingtheanimalsataripeoldage.Olderewesalonemightmeanpurelyamilkflock,butoldmales,andcastratedatthat,canonlybeexploitedforwool.Thesewethers,infact,producethebestfleecesofall.Wool,foritspart,isawonderfulfiber:warmerandmoreresilientthanlinen(althoughscratchier),andfareasiertodye.Anewphaseintextilesandtheworkassociatedwiththemwasabouttobegin.

Thethirdbenefitofkeepingtheanimalsalivewastoexploitthemfortheirstrength,inparticulartohelpwiththeheavyjobsofplowingthefields,threshingthegrain,andtransportingseed,harvest,andequipment.(Thewheel,too,wasinventedaboutthistime.)Byusingateamofoxentopulltheweight,thefarmercoulduseaheavierplowtodigamuchdeeperfurrowandproduceabettercrop.

Thisaboveall—theuseofhugedraftanimalsinlargefieldstogrowthebasicfood—permanentlyremovedthefood-producingportionoftheeconomyfromthewomen’sdomain.Why?Becausesuchactivitywasnolongercompatiblewithchildraising.Thustheallotmentoftasksshiftedonceagain,firstinMesopotamiaandgraduallyinawideningcirclebeyond.

Anotherradicalchangeintheorganizationofhumanlifebegansoonafter,markingthestartoftheBronzeAge.Peoplelivinginmetal-richregionshadlongknowntheusefulnessofmetals,startingwiththesoftonesthathappentooccurinpureform,likecopperandgold.2Butsuchsoftmetalsaremoresuitableforornamentsthanfortools.Ittookthediscoverythatmetalscanbealloyedintonewandhardermaterialsbymixingthemwhilemoltentoopenawayfinallytovastlyimprovedtools:metalaxes,cauldrons,chisels,knives,and—ametal-dependentinvention—thesword.Theproblemformostpeopleatthattimewasthat,althoughcopperisrathercommonlyfoundinEuropeandtheNearEast,thehardeningmetalsaren’t.

Themostwidelyusefulalloyofsoftmetalsiscoppermixedwithtin,givingthealloyweknowasbronze.Tin,however,occursmostlyonlyinafewplacesfarawayfromtheearlycentersofcivilization,likeeasternIran,Spain,andCornwall(inBritain).Anothereffectivehardenerisarsenic,anditwasusedbrieflyinthesteppesnorthoftheCaucasusatthebeginningoftheBronzeAge,butarsenicbronzesoondiedout—perhapsbecausepeoplenoticedthatfamiliesusingcookwareofarsenicbronzesoondiedout.Unfortunatelythearsenicwilldissolveoutofthebronzeintotheacidof

thefood.Probablythesmithsworkingwiththearsenicdied,too.Obtainingtin,evenifitrequiredgreattrouble,wasworththeeffort.

Thisneedfortinsteadilyincreasedtradeingoodsandideas,forpeopleallovertheNearEastandsoonEuropebegantowantthesenewfangledtools.Butbronzewon’tgrowingardens.Thatwasanewproblem.Somebodyhadtogooutandfindtheoresfromwhichitcouldbemade—orfindsomeoneelsewhohadoreandwaswillingtotrade.Sothegreatmetalsearchbegan,anditbecamemen’swork,ifonlybecausethedistanceswerefartoogreatforthetoddlerstotravel.Mines,too,onceyoufindthem,arenoplacetohavelittlechildrenunderfoot,noristhesmithy—toomanyhammersandhotsparksflyingabout.Thusmetalworkingbecamemen’sworkaswell.

Somuchtradeandexploration,somuchmovementofpeopleandnewideasbegantoaltersocietydramatically.Atthesametime,theevermoreefficientproductionoffoodsupportedeverlargercongregationsofpeople,untiltheonce-tinyvillagesandtownshadbecomeimmensecities.Foritwasaboutthissametime,towardtheendofthefourthmillenniumB.C.,thattrulyurbancivilizationsprangupinMesopotamia,acivilizationthatincludedwriting,laws,contracts,taxrecords,andmuchelsethatliteracyenables.IttookalmostamillenniumfortheprincipalchangestoreachsoutheasternEurope,butby2500B.C.thesedentaryvasepaintersandweaversweregone,abruptlysweptawaybywarlikeswarmsofnewpeoplehuntingfororesfromtheCaucasustotheCarpathianstotheAlps.TheolddaysofsimpleNeolithiccourtyardsweregone.Aheadlaytheheadychemistryofnewandfar-ranginghumancontacts,catalystsforyetotherdevelopmentsinwomen’scontributiontosocietythroughtheirtextilearts.

1AnotunsimilarcultofthedreadgoddessKybeleandherwildanimalspersistedinwesternTurkeyinClassicaltimes.2At(ÇayönüTepesi,ineasternTurkey,notfarfromararesourceofpurecopper,excavatorsfoundlittlecoppertools,suchashooks,madebyhammeringandabrading.Thesiteisanearlyfarmingvillageofabout7000B.C.Itwasinjustsuchore-richareasaseasternTurkeyandtheCaucasusthatmetalworkinggraduallydevelopedduringthecourseoftheNeolithic.

4

IslandFever

Byhowmuchthemenareexpertaboveallothermeninpropellingaswiftshiponthesea,bythusmuchthewomenareskilledattheloom,forAthenahasgiventothembeyondallothersaknowledgeofbeautifulcraftwork,andnobleminds.

—Homer,Odyssey,7.108–11

InatleastoneareaoftheMediterraneanworld,abasicallyhorticulturalsystemsurvivedmoreorlessintactuntillateintheBronzeAge—namely,onCrete.Heirtomillenniaoftextileinnovationsincloth-crazyEuropeandfedbyanewandrichersourceofcoloredfiber—namely,wool—theartofweavingflourishedinMinoanCreteasneverbefore.Theera,whichranfromabout3000to1400B.C.isrecentenoughthatamuchfullersetofartifactshassurvived,allowingusaconsiderablymoredetailedviewofthelifestyle.Asusual,whereverwecatchglimpsesoftheclothmakersthemselves,theyareinvariablywomen.

Creteisanisland,andtheimmigrantswhoreachedCreteobviouslyarrivedbysea—atfirstafewstragglersbutalreadycarryingearlystocksofdomesticgrainandanimals,andthen,attheveryendoftheNeolithic,around3000B.C.,agreatinfluxofsettlers.ManysailedfromsouthwesternTurkey,butsomeperhapsfromthefacingshoreofAfrica:fromLibyaandtheNileDelta.Technologywasaccruingrapidly,andsoonafterthestartoftheBronzeAgewebegintoseepicturesofincreasinglysophisticatedboatsintheAegean,withbanksofoarstopropelthemthroughtheseaandpresentlywithmuscle-savingsailsaswell.Otherpeoplecouldstaylandlovers,butitbehoovedthepopulaceofaseagirtlandtoperfecttheuseofwindpower.

IslandFever:That’swhatsomearchaeologistscalltheenormousamountofeffortthatisolatedculturesinvestinunusualactivities.ProductsofthiseffectincludeStonehengeinEngland,theEasterIslandavenuesofstonefaces,themultiroomedhallsmadeofenormousbouldersontinyMalta,andthepyramidsofEgypt(an“island”inanearlyimpenetrableseaofdesertsand).Themechanismseemstobethatsuchcultures,livinginthefirstflushofnewtechnologybutbeforetraveltotheirlandwaseasy,couldaffordtoexpendoncommunalworksalltheenergythatotherculturesneededjusttodefendthemselvesfromthepeoplearoundthem.Suddenexpansionandproliferationinanewandprotectedenvironmentarewellknowninthebiologicalworldaswell—forexample,intheHawaiianIslands,wherethesmallnumberofspeciesthatreachedtheislandsalive(suchashoneycreepersandcaterpillars)evolvedwithexplosiverapidityintothemanynewecologicalniches.

ThegreatunfortifiedpalacesofCrete—sohugeandramblingthattheygaveus(throughtheGreeklanguage)thewordlabyrinth—and,indeed,thewholeamazingMinoancivilization,includingitstextiles,musttosomeextenthavebeenpoweredbyIslandFever.TherearenowalledtownsorgarrisonsonCrete,villassprawlunprotectedaboutthecountryside,andthelinesofwatchtowersseemsetforsignalinginformationwithflaresratherthanfordefense.Secureintheirisland

stronghold,thewomencouldcontinuetotendtheirgardensandtheirloomswhilethemenlaunchedforthonthedangeroussea,tocatchfish,totradeinfarawayplaces,andtoexploreforresourcesnotfoundontheisland.

Thisdoesnotmeanthatmenneverhelpedwiththefoodathome.Indeed,oxenexistedonCrete(alongwithfearsomewildbulls),asdidsomesortofploweventually,butforallthethousandsofpicturesoftheirlifethattheyleftusonwallpaintingsandcarvedgems,theMinoansneverportrayedscenesofplowingorofdraftanimalsinaction.Apparentlythesewerenotapivotalpartofthatlife.FarmablelandbothfertileandflatisscarceonCrete,whilethesteep,sunbakedslopesmorereadilysupportorchardcropsofolivesandgrapes,nutsandpomegranates—cropsthatprovidemorefoodforlesslaborthancerealsdo(fig.4.1).Thesteepestslopesofallofferpasturetosheepandgoats,whichinturnyieldmilkforcheeses,woolandhairforweaving,andfinallymeatforthestewpot.Allthesefoods,togetherwithflavor-intensewildhoneyandlocalherbslikethymeandcoriander,havebeenpartofAegeancuisinefromthenuntilnow.Menmightassist,butlandandcropscouldbemanagedbythewomenaloneforlongperiods.

Figure4.1.ThesteepAegeanhillsides,likethisoneineasternCrete,arebestsuitedtoraisingorchardcrops.Here,inaphototakenbytheauthorin1962,theupperslopeisplantedwitholivetrees,andthelower(bottomright)withgrapevines.Atthetopofthevineyardisawellforirrigation(grapesneedmorewaterthanolives).Thewaterwastraditionallyraisedbymeansofabuckethungfromoneendofalongpolebalancedonaforkedtreetrunk(visibleinthecenterofthepicture).Ahugestonelashedtothepolecounterweightedthe

bucket,toeasetheworkofraisingthewater.

Inthiscomfortablesettingitisnowonderthatthewomenhadleisuretopourunprecedentedenergyintomakingbeautifulcloth.Theyhad,inaddition,anewplaything:wool.

FlaxhadbeeninusearoundtheMediterraneansincethePalaeolithic,whereaswool,onthebacksofwoollysheep(asopposedtohairyorkempyones;seeChapter3),hadbeenintroducedintotheBalkansfromtheNearEastonlyaround3500B.C.,lateintheNeolithic.Whitewool,unlikeflax,iseasytodye,andwool,inaddition,growsnaturallyindifferentshades—fromblack,gray,andbrownthroughruddyandtawnytocreamandwhite—accordingtothepigmentationoftheindividualsheep.1Patternedtextilesdependlargelyontheuseofcolor.White-on-whitedesignsarehandsomebutextremelysubtle;contrastivecolorsaremorevividlysatisfying.Thusthearrivalofwoolmarkedaneweraintextiledevelopment.

By2300B.C.,thepeopleofCretehadturnedtheherdingofthesenew,woollysheepintoamajorpartoftheireconomy.TheMinoancultureitself,fertilizedbyever-increasingtrade,stoodreadytoburstintofullbloom,andso,wecandeduce,didtextiles.OurfirstevidencecomesfromaprehistoricvillagenearMyrtos,almosttheonlythoroughlyexcavatedMinoansitedatingtothisearlyperiod.LyingonthesouthcoastofCreteatopasteep,windylittlehilllookingoutacrossthedeepblueMediterraneantowardEgypt(wellbeyondthehorizon),Myrtosisaconvenientplaceforwatchingforthereturnofthefishermenandseatraders,ifnotforluggingthedailywaterupthehill.Thehousesareparty-walledtogetherinatightclump.Anoccasionalnarrowalleywindsthroughforaccess,withsteeplittlestepshereandtheretoaccommodatethesharpriseinground.

TheMyrtosdwellingsprovedchock-fullofevidencefortextilemanufacture.Simpleclayspindlewhorlsturnedupinmanyoftherooms,asthoughwomendidtheirspinninganywhereandeverywhere(justasinruralGreecetoday).Inoneroomthediggersunearthedashallowclaydishwitha“handle”ontheinside,andfragmentsofanother:specialbowlsforwettinglinenthreadasitisbeingworked.Newlinenissostiffandfullofsliversthatitismucheasiertohandledamp.Thebowlsweredesignedtoreceiveaballofthreadstraightintoapuddleofwaterinthebottom(fig.4.2).Theendoftheyarnranundertheloopoftheinterior“handle,”anarrangementthatnotonlyforcedthethirstylinenthroughthewaterbutkepttheballfromjumpingoutasthespinnerpulledonthethreadwhilesheplieditoraddedtwisttomakeitstronger.Thispeculiartechnology,betterknownfromwallpaintingsandloopedbowlsthatsurvivedinEgyptandalsofromasimilararchaictraditionofthreadmakinginmodernJapan,isappropriateonlyforworkingwithbast,thestemfibersofplants.Sinceflax(linen)istheindigenousbastfiberoftheMediterraneancountries,thepresenceofsuchabowl,locallymadeandwithacharacteristicwornspotundertheloopfromthethread’sconstantlyrunningpast,demonstratesbeyonddoubtthatthewomenofMyrtoswereworkingflax.

Figure4.2.Fiber-wettingbowlanditsuse.Tospinplantstemfiberslikeflaxandhemp,whicharemoreeasilyworkedwhendamp,severalcultureshaveindependentlyinventedwettingbowlstospeedtheprocess.Thebowlsareformedwithaloopinsideonthebottom.Waterisputinthebowl,andthepartlyformedthreadispassedunderthelooptoforceitthroughthewateronitswaytothespindle.TheancientEgyptiansandMinoansmadesuchbowls,andsimilaronesarestillemployedinJapan.

Theyalsoprocessedwool.NumeroussheepbonesturnedupintheMyrtosexcavations,butmostofthemcamefromadultsofbothgenders,adistributionindicatingthatthepeopleexpectedtoharvestthesheepflocksforwool.Intwoorthreeofthehouses,largespoutedtubsoverhungrunoffareasarrangedbeneath,andinonecaseachannelcutintothesoftbedrockdirectedasubstantialflowoffdownthehill.(Notethatifyouarepressinggrapesandolivesforwineandoil,youdonotwanttheliquidtorunaway,sothisinstallationwasdesignedforotherpurposes.)Thematerialfromoneofthetubswasanalyzedandfoundtocontainremainsofanimalfats—mostlikelyfromwashingwool.Sheepwereundoubtedlyeaten,too,butthiswasnotwheretheywerecooked,sincetherewasnohearthorfirepit,nowaytoheatthesetubs.Smallercookingbowlsandalargestonegrinderlaynearby.Weretheseforpreparingfood,orperhapsforgrindingandextractingdyestuffs?

Clayloomweightsoccurred,butnotscatteredlikethespindlewhorls.Insteadtheywereconcentratedlargelyintwoareasatthesite—thesametwoareasasthemaintubinstallations.Theweightsinatleastonecase,however,layintheupperfill,havingfallenfromabove.PeterWarren,theBritishexcavator,suggestsreasonablythattheloomhadbeensetupontheflatroofand,further,thatitsbeamshadbeenmadeofoak,sincehefoundcharredoakinthefillaswell.Oneofthesetsofloomweightsisofthesmall,disk-shapedvarietyassociatedwiththepatternweavingofwool.Someoftheseweightshavegroovesacrossthetop,possiblyforabartostabilizethemandstopthemfromclankingsoloudlywitheachchangeoftheshedduringtheweavingprocess(seeChapter1).

GreekislandvillagesarenotsodifferenteventodayfromwhatweseeatMyrtos(fig.4.3).Steepandnarrowstreetswindbetweenthelittleparty-walledhouses,everythingwhitewashedtoreflecttheheat.Upstairs,shadedfromthesunandraisedintothebreezeabovetheworstofthedust,thewomenworktogetheratpreparingthefoodandtheclothing,chattingwhiletheywaitforthementoreturnfromfishingandspongedivingatsea.

Figure4.3.Steepvillagestreetwithwhitewashedhousesandroughstone-slabpaving,ontheAegeanislandofMykonos.Althoughthesceneis1962,itcouldwellbe1500or2200B.C.,tojudgebytheremainsofexcavatedBronzeAgetowns.

Allinall,atMyrtos,twoorthreeareasatthesiteseemwellequippedtotaketheproductionofclothfromstarttofinish.Ifwepulltheevidencetogether,wecanseethatbothlinenandwoolwerebeingprocessed,thatspinningandweavingtookplaceinconsiderablequantity,andthatthewoolwasprobablyalsobeingdyed.Severaldye-producingplantsandanimalswereavailableinthevicinityofthevillage,whilesmallpiercedstoneweights—foundinabundanceatmuchlaterdyeinginstallations—occurredalloverthesite.Thewindinessofthehillcouldhaveplayedapartaswell,sincedyersalwaysseekasteadywindtohelpthefabricsdryandtoremovethesometimesdreadfulstenchofthedyestuffs.ItalladdsuptolabelMyrtosasaperfectplacetomakecoloredcloth.ButtheexcavatorPeterWarrenstoppedshyofsuggestinganythingsoradicalaspatternedtextiles.

Warrenpublishedhisadmirablythoroughdescriptionoftheexcavatedsitein1972.Whathecould

notknowthen,sincetheresearchhadnotyetbeendone,isthattheEuropeanshadalreadybeenmakingornatepatternedclothformillenniaandthat,notlongafterthelittlecoastalvillageofMyrtosburneddown,theMinoanswerealreadyexportingtheirversionsofittotheNileValley.Theexportedtextileshadpatternssocomplicatedthatonehastoassumealongrunningstartonlearningtomakethem—backatleasttothetimeofMyrtos.

WhatweretheprettypatternstheMinoanslikedsomuchtoweave?ThefirstfavoriteonexportstoEgypt,tojudgefromcopiespaintedtherefromaround2000B.C.

onward,consistedofblueheart-spiralssetpointtopoint(muchlikethedesigntypicaltodayonawrought-ironfence)withareddiamondbetweeneachpairofdoublehearts,allonawhiteground(fig.4.4).Itmusthavebeenstunning.Atanyrate,thewomenofCretewovethatdesignforatleastanotherthousandyears,forwecatchglimpsesofithereandtherebothinEgyptandinCrete,allthewaydownintotheIronAgelongafterthefalloftheMinoans.PatternsfavoredintheEgyptianmarketalittlelaterincludedrowsofyelloworwhitespirals,oftenrunningonthediagonalwithredandbluerosettesalternatinginthespacesbetween.

Figure4.4.TworenditionsofafavoriteMinoantextiledesign,thedoubleheart-spiral,asrecordedbyEgyptianartists.Left:onthetombceilingofaMiddleKingdomnobleman,WahkaII(atQau,ca.1900B.C.).Right:onthe(heavilydamaged)kiltofanAegeanvisitortotheEgyptiancourtatThebesca.1450B.C.(tombofMenkheperraseneb).Thecolorschemesareverysimilaronallknownrenditions:bluespiralswithredpalmettesandpartlyredlozengefigures.

TheMinoanmenwhocarriedthesebeautifultextilestoEgyptdidnotgohomeempty-handed,letaloneempty-headed,fromtheirlongtradingvoyages.(ThejourneyfromCretetoEgyptwasaboutfivehundredmiles,andoftenmorethanathousandmilestoreturnbecauseoftheprevailingwinddirections.)OnethingtheybroughtbackfromEgyptwastheideathatonecouldpaintscenesonwalls.Fromthenonweseetheirowndepictionsofthemselves,includingwhattheywore.ForcenturiesCretanmenworesimpleloincloths,sometimeswithfancybordersandalwaysfastenedwithcinchbelts.Butthewomenclothedthemselvesinevermoregorgeousattire—anothertip-offthattheyweretheonesincontrolofproducingthestuff.

Eventhesimplestcostumesarefancy.Theearliestrepresentations,someclayfigurinesaround1900B.C.(twoorthreecenturiesbeforethefrescoesbegin),alreadyshowwomeninlargebell-shapedskirtswithopen-frontedbodices.NotonlyaretheseflaringskirtsandopenbodicesfeaturesweassociatewiththeMinoans,buttheyareclearlyoldwithinthecultureandbasictoaMinoanwoman’sconceptofnormalclothing.Oneofthelittlestatuettes(fig.4.5)isbothcompleteandpainted,inanoutfitreminiscentoftheflamboyantladiesof1780atthecourtofGeorgeIII.Onthewoman’shead

sitsalarge,eye-catchingchapeau,boldlydecoratedwithblackandwhitestripes;herbodicesweepsuptoahighpeakedcollarbehindherneck,whileherdresshasanequallyboldlight-on-darkdesign,justliketheelegantnewstyleofpotteryofthatperiod,theso-calledKamaresware.

Figure4.5.ClayfigurineofaMinoanwomanoftheearlysecondmillenniumB.C.,fromPetsofá,Crete.

Twotothreecenturieslaterweseethatflounceshadbecometherageamongladiesoffashion.Thefrescoesshowthem,thuscolorfullyattired,dancingingardensandcourtyards(fig.4.6),whilelivelycrowdsoffellowcitizenslookonfromsurroundingbleachers.(WehavefoundjustsuchbleacherlikearrangementsofstonestepsateveryMinoanpalaceyetexcavated.)Themeninthepaintingssittogetherinonearea,gesticulatingwiththeirarms,andthewomensitinanothersection,largelyinfrontofthemen,inanimatedconversation—perhapsovertheperformance,theirownsplendidjewelryandgracefullypiledhairdos,andtheirelegantdresses.

Figure4.6.Wallpaintingofabeautifullydressedwomandancing(?)inagarden,fromthevillaatHagiaTriada,animportantMinoanporttowninsouthernCrete,mid-secondmillenniumB.C.

Theplainestdressesaremerelystriped;thefanciestonesdisplayamind-bogglingarrayofall-overpatterns:gridsoftinydiamondsfilledwithvariouslittlesquiggles,complexfiguresofthree-andfour-prongedinterlockingshapes(petals,stars,lobes,orcrosses),aswellasspirals,“yo-yos,”androsettes.Brighttasselsandpatternededgingsrepletewithzigzags,spirals,rosettes,wavylines,andsimplebarstrimmedtheoutfits,alongwiththicksashes,sculptedaprons,andcolorfulhairbands.

WealsohaveafairlygoodideaofhowtheMinoansmusthaveobtainedthebrightlycontrastivecolors—red,blue,yellow,andwhite—thatmadepatternweavingsomuchfun.

Naturaldyescomeintwofundamentaltypes.Withthesimplerkind,calleddirectdyes,whatyouseeisprettymuchwhatyouget.Thus,ifyouchopandsimmertherootofthemadderplant,whichstillgrowswildonCrete,yougetadarkredsoupwhichwilldyewoolanorangyred;ifyousimmerthestamensofthesaffronlily,foundonmanyAegeanislands,youwillgetanorangebrothandabrightyellowdyecolor.Minoanredsandyellowsprobablycamemostlyfrommadderandsaffron,althoughredmayalsohavebeenobtainedfromkermes,atypeofinsectthefemaleofwhichcontainsagorgeousreddye(ourwordcrimsoncomesfromkermes).Warrennotesthepresenceofthekermes-bearingspeciesofoaknearMyrtos.

Dyesoftheothertypearecalledvatdyesandaremuchmorecomplicatedtoprocess.Oneofthe

mostpopularvatdyeseventodayisindigoblue,thenaturalchemicalusedtocolorbluejeans.TheMinoansprobablyobtainedthedyefromaEuropeanplantcalledwoad;thewordissooldthatweknowtheproto-Indo-Europeansalreadyknewofit.TheindigoplantitselfwasnotimportedintoEuropefromIndia(whenceitgotitsname)foranothertwothousandyears.ThepeopleofCretealsoextractedroyalpurple(socalledbecausetheRomanemperorslaterdecreedthatonlytheycouldwearit),derivingitfromseveralvarietiesofseasnails,suchasmurex.Wehavetheirshellheapsfromtheearlysecondmillenniumontoproveit.Eachlittlemolluskproducesonlyasingledropofthesplendiddye,sopurple-dyershadtocatchandslaughterhundredstotintasinglepieceofcloth.Dependingonthewaterinwhichtheseasnailgrew,itsdyecouldvaryfrompurplishbluethroughdeeppurpletocherryred.

Theadvantageofvatdyesisthattheydon’twashout.Tomakemadderandmostotherplantdyescolorfast,oneneedsamordant,achemicalwhichfixesthedye.SoonaftertheheightoftheMinoanculturewehaveevidenceofthemineralalum,thebestnaturalmordant,beingimportedintotheAegeanfromCyprus,soperhapstheMinoansknewofitsusealready.Butallthewayupuntiltheinventionofsyntheticdyesin1856,redsandbluesweretheeasiestcolorstokeepfromeitherwashingoutinwaterorfadingfromlongexposuretolight.(Hencetheflagsofmostcountriesthatbecamepoliticalentitiesbefore1856arecoloredred,white,and/orblue.)ItisprobablynoaccidentthatthesewerethecolorsthattheEgyptiansdepictedtheirAegeanvisitorswearing.

Sincedyestuffsotherthanseapurpledon’tleavedurableevidencelikeshellsbehind,anddyesourcescanseldombedeterminedunambiguouslyfromthechemistryoftheirresidues(evenwhenweareluckyenoughtohavedyedobjectspreserved),weoftencan’tprovethatanavailabledyestuffwasactuallyinuse.Butoccasionallywearelucky,andinonecasewealsogetacharmingglimpseofwomenattheirwork.

Arecentlydiscoveredsetoffrescoes,stillunderrestoration,fromaMinoan-stylehouseonthevolcanicisleofTherashowswomenoutonasaffronhunt(fig.4.7).Ayounggirlhasdeckedherselfoutinahandsomeyellowbodicewithblueedgingandredtassels,adividedskirtwithblue,yellow,andwhiteflounces,goldhoopearrings,andgoldandsilverbracelets.Mostofherheadislightlyshaved(boys’headsweretreatedsimilarly,andstillare,inmodernGreece,tocureorpreventringworm).Onlyaforelockandasingleponytailhavebeenspared.Assheplucksthestamensfromtheliliesonthecraggylavarocksbeforeher,shelooksuptowardanoldergirl,whoselockshavejustgrownoutbutarenotyetverylong.Thelatter,inturn,keepspickingsaffronwithonehandwhileshecarefullyholdshercollectionpailwiththeotherandglancesbackoverhershoulderatheryoungcompanion.Athirdwoman,ayoungmatronwithlongcoilsofblackhair,fancynecklaces,andagarlandofflowersoverherelaboratelypatterneddress,holdsoutastringofbeadsinherhand,whileafourthgirl,withsprigsofflowersandgreenerystuckintoherhair,hassatdowntorubabarefootshestubbedonthejaggedrocks.Hermouthformsan“ooh”ofmildpain.Yetanothergirlemptiesherbasketatthemaincollectionpoint,whileasixthgirllooksback,wearingapolka-dotveiloverherheadandshoulders.Herheadisstillpartlyshaved,butshehasseverallonglocks.Ithasbeensuggestedthatsheisthecauseofthisscene,thatthesaffronhuntispartofherriteofpassagetothestateofwomanhood,sincesaffronisnotonlyadyebutisconsideredintheGreekislandseventodayaspecificforwomen’smenstrualpain.Theuseasadyeforclothingiscloselyconnected.InClassicalGreektimes,yellowapparelwasconsideredappropriateforwomenonly,includinggoddesseslikeAthena.ThecomicpoetAristophanesgotalotofmileageoutofthisbyjokinglyportrayingthemoreeffeminateAthenianpoliticiansasdressedinyellow.

Figure4.7.YoungwomeninfancyMinoan-styledress,pickingsaffron—thestamenofalilyusedasayellowdye,asaspice,andasmedicineformenstrualcramps.Wallpaintingfromamid-secondmillenniumhouseontheAegeanislandofThera.

ThusthearchaeologicalfindsonCreteandtheAegeanislandsrepeatedlygiveussolidevidenceofatextileindustrystrongintechnologyandtraditionandcloselytiedtothewomen’sculturalaswellaseconomicandmedicalconcerns.Those,however,whoenjoyreclothingthedrybonesofarchaeologyandreanimatingalongdeadwayoflifecangoafewstepsfarther,withHomer.

HighMinoancivilizationfell,sometimebetween1500and1400B.C.,weakenedinpartbydevastatingvolcaniceruptionsandquakesintheAegean.TheBronzeAgeinturnendedaround1200B.C.,twogenerationsaftertheTrojanWar.ThusHomer,around800B.C.,livedinanentirelydifferentageashecomposedhisoralepicsofthebattlesatTroyandofthedifficulthomewardjourneyoftheGreeksaftertheyhadwonthewar.WithoutadoubtHomerworkedfromorallytransmittedmaterial;someoftheobjectshedescribes,likeahelmetmadeofboar ’stusk,hadnotbeenseenintheAegeanforcenturies,althoughtheyarenowknownfromarchaeology.Classicistsargueincessantlyoverhowmuchhemadeup.Somehaveevensuggestedthatallofitisfiction.Butethnographersworkingwithoralhistorieslearnthatremarkablylittleofthissortofmaterialisfreelyinvented.Thepointofpassinghistoryalongorallyisthatitcontainsinformationviewedbythetellerstobeimportant.Makingitupdefeatsthepurpose,althoughembroideringitabitfromotherknowninformationcanmakeitmorefunandmemorable.

Consider,then,thefamoustalewhichHomertellsofOdysseusshipwreckedontheislandofthePhaiakians.Itisanidyll,asortoffairyland,butalsoaperfectpictureofthekindofhorticulturalsocietywehavejustbeenvisiting.MinoanCrete,lastofitskindinEurope,waslonggone,soHomerknewofthislife-style—withconsiderableaccuracy—eitherfromsomelong-standingoraltraditionorfromasmallenclaveofemigrantsstillkeepingtotheoldhorticulturalwaysnearby.EitherwaywecanprofitfromHomer ’stale,bytakingabriefwalkthroughthesortoflifethattheluckierofBronzeAgeAegeanwomenlived.2

THELANDOFTHEPHAIAKIANS

Halfdeadfromswimming,theshipwreckedOdysseusstrugglesashoreatnightontoanunknownislandatasandyrivermouthandburrowsintothewarm,dryleavesofanearbythickettosleep.Heisawakenedthenextafternoonbythecriesofyoungwomenwhohavebeenwashingclothesintheriver.

GirlscanbeseeneventodayatworkandplayontheriverbanksinruralpartsoftheBalkans,muchthewayHomerdescribes.3

Theytookthegarmentsintheirarmsfromthewagonandcarriedthemintothedarkwater,andstompedtheminthepools,makingalivelycontestofit.Thenaftertheyhadwashedandcleanedawayallthegrime,theyspreadeverythingoutinrowsontheshoreofthebrine,wherevertheseahadscrubbedthepebblesonthebeachespeciallyclean.Havingbathedandanointedthemselveswitholiveoil,theyhadtheirlunchonthebanksoftheriverandwaitedfortheclothesdryingintheraysofthesun.ThenafterbothNausikaaandhermaidsweresatisfiedwithfood,tossingasidetheirheadgear,theyplayedball,andwhite-armedNausikaaledthesongforthem.[6.90–101]

Itistheirshout,whensomeonemissesandtheballgoesintotheriver,thatwakesupOdysseus.Hidinghisnakednessbehindaconvenientbranch,hedelicatelyapproachestheirleader,theyoungprincessNausikaa,whogiveshimfood,atunic,andoilforbathingandthendirectshimtothenearbytown,whichliesbetweentwoharbors.Sheexplainstohimthat

Therethemenbusythemselveswiththetackleoftheirblackships—theropesandthesails—andtheysharpentheiroars.ForbowsandquiversareofnoconcerntoPhaiakianmen,butrathermastsandoarsofshipsandthebalancedshipsthemselves,inwhich,rejoicing,theycrossthegraysea.[6.268—72]

TheGreeks,bycontrast,lovedtohunt,soOdysseuslearnsrightherethathehasarrivedinasocietyratherdifferentfromhisown.

NausikaatellsOdysseustoaskinthetownforthehouseofherparents,andthengiveshimthefollowingcarefulinstructions:

Goquicklystraightthroughthehalluntilyoureachmymother—sheissittingbythehearthinthelightofthefire,spinningsea-purplerovesofwool,amarveltosee,leaningagainstthepillar,andhermaidssitbehindher.Andtheretheseatofmyfatherisleaned,oppositeher,wherehesitsanddrinkswineliketheimmortals.Passinghimby,onthekneesofmymotherplaceyoursupplianthands,inordertoseeyourdayofhomecomingwithgreatrejoicing,evenifyouhavecomefromveryfar.

Forifshetakesfriendlythoughtsinherheart,thenthereishopeforyoutoseeyourfriendsandreachyourwell-builthouseandyournativeland.[6.303–15]

Differentagain.NomarriedwomanrantheClassicalGreekhouseholdormadeitsprincipaldecisions.4Thesepeculiarlyun-Greekinstructions,however,areperfectlyinlinewithwhatweknowofmatrilinealsocietiesinwhichthemenspendmuchoftheirtimeaway.Sincethewomanownsandcontrolsthehouse,shehascontrolofwhichguestsmaystayinthehouse.

AtthecitygatewhoshouldmeethimtogivehimdirectionsbuthisoldfriendAthena,goddessofusefulknowledge,disguisedasayoungwoman.

EverywhereelseintheHomericepicsAthenadisguisesherselfasaman.Sofareveryoneimportantonthisislandhasbeenawoman,andHomerseemstobegoingoutofhiswaytoshowthat.

Athenawarnshimfirstthattheislandersareverysuspiciousofstrangersontheirownshores,sincetheyrelyontheirshipsfordefenseoftheirland.Then,astheywalkalong,shetellshimthegenealogyofNausikaa’sparents,AreteandAlkinoos.TheEarth-shakerPoseidonhadasonNausithoosbythedaughterofoneoftheGiants,andNausithoosinturnhadtwosons,RhexenorandAlkinoos.Rhexenordiedyoung,

leavingonlyasingledaughter,Arete;herAlkinoosmadeintohiswifeandhonoredherasnootherwomanonearthishonored.[7.65–7]

Let’stranslatethat.Poseidon,thegodfirstofearthquakesandnextoftidalwavesandthesea,mateswiththedaughterofaGiant—aeuphemismforavolcano.Odysseusisnowamongpeopleforwhomseismicactivityisthemostimportantofall“supernatural”forces,asseveralotherpointsinthestoryshow.Arete,anorphanedheiress,ismarriedbyherpaternaluncle—incestinmanycultures,butpreciselywhatthelawrequiresforloneheiressesintheearlylawcodefromGortyna,inCrete.AlthoughwritteninGreekabout450B.C.,thishugeinscriptioncontainsmanylawsthatareveryunlikeGreeklawselsewhere,especiallythoserelatingtomarriage,heiresses,andtheoftenconsiderablepropertyofthewomen.Thedifferences,whichincludeeasydivorceinitiatedbyeitherpartnerandwhatanthropologistscalltribalcross-cousinmarriage(typicalofmatrilineage),havebeenattributedtostronglocalholdoversfromMinoansociety.Homermayhavemadeupallthenames—Aretesimplymeans“virtue”—butnottherulesofcross-cousinmarriagesoforeigntotheGreeks.

Athenacontinues:

Thusmostheartilyshewashonored,andstillis—byherchildrenandbyAlkinooshimselfandbythepeople,who,viewingherasadeity,greetherwithwordswhenshewalksthroughthecity.Forsheherselflacksinnowayofnobleintellect;

andsheresolvesthequarrelsofthewomentowhomshehasgoodwill,andtheirmenfolk.[7.69–74]

ThewomenofsimilarlystructuredsocietiesamongthePuebloIndiansalsohadtherighttoarbitratequarrelsandtosaywhetherastrangerwouldorwouldnotbeallowedtostaywithinthehome.Theyalsohadthesystemofcross-cousinmarriage.ThusHomer’sdetailsareentirelyconsistentwithmodernethnology.

Odysseusisastonishedattheopulenceofthehouse.Firsttomeethisgazeisthegiltandfaience-tiledcourtyardwithitsstatuary.Nextcomethehouseitselfanditsgardens:

Inside,seatswereplacedatintervalsalongthewall,straightthroughtotheinmostroomfromthethreshold,andonthemdelicate,well-spundraperieswerethrown,theworkofthewomen.Therethegreat-heartedPhaiakianswouldsit,drinkingandeating;fortheyheldthe[seats]inperpetuity.Andindeed,youngmenofgoldstoodonwell-builtpedestalsholdingflamingtorcheswiththeirhands,lightingupthenightsforthefeastersthroughoutthehalls.

AcommonfeatureofMinoanpalaces(butnotGreekones)isahugeroomnearthekitchens,apparentlyformassivecommunaldining.Wearealsojustbeginningtofindevidenceoflife-size,fullyrealisticMinoanstatuaryofivoryandgold.

Andfiftyservingwomenbelongedtothehouse,someofwhomgrindonthemillstonetheruddygrain,whileothersweaveattheloomsandtwirltheirspindlesastheysit,restlessastheleavesoftheloftypoplar,andtheliquidoliveoilrunsdownfromthelinenwarps.ByhowmuchthePhaiakianmenareexpertaboveallothermeninpropellingaswiftshiponthesea,bythusmuchtheirwomenareskilledattheloom,forAthenahasgiventothembeyondallothersaknowledgeofbeautifulcraftwork,andnobleintellects.

Hereisthecentralexpressionofwomen’sworkinthiskindofsociety,exactlyaswehavecometoexpectit.Wealsoseethatthemen’sarenaofactivityisfarfromhomeandthesoil—downattheharborandouttosea.

Butoutsidethecourtyardnearthedoorsisagreatorchardoffouracres,andarounditoneithersiderunsahedge.Andtheretalltreeshavegrownluxuriant—pearsandpomegranatesandshining-fruitedapples,andalsosweetfigsandplumpolives.[7.95–116]

Truly,ahorticulturaleconomyraisedtofairy-taleperfection.YeteveryfruitmentionedwasimportanttotheAegeaneconomy.

Andbesidethelastrowofvineyard,tidygardenbedsofallsortsgrow,evershining;andinitaretwofountains,oneofwhichsprinklesthewholegarden,whilefromtheothersidethesecondflowsunderthecourtyard’sedgetowardtheloftyhouse,whencethecitizensdrawwater.[7.127–31]

Minoansitesareknownfortheirhighlyadvancedtechnologyinwaterworks.ThosewhobuiltthepalaceatKnossospipedsuppliesoffreshwaterthroughthebuildingsinstonechannelsrunningunderthefloors,accessibleatintervals,andbuiltextensivedrainsforthesewageaswell.Elsewhereinthepalacethewaterrunsinclaypipes,subtlytaperedtokeepthewatermoving.Openpoolssurroundedbyabroadstonelipwereconstructedinafrescoedporticoattheendoftheroadtothepalace,wheredustytravelerscouldsitcomfortably,washtheirfeet,andcooloffbeforeenteringtheroyaldomain.Downthesteepeastside,justbeyondtheroyallivingquarters,theMinoansconstructedwhatseemstohavebeenapleasuregardenwithlittlepoolsandchannelsofrunningwaterfedbyagurglingcascade.5Trulytheylovedtheirgardens.

Enteringthehouse,Odysseusdoesashehasbeeninstructed,castinghimselfatthefeetofthequeen,andisacceptedasaguest,tobefed,housed,andentertainedbeforebeinggivensafeconvoyhome.Theentertainmentsincludeathleticcontests,thesingingofabard,anddancing.Watchingthedancers,OdysseusexclaimstoAlkinoos,

Youboastedthatyourdancerswerethebest,andindeedithasbeenshowntobeso.AweseizesmeasIlookonthem![8.383–4]

WehavearemarkablenumberofMinoanrepresentationsofdancing:notonlythefrescoesfromKnossos,mentionedabove,showingwomendancinginagreatcourtyard,surroundedbybleachersfulloflivelyspectators,andothersfrombothKnossosandHagiaTriada(fig.4.6),butalso,forexample,asmallsetofclayfigurinesofwomenjoinedinarounddance.6

FinallythePhaiakiansheapOdysseuswithgifts,listentothelongtaleofhisadventures,andtakehimhomeacrosstheseatoIthacaashesleeps.Butasthesailorsreturn,Poseidonventshiswrathonthemforsavinghisenemy,Odysseus,bydestroyingtheshipwithinsightoftheharbor.ThecitizensareterrifiedbythememoryofanoracletotheeffectthatPoseidonwouldonedaydestroyaconvoyshipandpileamountainontopoftheircity,inangerbecausetheygavesafepassagetoeveryone.Seeingtheonepartfulfilled,theyrushofftomakesacrificesinhopesofavertingthesecondapocalypticdisaster.Andthatisthelastwehearofthem.

JustsuchadisasterhadactuallyhappenedintheAegeanaround1600B.C.,whentheislandvolcanoofThera,sixtymilesnorthofCrete,eruptedwithgreatviolence,buryingtheMinoantownsonitsflanksunderahundredfeetofvolcanicashbeforepartiallycollapsingintothesea.

CenturieslaterthepeopleatTanagra(fourmilesfromtheAegeancoastandtwenty-fivemilesnorthofAthens)werestillburyingtheirdeadinCretan-styleclaycoffinspaintedwithrunningspiralsandwithmourningscenesofwomeninMinoan-lookingflouncedskirts(fig.4.8)—atatimewhenallothersinGreecewereburyingtheirdeadcoffinlessandwearingbaggychemisesandtunics.Soatleastafewpeoplelongmaintainedsomeoftheoldcustoms,perhapsevendownintoHomer ’stime.Whetherornot,liketheAmishofPennsylvaniatodaywiththeirhorse-drawnplowsandcarts,theystillusedarchaicwaysofproducingtheirfood,theyclearlykepttheirhabitsofdressfromabygoneage,astheAmishinbonnetsandlongdressesdoalso.

Figure4.8.OneofmanypaintedclaysarcophagifromthetownofTanagra,ineasternGreece,showingmourningwomenwearingstrikinglyMinoan-lookingdress.SuchclaycoffinsareknownelsewhereonlyfromMinoanCrete,ratherearlier.TheTanagraexamplesdatemostlytothethirteenthcenturyB.C.

Itisbytheirclothesthatwerecognizetheminstantlyasabreedapart,anisolatedremnantofalife-stylethathadgrownandflourishedformillenniabutnowlanguishedfarfromthestreamofchange.Anditistothecentralimportanceofclothesassocialindicatorsthatwewillnowturnourattention.

1AcloselyparalleleffectcanbeobservedinthethirdmillenniumB.C.inChina,wherethediscoveryofhowtounwindsilkfromthecocoonofaparticularspeciesofsilkwormrevolutionizedthetechnologyofclothmaking.Silk,likewool,iseasilydyed,producingawiderangeofbrightandattractivecolors.Furthermore,itsparticularproperties,sodifferentfromtheplant-stemfibersusedpreviously,ledtomajorinnovationsinweavestructures.Forexample,tobringoutthewonderfulshininessofsilk,theweaversbegantodevelopsatinweaves,inwhichonesetofthreads(usuallythewarp)almosttotallyhidesthesetatrightangles.Theyalsodevelopednewtypesofpatternweavingbasedonhowthewarpistreated.Thesamesortofthinghappenedwithwool.TheEuropeansdevelopedtwillweaveandpatternsbaseduponit,andtheNearEasternersinventedweft-facedtapestryweave—ineachcasetoexploitthepeculiarpropertiesofwool.2Becausetheinterestandimportanceofthedetailsarenotalwaysimmediatelyobvioustoonenotthoroughlyacquaintedwiththearchaeologicalandethnographicliterature,Ihavechosentopresentthestorywitharunningcommentaryattheside.Myreadersmaythuschoosetoreadthetwostrandsinanyordertheywishwithoutlosingtrackofwhatrelatestowhat.

HomerknewofCrete,ofcourse,butmostlyofaCretefullofDorianGreekswithafew“trueCretans”andotherminorethnicgroupsscatteredabout.NowheredoeshespecificallyequatethePhaiakianswitheithertheMinoans(whomhealsohasheardof;seebelow,ondancing)orCrete,althoughwhenOdysseusgetshomehetellseveryonethe“lie”thathehasjustcomefromCrete.3ManyaSerbo-Croatiancourtingsongmentionsthattheyoungmansawthegirlofhisdesireswhenshewasattheriverdoingthischore.One,forexample,begins:“IsawJovanawashingherwhitelineninthestream....”Nausikaa,infact,waspromptedtogototheriverbyadreamthatsheshouldbegintoprepareformarriage.TextilesnotonlymadeupmuchofthetrousseaubutwereamongthemaingiftstotheweddingguestsinruralEuropeanweddingsupintothiscentury.

4Womenwerevirtuallyhouseholdprisonersinfifth-centuryAtheniansocietyinparticular,asthelegalorationsofLysiasshow(seeChapter11),andthisseemstohavebeenthetypicalstateofaffairsfromshortlybeforethetimeofHomeronward.Therearemanyexceptions,however,intheMycenaeanworld,mostnotablywithHelenofTroy.Notonlydoesherhusband,Menelaos,carryonaten-yearwartoretrieveher,butthen,farfrompunishingher(aslaterGreekhusbandsofwaywardwiveswereknowntodo—usuallybydeath),hesitsaroundplacidlywhileshetellsstoriesofherescapadestotheirguests!Thereasonthathehadtofetchherbackcanonlybeamatterofsuccession:thattherighttothethroneofSpartapassedthroughherfemalebloodline,nothis.WithoutHelen,Menelaoscouldnotbeking.Thisanalysisisborneoutbyeverydetailknownofthefamily:Helenisthequeeneventhoughshehastwobrothers,thefamoustwinsKastorandPolydeukes(PolluxinLatin),andherdaughterHermione—notoneofMenelaos’sons—becomesthenextrulerofSpartaafterherdeath.(SeeAtchityandBarber,“GreekPrincesandAegeanPrincesses,”forafulldiscussion.)5Thestaircaseleadingdowntheeastretainingwalltothegardenisuniqueinhavingbesideitanopenchannelthatcarriedwhateverfreshwaterhadnotbeenusedupinpassingthroughthepalace.Thechannelcurvestomatcheachstepofthestair,enhancingthepleasantsoundoftherushingwater.Atthebottom,shadedduringthehotafternoonsbythesteepwallretainingthehill,itrunsalongtwoflagstoneterracesthroughaseriesoftinysquarepools,muchtoosmallforwashinglaundry,astheexcavatorssuggested.Theentirearrangementismuchmorelikelytohavebeenapurepleasuregarden.OneoftheKnossosfrescoesdepictsasplashingfountainratherliketheonedescribedbyHomer.6OneisremindedofyetanotherHomericpassage,thedescriptionintheIliadofthemanyscenesdepictedontheshieldofAchilles.Amongthem(18.591–4)isadancefloor

liketheonewhichonce,inbroadKnossos,DaedalusbuiltforAriadnewiththebeautifulplaitsofhair.Andthere,youthsandmaidensworthyofalargebride-priceweredancing,holdingeachother’shandsbythewrist.

5

MorethanHeartsonOurSleeves

“Clothesmaketheman”—butwomenmadetheclothes

TheadventinthefourthmillenniumB.C.ofcoloredthread,intheformofvariousnaturalanddyedhuesofwool,triggeredamajorrevolutionintheclothesthatwomenwovefortheirfamiliestowear.AlreadyintheEarlyBronzeAge,soonafter3000B.C.,weseetheformsofdressproliferatingfromasmallnumberofrathersimpletypesintomuchmorecomplexregionalcostumes.TheBronzeAge,infact,witnessedthedevelopmentofmanyofthebasicmodesofdressingthatwefindcharacteristicoftheculturesoftheworldtoday.Sincetheproductionofthesenewgarmentsaffectedthelivesofwomeninbothwhattheyworeandwhattheyspenttheirlaboron,wewillfindconsiderableinterestinacloserlookatthestructure,meaning,andramificationsofthechangesthatoccurredatthistime.

Whydopeopleweartheclothestheydo?Whydopeoplewearclothesatall?Mostpeoplewillreplythatclothesareforwarmth,yetthisargumentdoesnotholdupagainstthe

evidence.Ontheonehand,theinhabitantsofveryhotclimatessuchastheArabianDesertmaywearlotsofclothes—forprotectionagainstthesunandsand.Ontheother,thehumanbodycanadapttomuchlowertemperaturesthanpamperedAmericansusuallythinkitcan.Irecallmyastonishment,uponcomingtoNewEnglandfromalifetimeinahotclimate,atseeingafellowgraduatestudentwheelinghistinychildrenthroughthesnowinlightshirtsandcottonpants.ThenIlearnedthatthefamilywasfromFinlandandthattothemthisconstitutedwarmweather:thirtydegreesabove,notthirtybelow.Infact,mostclothingiswornforsocialreasons—tomarksex,age,maritalstatus,wealth,rank,modesty(whateverthatmaybewithinaparticularculture),placeoforigin,occupation,oroccasion.1Afewcandidsoulsmay,asthesayinggoes,weartheirheartsontheirsleeves,butweallwearagreatdealofourpedigreeandsocialaspirationswrittenalloverourapparel.TheeconomicdevelopmentsoftheBronzeAgecausedmajorculturaldifferentiationinmostofthesecategories,andclothingtypescouldnowproliferatetomarkthenewvariety.

RelativelyfewNeolithicfigurineswearclothes,andthosethatdoarepredominantlyfemale.Thesimplestofstraightskirts,oftenankle-length,characterizesthecommongarbforwomenincentralEurope,Egypt,andprobablyMesopotamia.Oneimaginestheseskirtsaswraparound,sothatthepersonwouldhaveenoughroomtowalk,butthedepictionsaretoosketchyforcertainty.SomeEuropeanwomenwearastringskirt,theoldPalaeolithiccarrierofsocialinformation(seeChapter2),whileafewinbothEuropeandtheNearEastwearonlyabeltorsash.Suchraimentissimpleintheextreme.

Ritual,however,alreadyoccasionedtheuseofunusualattire.Oneofourearliestfindsofactualtextiles,fromacaveinIsraelknownasNaḥalḤemar(ca.6500B.C.;seemap,fig.3.1),includesanelaboratenetbagwithasmallstonebuttononit(fig.5.1).Theuseofthislinennetgraduallybecameclearastheexcavatorssiftedthroughthecontentsofthecaverninthemid-1980s.

Figure5.1.Needle-nettedlinenbagwithstonebutton,thoughttobeaceremonialhatandthustheoldestpreservedclothing.FromNaḥalḤemarCave,Israel,ca.6500B.C.

ThelittlecaveinquestionburrowsintoasheercliffjustabovethefloorofacanyonintheJudeanDesert,nearthesouthwesterntipoftheDeadSea.Fromthecavemouthonecanseeacrossaridheapsofstonestosmalltarseepswellingupfrombelowtheearth—tarthattheearlyNeolithicpeopletraveledouttothisdistantanddesolatespottofetch.Betweentripstheystashedsomeoftheirgearinthelittlecave,usingitasaconvenientnaturalstoreroom.Amongitsabandonedcontentsarchaeologistsdiscoveredstoneandbonetools,rawmaterials,andhalf-finishedobjects.Oneconcludesthatwhilehere,thecavevisitorsspenttimemanufacturingthings.

Thehalf-finishedcontainersinparticulardemonstratethatthenaturaltarorasphaltinthegullyformedthemainattraction.Potteryhadnotbeeninventedyet,andthesepeopleexploitedthetartomakewaterproofvesselsbythoroughlycaulkingtheirbasketsandotherfibrouscontainerswithit.Thestickystuffinvitedotherusesaswell.Theancientartisansleftacurvedsicklewithsharpflintbladeletssetinwithtar,aswellasahumanskullontowhichsomeonehadbeguntomodelintarahairnetsomethingliketheonefoundinthecave.Fromcontemporarysites,suchasJericho(onlyfiftymilesawayandalreadyathrivingtownfivethousandyearsbeforeJoshua),weknowthatmembersofthisculturesavedtheskullsofimportantancestors.Afterthefleshwasgone,theyremodeledthefacialfeatureswithplaster,placingshinyovalcowrieshellswheretheeyeshadbeen.Peoplemusthavebeencarryingoutsuchgrislyworkatthissite,forcowrieshells,too,figureamongthemanyremainsinthecave,alongwithbeads,cloth,figurines,andfrightmaskspaintedwithviolentredandgreenstripes.Somuchelaborateworkwentintothepreservedlinenhairnet(andintotheshell-ornamentedremainsofasecondsuchnet)thattheheadpiecemusthaveservedformorethan

everydaywear—perhapsforthesameritualormagicalceremoniesinwhichthemodeledskullsandgapingmasksfounduse.

Faraway,inHungaryandtheBalkans,peoplemarkedritualbyothermeans.Claystatuettesofbothsexes(oftensittingformallyenthroned)werecoveredwithgeometricorswirlingdesigns,someofwhichappeartobedecorationsonclothing(woven?painted?).Butinothercasesthesepatternsrunstraightacrossobviousanatomicaldetailssuchasthenavelorpubictriangle,asthoughtheywererightontheperson’sskin—bodypaintortattooingratherthanpatternedclothes.

Archaeologistsseldomseetheskinsofthepeopletheydigup,butatombfrozensolidbypermafrostintheAltaiMountainsofcentralAsiaprovesthatdecoratinghumanskinisanantiqueart.Itcontainedaman’sbodyembellishedfromshouldertoanklewithtattoosoframs,agiantfish,andallmanneroftoothsomegriffins.Thisfind,whichhadtobeexcavatedwithbucketsofhotwaterratherthantrowels,probablydatestothefourthcenturyB.C.,IronAgeratherthanNeolithic,butthesure-handednessofthedesignsshowsthattattooingwasnonewart.Thepracticeofpaintingdesignsonone’sskinpersistsinpartsoftheBalkansandTurkeyrightuptothisday.AtNeolithicsitesintheBalkans,smallseallikeblobsofclayoftencometolight,withincisedgeometricalpatternsonthemquitesuitableforstampingpaintontotextiles,skin,orwalls—awayofproducingmultiplecopiesofthesamedesignquicklyandeasily.(Onceagain,IhaveseenroomsofmodernpeasanthousesinnorthernYugoslaviaandHungary—aswellaslocaltextiles—handsomelydecoratedwithjustsuchtinystampeddesigns.)

WhatweknowofNeolithicpigmentsanddyessuggeststhatmostofthemwouldnothavesurvivedawashing.Sothesortofswirlingbodyartandtextilepaintseenonthefigurineswouldhavebeenquitetemporary,asinpartsofAfricatoday.Wechildrenofindustryviewsuchwash-offartasascandalouswasteoftimeandeffort,butifwehadtoputinthehundredsofhoursneededtomakeagarmentbyhandfromscratch,wemightseethepracticeofrepaintingone’sdressappropriatelyforeachfestivalduringtheyearasatremendoussavings,anecessaryfrugality.

Ingeneral,then,ourpicturesuggeststhatNeolithicclothingwasratherspare,withoccasionalelaborationsinthesphereofritual.OurfirstinsightintowhatcausedmatterstochangesoradicallyintheBronzeAgecomesfromapairofwidelyseparatedbutparalleleventslateintheNeolithic.OneoccurredinChina,theotherinEurope,andbothcasesinvolvetheadventofanewandmoreversatiletextilefiber.

AllthroughtheNeolithic,weaversinEuropeandtheNearEastemployedflax,andinChinatheyworkedwithhemp.Botharebastfibers—thatis,derivedfromplantstalks.Aboutthetimemetalworkingbegan,oralittlebefore(latefourthmillenniuminEurope,latethirdorearlysecondinChina),animalfibersbecameavailable:woolinthewestanddomesticsilkintheeast.Bothoftheseanimalfibersinsulatethewearerbetterthantheplantbasts,andbothofthemalsoacceptdyesmuchmorereadilythanbast.Itwasthissecondfeature,color,whichsuddenlymadeitpossibletosendavastnewvarietyofsocialsignalsbymeansofclothandclothing.Overnight,dressbecamefarmorethanawrapforcoldnightsorashieldfromthesun.OnlyinEgypt,wherewoolnevercametobeusedmuch,didtheclothingitselfremainfairlyplain—whitelinengarmentsofsimpledesign—whilesocialsignalscametobemarkedalmostexclusivelybyjewelry.

InEuropewehavetheevidencetotracesomeofthechangesindressoccasionedbycoloredthread.WehavealreadyseeninChapter2thattheproto-Indo-EuropeansoftheEarlyBronzeAgehandeddownwordsforonlythesimplestofattire—beltsandageneralwordmeaningmerely“whatyouwear”(orperhaps“whatkeepsyouwarm”).Wealsosawthatmanyofthemsoonborrowedawordandthegarmentitrepresented—thetunic—fromtheirSemiticneighborstothesouth.2This

tunicitselfwasaplainlinengarmentofsimplecut,atubularbodywrapperwithplacesforheadandarms.

WhyshouldthislinengarmenthavebeenborrowedintoEuropejustaftertheadventofwool?Woolmaybecolorful,butitisalsoscratchyagainsttheskin.Thesoftwhitetunic,madeofsmoothplantfiber(linen,hemp,nettle,andlatercotton),servedasaconvenientbufferbetweentheskinandtheotherwisewonderfulnewwool—allthemoreconvenientbecauselinenissoeasilywashed,bleached,anddriedtocleanitofbodysweat.Thusthesartorialstrategybecameoneofwearingasoftwhitetunicasafoundationgarment,withthecoloredwoolenclothesoverthetopforwarmthandforshow.WestilldressbymuchthisprincipletodayinWesternsociety—largelywhiteshirts,blouses,slips,andT-shirtsasfoundationbeneathourcolorfulwoolensweatersandjackets,skirtsandtrousers.

Tunicsdevelopedintwomajordirections.Thesimplervarietyconsistedmerelyofabigrectangleofcloth,justasitcameofftheloom.Thewearerdrapeditsuitablyoverthebodyandpinned,tied,orbelteditintoplace(fig.5.2aandb),whilethemanufacturerhaditeasysincenocuttingorsewingwasrequiredtoshapethedress.Butthatwasalsoitsdrawback:Onehadtoredesignthegarmenteachtimeonedressed,anditwasn’talwayseasytokeepitinplace.(ManyaquiphasbeenmadeovertheyearsaboutthepoorVenusdeMilolosingherdrapealtogetherbecauseshehasnohands—fig.10.1.)Themorecomplicatedtypeoftunicdealtwiththisproblembytakingseveralrectanglesofclothandsewingthemupintotubes:onetubeforthetorsoandtwosmalleronessewnonforthearms(fig.5.2c).

Figure5.2.Typesofsimpletunicsfoundintheancientworld:(a)Greektype,madebyfoldingclothandsuspendingitfromtwopointsattheshoulders(usuallybeltedaswell);(b)Mesopotamiantype,madebywrappingtheclotharoundthebody(seefig.8.6);(c)MycenaeanandSlavictype,madefromthreetubesofcloth.

InMesopotamia,wherelinenhadbeenimportantforthousandsofyears,Sumerianwomenworesimpleshoulder-to-ankletunicswrappedsothattherightarmandshoulderwerebare(figs.5.2band8.6).TherepresentationsofthisfashiondatefromthelatefourthmillenniumB.C.onward.Themen,whentheyworeanythingatall,evidentlypreferredalongishskirtmadeeitherofasheepskinwiththeshaggyfleeceontheoutside,orofashaggy-weavetextile.(Womensometimesworetuftedskirtsandcloaks,too.)Itisonlyinthemidtolatethirdmillenniumthatweseethehabitofwearinglinentunicsspreadingtothemenfolk,adatewhichaccordswiththeapparenttimeofthelinguisticborrowingfarthernorthandwiththetimeatwhichtheeasternSemitesbegantogettheupperhandinMesopotamia.ProbablythetunichadalreadybecomecharacteristicoftheseSemites,withoutourhavingtheevidencetodemonstrateit.

Meanwhile,justtothesouthofthewesternSemites,theEgyptianswereworkingonsleevedtunics,

afterperfectingshortandknee-lengthkiltsforthemenandasimpleshoulder-strapjumperforthewomen,allinplainlinen.TheearliestcompletegarmentyetfoundbyarchaeologistsanywhereintheworldisahighlysophisticatedEgyptianlinenshirtfromtheFirstDynasty,ca.3000B.C.(fig.5.3).

Figure5.3.World’soldestpreservedbodygarment:linenshirtfromaFirstDynastyEgyptiantombatTarkhan,ca.3000B.C.Theshouldersandsleeveshavebeenfinelypleatedtogiveform-fittingtrimnesswhileallowingthewearerroomtomove.Thesmallfringeformedduringweavingalongoneedgeoftheclothhasbeenplacedbythedesignertodecoratetheneckopeningandsideseam.Creasesinsidetheelbow(makingthelowerhalfofthesleevesangleforward)provethattheshirthadactuallybeenworn.Itwasfoundinsideout,asthoughstrippedoffoverthehead.(UC28614B′:photographcourtesyofthePetrieMuseum,UniversityCollegeLondon,wherethepieceisondisplay.)

SirWilliamMatthewFlindersPetriehaddugupthisshirtduringhis1912–1913seasonsatthesiteofTarkhan.EvenasfarbackastheFirstDynasty,deadmenandwomenembarkedforthenextworldwithlinensandotherusefulgoodspiledhigharoundtheircoffins.Inthecaseoftomb2050,robbershadalreadyransackedtheburialinancienttimes,chuckingagooddealoflinenoutintothehot,drysand,whichsoonblewovertheclothandprotecteditratherwelluntiluncoveredbyPetrie’sspade.AmeticulousBritisharchaeologist,PetrieconcentratedonrecordingtheminutestdetailsofEgyptiandailylifeatatimewhenmostmuseumsandscholarsprospectedonlyforsplendidworksofancientartanddiscardedtherestofwhattheyuncovered(seeChapter12).Aswithsomuchelseofahomelynaturethathefound,andthatnooneelsewanted,hetuckedtheraggedprizeintohisstudycollectionandtookitbacktoUniversityCollegeLondon.Thereithibernateduntil1977,whentwowomen

curatorsinterestedintextilesfounditastheybegantosortthroughtheheapsofdirty“funeraryrags”instorage.Itprovedafinepiece,withseams,fringes,andelaboratepleatinglargelyintactafterfivethousandyears.Moreover,creasesattheelbowstillmakethelong,slimsleevesbendforwardatacomfortableangle,showingclearlythattheshirtwasactuallyworn.Infact,itwasfoundinsideout,justasthewearerhadleftitafterstrippingitoffoverthehead.Thelinenrectanglesfromwhichthetunicwasstitchedtogetherhadbeenwovenwithafringeofweftrunningalongoneedge,andtheseedgeshadbeenplacedsoastoadorntheneckopeningandthesideseam.What’smore,thelinenhadbeencarefullypleatedinrowuponrowoftinytucks,notsewnbutsimplypressedin,togiveitbothelasticityandatrimfit.Allthisbefore3000B.C.!

ItmaywellhavebeenasimpleversionoftheEgyptianshirtthatthewesternSemitesadoptedinthenextcenturiesandpassedonupthecoasttoSyriaandthenAnatolia(roughlymodernTurkey).TherewefindalongsortinusewhenwebegintogetdepictionsofclothinginthatareainthesecondmillenniumB.C.,andfromthereitpassedwestwardwithMycenaeanGreeksalongwiththeSemitic-basedwordkhitōntorefertoit(seefig.5.2andnote2above).Short-sleevedtunicsappearinMycenaeanpalacemuralsof1400–1200B.C.Ifwekeepoureyesopen,however,wecanalsodetectlong-sleevedonesinsomeoftheshaftburialsof1650–1500B.C.atMycenae.Inseveraloftheseroyalgraves,verythingoldfoilsurroundedthewristsofthedeceased—foilsothinthatitcouldnothaveheldshapealonebuthadtohavebeensupportedbyaclothsleeve.

Thissleevedandratherlonggarment,whichIwillrefertoasachemise,becamethebasisofclothinginmuchoftheBalkans,centralEurope,thesteppelands,andtheCaucasus.3InClassicalGreeceandRome,however,thesimpler,sleeveless,drapedtunicprevailed,probablybroughtinattheendoftheBronzeAgebylesssophisticatedIndo-Europeantribesthatinvadedandinfiltratedfromthenorthduringtheperiodafter1200B.C.Breezyintheextreme,itsuitsthewarmMediterraneanclimates.OurearliestGreekfindofcompleteclothingconformstothiskind:awhitelinentunicwithabrightpattern-wovensash,datingtoabout1000B.C.NoticethattheClassicaltunicdoesnothangatallthewaytheSumerianonedoes;insteadofbeingspirallywrapped,theclothisfoldedinhalfandsuspendedequallyfrombothshoulders(fig.5.2).

Withthefoundationgarment—softwhitetunicorchemise—inplace,peoplebegantoelaborateandembellishwoolenoverwraps.Thatmeantthattheaveragehousewifeneededtolearntoworkbothwoolandflax,whichrequireverydifferenthandling.Butforhereffort,shegotmuchfancierandmorediverseclothestowear.Theearliest-preservedexampleofthisnewmodeofdresscomesfromtheburialofachieftainintheKubanarea,justnorthoftheCaucasus,around2500B.C.Hewaslaidinhisgravewearingawhiteundergarmentembellishedwithredtassels;overitwasablackandyellowplaidwrapapparentlyofwool,andoverthatafurwrap.SuchanoutfitisalsojustaboutwhatonewouldexpectfromcomparativereconstructionbasedonmorerecentfolkcostumesofEurasiaandisheavily(thoughnotexclusively)associatedwiththegroupsofIndo-EuropeansexpandingthroughEuropeandthesteppes.ButtounderstandthatremarkandtodeciphertheinterestinghistoryoftheEuropeanwoolenovergarment,weneedanewtool.

Wecanlearnalotaboutthedevelopmentofancientdressfromapplyingthemethodsofcomparativeanalysis(developedbylinguistsforlanguagestudy)tothecostumesthemselves,notjusttothewordsforthem.Totheextentthathabitsofspeechandhabitsofdressoccurlargelybelowthelevelofconsciousthought,theybehavethesameway.Thatis,wejustusethesetoolsasameanstosomeendwithoutcontemplatingthebasictoolsthemselves.(Mostpeople,forexample,don’tsitaroundaskingthemselveswhythewordspooncontainsthosesounds.Theyjustaskforaspoontoeattheirbreakfastwithandgetonwithlife.)Constantsubtlechangesandadjustmentsinthese

unconscioushabitsgooneverywhereallthetime,causingtheformsofspeech—anddress—inoneareatoendupdifferentfromthoseinanother.Thechangesalsohappenmuchmoreslowlyinapeasantculturethaninacrowdedurbanenvironment.Sincethechangesoccuratdifferentratesindifferentplaces,theyarereflectedgraduallyacrossspace,andafolk-costumemapcanenduplookingratherlikeadialectmap.4

Approachingmattersthus,wecancoaxintoviewthehistoricalevolutionofthewoolenoutergarmentsthatEuropeansnowplacedoverthesoftwhitetunicorchemise.Likethetunic,itssimplestformisaplainrectangleofclothstraightofftheloom.ThemenofHomer ’sepics,forinstance,eachworeabigwoolenrectangleoverthetunic,usingitasacloakbydayandasablanketbynight.LaterScotsmendidlikewise:Theirpiecesofplaidwool(oftenwornwithashirt)usedtobesomesixteenfeetlong,halfbeingbeltedaroundthewaistlikeaskirt,withenoughpleatstuckedineachtimetoallowfreemovement,andtheotherhalfbeingthrownovertheshoulderasacape.StorieshaveitthattheScotswereabletooutlasttheEnglishsoldiersinrunningwarfarebecausetheHighlanderswouldtakeofftheirkilt-clothsafterdark,rollupinthemthreeorfourtimes,andremainwarmenoughtosleepoutthenightunderanybush.Unfittedclothinghasgreatversatility.

Womenhadcloaks,too,butatraditionaroseamongthemoftyingsmallersquaresoninaddition,touseasaprons.(Ihaveoftenthought,whileputteringaroundmykitchengarden,thatapronsmusthavebeeninventedbyprehistoricfarmwives.Theapronshieldstheundergarmentandisalwaysavailableasanimpromptubasketofvariablesizetocarrymiscellaneousproduceandwaywardtoolsortoys,withthesacrificeofonlyasinglehandtoholdupthecorners.)InpartsoftheBalkans(especiallyRomania)andUkraine,thissimplest,mostarchaictypeofEuropeanfolkcostumecouldstillbefoundintothemiddleofthiscentury:awhitechemiseandapairofnarrowaprons,oneinthefrontandoneintheback(fig.5.4a).Nearby,dialectlike,onefindsaslightbutimportantvariant,inwhichthebackapronhasbecomesowidethatitwrapsmostofthewayaround,thesmallgapthatitleavesinthefrontbeingoverlaidbyasmallfrontapron(fig.5.4b).SurvivalsofthisstylecanbefoundalsointheBanatandSerbia,justtothewest,andnorthwardatleastintoOrël,Tula,andPenzaprovincesincentralRussia,justsouthofMoscow.Likethestringskirt(seeChapter2),whichitpartiallyreplaced,thewoolenbackaproncametosignalwomen’smaritalstatus.

Figure5.4.Typesofwomen’suncutoverwraps:(a)narrowfrontandbackaprons;(b)wraparoundbackapronwithasmallfrontaprontocoverthegap;(c)wideapronsewnupintoaskirt;(d)skirtraisedandlengthenedtoformasimplejumper.

Thenextvariantintimeandspacecomeswiththeideathatthewidebackaprondoesnothavetoberewrappedeveryday,nordoesithavetoletinthecoldinfront.Onecansewupthesquareofclothintoatube—askirt—andbeltitonsomehow,eitherwithasashtobinditonorwithadrawstring(fig.5.4c).Infact,wepossessaplaidwoolenskirtwithadrawstringfromtheDanishbogs,datingtothe

IronAge.(Becauseanoutfitrequiredahugeexpenditureoftime,effort,andmaterials,olderfolkcostumesareusuallyconstructedsothatthepersoncouldgrowintheusualdirections—tallerorfatter—withoutmakingthegarmentuseless.Afixedbeltbandislessaccommodatingthanadrawstring.)Theskirt,ofcourse,hasbecomeaparticularlycommonelementinWesternclothing,stillwornoverthechemise,whichitselfhasonlyrecentlybeensplitatthewaisttoformablouseorshirtaboveandasliporpetticoatbelow.

Intheclothing“dialect”tothenorthofskirtterritory,wefindasimilarwoolentubeoverthechemise,exceptthatthetopedgehasbeenhauledupunderthearmpits,withtheeffectofkeepingmoreofthetorsowarm(fig.5.4d).Sincetheskirtdoesn’tgetmuchpurchaseupthere,itrequiresshoulderstrapstostayup.This,ineffect,isthedesignoftheRussiansarafanandthejumperlikeoverdressfoundinpartsofScandinavia.

Thusanapparentlywidearrayoftraditionalgarments,scatteredacrossthousandsofmiles,turnsouttoreflectanunderlyingunityofconcept,abasicwayofapproachingthenotionofclothing.Thetraditionwehavejusttracedliesbehindourwayofdressing,butofcourse,itisnoteverybody’s.Traditionalnotionsofwhatconstitutesbasicclothingdifferradicallyfromonepartoftheworldtothenext.Mostofusdonotrecognizethatfactnow,becausesomuchoftheworldhasrecentlyadoptedtraditionalWesterndress.Consider,however,howdifferentlyconceivedtheIndianwoman’ssariisfromourtailoreddressesorhowdifferenttheScotsman’skiltisfromaWesternbusinesssuit.AndeachofthesedifferswidelyfromtheHawaiiangirl’sgrassskirt,theJapanesewoman’selaboratekimono,theAfricanman’sdignityrobe,ortheAustralianaborigine’sloincloth.

ReturningtoourEuropeanplayground,wecandiscernthatanotherancienttraditionbywhichwomenfashionedtheirattirelurksintheBalkans,inadditiontotheblanketlikewrapsofuncutwoolencloth.Minoanwomen,approachingtheproblemsdifferently,basedtheirclothingoncuttingandtailoring,traitsespeciallyvisibleinthetightlyfittedsleevedbodicesandroundedaprons(figs.4.5–7and6.3).Anotunsimilarcostume(consideringthevarietyofclothingintheworld),withbigskirtsandasculptedbodice,appearsonfigurinesfromtheDanubeintheBronzeAge—e.g.,atCîrna(fig.5.5left).SinceMinoanweavingtechniquestieincloselywiththosedevelopedalongtheDanube,Isuspectthatthistraditionofcuttingandtailoringislinked,too,andisultimatelyresponsibleforthewoolenjumperwithdeeplycutneck-holesoprevalentinpartsofBulgariaandSerbia(fig.5.5right).EvensomeofthedetailsofornamentationonrecentfolkcostumesoftheBalkansresemblewithastonishingclosenesstheBronzeAgerepresentationsofwomen’swear(seeChapter6).Butthen,whenthestringskirthaslastedtwentythousandyears,othertraditionscanmakeitthroughfourthousand.

Figure5.5.Left:BronzeAgeclayfigurineofawoman,foundinacremationurnatCîrna,southernRomania(midtolatesecondmillenniumB.C.).Right:TypicalBulgarianfolkcostumeofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesA.D.NotethesimilaritiesofcutanddecortotheCîrnafigurineofthirty-fivehundredyearsearlier.

Women’sdresswasnottheonlykindtoevolve.WelefttheIndo-Europeanmanwearingawhitechemiseortunic,abelt(preferablyred),andawoolencloak.Tojudgefromtheirfirstdistribution,trouserswereinventedabout1000B.C.inresponsetothechafingoftenderpartsincurredinthenewartofhorsebackriding.Theman’schemisewasthenshortened(shirtmeans“cutshort”)toallowthestraddlingposition.Horseshadbeendomesticatedlongbeforeonthesteppes,wheretheyservedtopullcartsandchariotsforacoupleofthousandyearsbeforeridingonthehorse’sbackbecamecommon.Ridingrevolutionizedlifeonthesteppes,however,justasitdidforthePlainsIndiansontheAmericanprairies,becauseitmeantthatthehumanswerenowfasterandmoremobilethantheanimalstheychased.Theycouldmanagesuchlargeflocks,infact,thattheherdsaloneprovidedagoodlivingforrelativelylittlework.Onbothcontinentsweseeformerlysedentarypeoplepullingupstakesandridingoffaftertheherds.Thegreatgrassysteppeland,muchofitfarbettersuitedtograzingthantoagriculture,becameagiantpasturelandcontrolledbytrouserednomadicriders.Theyinhabititstilltoday.

AttheeastendoftheEurasiansteppestheChinesewatchedthesametransformationofherdingearlyinthefirstmillenniumB.C.andrecordeditwithdismay.Tothemitspelledattack:swift,repeatedraidsontherichChinesefarmlandsbymountedbarbariannomadsinsearchoffood,women,and,aboveall,silkcloth.InvaintheChineserulerstriedtobribetheraiderswithsilkandgraintostayaway.Finally,inself-defense,oneoftheChinesekings,Wu-lingofChao,orderedhispeople(inthewordsofanancientChinesehistorian)“toadoptbarbariandressandtopracticeridingandshooting.”Trousersandriding,aswesaw,wenttogetheratthewestendoftheEurasiancontinent,too,andtheChineseadoptedboth,around400B.C.,fromthesamesourceastheWesthad.Thuspreparedtofightfirewithfire,Wu-lingledhismeninasuccessfulforayagainstthenomadsandthenbeganbuildingsectionsofdefensivewalltokeepthemoutinthefuture.Affairsweremoremanageableafterthat,buthardlysolved.Acoupleofcenturiesandmanypiecesofwalllater,anotheremperorjoinedthesectionsintowhatwenowknowastheGreatWallofChina,andin174B.C.theemperorWenwrotetotheleaderofthenomadicbarbariansasfollows,suingforpeace:“We...sendyoufromourown

wardrobeanembroideredrobelinedwithpatterneddamask,anembroideredandlinedunderrobe,andabrocadedcoat...;onesashwithgoldornaments;onegold-ornamentedleatherbelt;tenrollsofembroidery;thirtyrollsofbrocade;andfortyrollseachofheavyredsilkandlightgreensilk.”Bright-huedsilkandsilkencloth,manufacturedbycountlessChinesewomen,finallyinducedtherovinghorsementoleavethelandinpeaceforalittlewhile.

ItwasthesesameirrepressiblenomadsyetamillenniumortwolaterwhocontributedthelastmajorfeatureofmanyeasternEuropeanfolkcostumes,thefittedjacket.Undoubtedlytheyhadinventedtheirjackets,too,inthestruggletostaywarmanddrywhiledashingaboutonhorseback.

Besidesthelineofdevelopmentleadingtotheshirtandtrousers,andbesidestheMinoanloincloth,theBronzeAgegivesevidenceofathirdmen’straditioninthenorthernMediterranean:thatoftheshortwrappedkilt.Ofuncertainorigin,perhapsstartingasananimalskinwrappedaroundthehips(astheEgyptianssawatleastacoupleofMycenaeansdoing),itissosimplethat,liketheapron,itmightwellhavebeenthoughtupindependentlyinseveralplaces.Yetforallthat,itisnotparticularlycommonintheworld.

InCyprusandinEgyptianpaintingsofvisitorsfromtheNorthMediterranean,thekiltisassociatedwithanotherarticleofapparel:plaitedleathershoes,oftenwithturned-uptoesandwornwithhighlydecoratedsocksorleggings.ThisdistinctivefootwearisalsodepictedingreatdetailonaMycenaeanpotmodeledintheformofsuchashoe,withalltheminutiaepaintedon(fig.5.6).ThereisnodoubtthattheslipperisconstructedjustliketheopancistillmadetodayalloverthecentralBalkansandTurkey(fig.5.7)—anotherincontestablesurvivorofseveralthousandyears.Theshoesareverycomfortable,andtheturned-upleatheratthetipisparticularlysuitedtoprotectingthetoesfromgettingstubbedonrockyground.Theydonotfarewellsloggingthroughmudorsand,however,sooneconcludesthattheyevolvedtocopewithjustthesortofdry,mountainousareaswheretheypersisttoday.

Figure5.6.Left:CypriotbronzestandfromEpiskopi-Kourion,showingmanwearinglongkiltandturned-up-toedshoes.Right:MycenaeanvasefromAttica,informofaleathershoe(comparefig.5.7).FourteenthcenturyB.C.

Figure5.7.Traditionalleathershoeswithturned-uptoes(opanci)fromvariouspartsofthecentralBalkans.Comparefig.5.6.Theturned-uptipshelpkeeponefromstubbingone’stoesintherockyterrain.

Insuchwayshavetheunderlyingclothingtraditionsoftheworldgrownup,fromacombinationofavailablematerialsandfelicitousinventionstomeettheneedsofclimate,terrain,andlifestyle.Wehavefollowedthesetraditionsinonlyonelargeregion,butalongthewaywehaveseenhowoldsuchcustomscanbe.Onceaviableformhadevolvedforagiveneconiche,whatneedwastheretoreplaceit?Havingestablishedthefundamentals,peopleofaparticularculturejustkeptaddingnewideasandmodificationsontopoftheold.

Thefrostingontheseincreasinglydiverseanddistinctive“layercakes”—theseaccumulationsoftypesofattireusedindifferentregionsoftheworld—comesinthesurfacedecorationoftheindividualgarments.Aswiththeformsoftheclothes,theobservercangatherlargeamountsofsocialandgeographicalinformationfromlookingcarefullyatpatterns,colors,andplacement.Theculturalcodesofsurfacedecoraresoarbitrary,however,comparedwiththeformsofthegarmentsthemselves,thatwewillhavetotreatthemwithinadifferentframework.

1Todiscoverthenatureofthispractice,lookaroundyou.Doesapartyguestwearexpensivesilk?Cheappolyester?Motorcycleboots?Lacegloves?Wededucemuchfromsuchclothingabouttheowner.Iftheveiledwomanisallinwhite,she’sthebride;ifinblack,she’sthewidow,oratleastinmourning.Iftheman’sbowtieiswhite,heishostorguest,butifit’sblack,he’sprobablythewaiter.Andifhehasnoribbonatallaroundhisneck,someclubsandrestaurantswon’tservehimanydinner.Note,too,howspecificthesecodesaretoaparticularculture.InChina,forexample,whiteisformourningwhereasthecolorfor

weddingsisred.Innineteenth-centuryRussialeatherbootswereasignofwealth.Modesty,likewise,isculture-specific.InChinaawoman’sfeetweretraditionallyconsideredhermostprivatepart,andifcaughtundressed,shewouldcoverthemfirst.2ThewordtuniccomesintoEnglishfromtheLatintunica,whichitselfwasborrowedfromsomeWestSemiticlanguage.InHebrew,forexample,thegarmentiscalledkutton-eth.(TheRomanstookthewordinas*ktuni-kaandsimplifiedthebeginning.TheGreekstookthesamewordandmadekhitōnoutofit.)TheSemites,fortheirpart,hadborrowedfromtheSumerianssomenamesforthelinenthatthisgarmentwasmadeof.ThuscuneiformrecordsshowthattheEastSemiticAkkadianshadkitinnu,meaning“linen;linencloth,”andkitû,“flax,linen,”whichlatterwasultimatelyborrowedfromSumeriangada,“linen.”3TheEnglishwordchemisecomes,viaFrench,fromLatincamisia,itselfprobablyaborrowingfromCeltic.Notethatwordsfortypesofclothingfrequentlybounceaboutfromonelanguagetoanother,thewaytunicandchemisehavedone.Foronething,manypeopleenjoyborrowingnovelformsofclothingfromothercultures.(TheRomans,forexample,avidlyimportedclothandclothesfromtheCeltstothenorthofthem.)Thesecondbigreasonisthattextilesandgarmentswerefavoriteformsofbootyduringraidsandotherwarfare.Thisfactisfossilizedinourlanguagewiththetermrobe,whichcamefromtheverbtorob.4Inapplyingthisprincipletothearchaeologicalworld,wemustbewareofeighteenth-andnineteenth-centurynationalism,which

artificiallyheightenedandovercodifiedlocaldifferences.ThusthebelovedtartansoftheScottishclansdidnotexistassuchbeforetheriseofScottishnationalisminthe1800s.Peopleworewoolentwillcloth,andplaidwasafavoritetypeofpattern;butthatwasaboutall.Ontheotherhand,eventhoughdetailswereadded,thebasiclocalnotionsofwhatconstitutedtheproperapproachtoclothingmenandwomenwerenotchanged.(SomemoderndebunkershavegonesofarastoclaimthateventheideaofplaidwasnewtotheCeltsatthattime,butarchaeologicalfindssuchasthosediscussedintheIntroductionshowthattobeuntrue.Celtshadbeenmakingsimpletwo-colorplaidtwillsforagoodtwenty-fivehundredyearswhennationalismtookhold.)

6

ElementsoftheCode

Knowfirstwhoyouare,thendeckyourselfoutaccordingly.

—Epictetus,Discourses,3.1

Humanbeings,thequintessentialsocialanimals,constantlysendandreceivecomplexsocialinformation.Ourmostacutesenseisvision,yeteonsagothehumanraceselectedsound,notvision,asitsprimarychannelforlinguisticcommunication.1Thatkeptournewlyevolvedhandsfreeforusingtoolsandallowedustosendandreceivemessagesevenwhenweweren’tlookingorcouldn’tsee,forinstance,inthedarkofnightorinathickforest.Buthowtodealwiththeneedtosendcertainsocialmessagescontinuously,like“I’mmarried”or“I’minchargehere”?Soundwavesdieawaythemomenttheyleaveyourmouth,yetsayingsomethingoverandoverisabore,andtiring,too.

Visualsymbols,soeasilymadepermanentorsemipermanent,providetheanswer.Forinstance,onecancarryasceptertomarkone’scontinuedauthorityorsetupastonecircleandstandinsideittomarkareligiouseventinprogress.Ascepter,ofcourse,engagesyourhands—adisadvantage—andastonecircle,beingtooheavytolugabout,keepsyouinoneplace.Paintingthebodyitselfwithsymbolsavoidsboththeseproblems,andweknowthatpeopledidthisinprehistorictimes(seeChapter5)andstilldo,especiallyinthetropics.Incolderclimates,however,whereputtingonawarmingwrapwillcoveruptheseemblems,theeasiestandmostadaptablesolutionistohangasuitableclothoutermostontheperson,place,orthingtobemarkedandremoveitwhenitisnolongerappropriate.Thusanembroideredtowelslungovertheshoulder,agiftfromthebride,marksthegroom’skinataCroatianwedding,andahandsomeclothwrappedaroundanobjectinJapanmarksitasanhonoredpresent.Thebride,too,is“wrapped”inaceremonialwhitegowninWesternsociety,assheis“givenaway.”Clothing,rightfromourfirstdirectevidencetwentythousandyearsago,hasbeenthehandiestsolutiontoconveyingsocialmessagesvisually,silently,continuously.

Italsobecamethenormalsolution,asweseefromsomenotablecounterexamples.EuropeansocietiesintheMiddleAgesdevelopedheraldicdevicesadorningshieldsandbanners(anothertypeofcloth)toannounceinsomedetailwhowaswho.Why?Becauseknightshadgottencompletelycoveredupinarmor.Thusnoonecouldseemuchofthemortheirclothesanymore.Similarlytoday,wherecommutersareswallowedupinthearmoroftheircarsforhoursonthefreeways,theyhaveresortedtobumperstickersandvanityplatestodisplaytheirindividuality.Thatis,whenyoucan’tseetheclothes,peopleinventnewvisualdevicestocarrythesocialsignals.

Note,however,acriticaldifferencebetweenmodernbumperstickersandmessageT-shirtsontheonehandandmedievalheraldryontheother.TodayinAmericaweassumethateveryonecanread.Wehaveonlytolocateaplacetowritethemessage.Butwritingwasn’teveninventeduntilroughlyfifty-fivehundredyearsago,notlongafterthewheelandwoollysheepcamealong,andeventhenthescriptwassocomplicatedthatonlyaveryfew—andhighlyprivileged—individualscouldreadand

write.Itwasn’tuntilascriptassimpleastheGreekalphabethadbothbeeninventedandbecomewidespread,agoodthreethousandyearslater,duringthe“goldenage”ofAthensinthelatefifthcenturyB.C.,thatmessagesenderscouldassumesomeliteracyinthegeneralpopulation.TheClassicalGreekandRomanurbancitizenscouldreadandwrite,even(!)womenandslavesinmanycases.Butallofthatwaslostinthebarbarianwarsthatfollowed.Soduringmedievaltimesmessageslikefamilylineagehadtobesignaledbysymboliccoatsofarms,andshopsignsneededtobepictorial:aloafofbreadforabakery,asheafofwheatforamiller,asteer ’sheadforabutchershop.Wideningliteracy,bornwiththeprintingpressandtheRenaissance,isbutafewcenturiesold.

Cloth,likeclothing,providedafineplaceforsocialmessages.Patternedclothinparticularisinfinitelyvariableand,likelanguage,canencodearbitrarilyanymessagewhatever.Unlikelanguage,however,itisnotorganizedaroundsweepingsyntacticpatternsthatcancompresslargeamountsofinformationintosimplerules.Henceonehastolearnthetextileandclothingcodeoneelementatatime.Withinthisriotofinformation,wewillseekthechiefgoalsofsuchsystemsandferretoutthebasicprinciples.

Whatdidancientpeopletrytoaccomplishwhentheydeliberatelymadeclothbearmeaning?Agoodlookatfolkcustomsandcostumesrecentlyinuserevealsthreemainpurposes.Foronething,itcanbeusedtomarkorannounceinformation.Itcanalsobeusedasamnemonicdevicetorecordeventsandotherdata.Third,itcanbeusedtoinvoke“magic”—toprotect,tosecurefertilityandriches,todivinethefuture,perhapseventocurse.Todayclothingisalsousedasanindicatoroffashion,butthesubtletiesofthatexpression,whichchangesoveryrapidly,arelargelybeyondourabilitytoreconstructintheancientworld.

Thestringskirtannouncingthereadinessofawomanforchildbearing,discussedinChapter2,isanexcellentexampleofthefirstcategory,theannouncementofinformation.Inthemountainsofsouth-centralAsiaKafirwomenweardistinctiveheadgearbutremoveitforafewdayseachmonthtoindicateatemporarynonreadiness,menstruation.2ExamplesaboundinWesternsociety,too:forinstance,theindicationofmourningbywearingblack.

Socialrank,too,hasprobablyalwaysbeenencodedthroughsymbolsinthematerial,design,color,andembellishmentoftheclothing.InRome,forinstance,theemperorandnootherenjoyedtheprivilegeofwearingarobeentirelyof“royalpurple.”Lowernobility,freebornboys,andcertainpriestscouldsportatmostapurplestripe,andothersnopurpleatall.BoththeEgyptiansandtheSumerianswerealreadymarkingtheirkingswithcrownsinthelatefourthmillennium.Becausethetoprulerswerevirtuallyalwaysmale,theroyalheaddressinEgyptalsocametosymbolizevirilityandincludedafalsebeard.WhenHatshepsut,thestepmotherandregentofThutmoseIII,chosetotakethethroneherselfaround1500B.C.,shefacedtheincongruityofneedingtoassumeclearlymaleregaliaas“pharaoh.”Herstatues—whatwasleftofthemafterThutmoseIIIgotthroughdestroyingthemfollowingherdeathtwentyyearslater—arequiterecognizableforthefemininedelicacyofherfaceandtheeversoslightmodelingofherbreasts,despitethetraditionalmalekilt,falsebeard,andpharaonicwigthatmarkheras“king.”

Clothisalsousedtomarksomeoneasaparticipantinaceremony.IntheMinoansceneofpickingsaffrondiscussedinChapter4,oneoftheyoungwomenworeaspecialveilwithredpolkadots,apparentlytomarkherasthecenteroftheritual.Minoanwomenalsosignaledsomekindofspecialfunctionbydonningascarfloopedinalargeknotatthebackoftheneck(fig.6.1).Thisscarfisclearlynotdirectlyfunctionalasclothing,andasasymbolitcametooperatebyitself.Thusweseethe“sacredknot”repeatedlyrepresentedalone—carvedinivory,modeledinfaience,orpaintedasa

frescomotif.Inthesameway,Athena’ssacredgarment,theaegis,cametorepresentherinClassicaltimes.Suchsymbolscouldbeusedalonetomarkthelocationorexistenceofaritual,muchasthecrossassociatedwithJesusisusedinChristianity.

Figure6.1.Minoanwomanwearinga“sacredknot”atthebackofherneck,signalingthatsheisintheserviceofthedeity.FrescofrompalaceatKnossos,fifteenthcenturyB.C.

Hangingupadistinctivetextileisacommonwayofmakingordinaryspacespecial,evensacred.ThefolkofsouthernSumatraplaceaspecialritualcloth,madebythewomenofthefamily,asabackdroptothekeyparticipantsinthemostimportantritesofpassage,suchasmarriage,birth,ordeath.MaryKahlenberg,anexpertonIndonesiantextiles,tellsusthatthesespecialfiguredcloths“identifiedthenexusofritualconcernandbytheirverypresencedelineatedaritualsphere.”Forexample,“thebridesitsononeormore...duringspecifictimesintheweddingceremony”and“theheadofadeceasedpersonrestedonone...whilethebodywaswashed.”Similarly,inGreekrepresentationsoffuneralsfromtheGeometricperiod(around800B.C.)specialbackdrops,almostcertainlycloths,hungoverorbehindthedeceased.

Textilescanbechosentomarkoffandprovideinformationaboutsecularspace,too.InEgyptweseegailycoloredmatsandtextileshungtoformsun-shadingpavilions,wherethelordandladyaresometimesdepictedtakingcoolingrefreshmentfromaservantgirl(fig.6.2).Astimewenton,thematerialsforthesecanopiesgrewostentatious,includingbrightlypatternedrugsimportedallthewayfromtheAegean.Therank,wealth,and“connections”ofthefamilycouldthusbeseeninhowfancythetentwasandinthesortsoffabricsavailabletothefamily.

Figure6.2.Egyptianlinenchestpaintedtorepresentthelordandladyenjoyingrefreshmentsinashadypavilionformedfrombrightmats(end,withwindow)andtextiles(roof).FromtheEighteenthDynastytombofKhaatThebes,ca.1450–1400B.C.

InClassicalGreektimes,too,importantbanquetsweresometimeslaidoutintentsmadeoffancytextiles.Forinstance,Ion,theyoungheroofEuripides’playIon,setsupsuchapavilionforafeasttocelebratehisreunionwithhisfather.SincehismotherhadorphanedhimasababyonthestepsofApollo’stempleatDelphi,hegrewupasatempleservant.Hethushasboththerightandthedutytoselectfromtherichtemplestorehousesaseriesofornateclothswithwhichtomaketentwallstoshelterthesacredfeast.

Inalltheseways,textilesmarkspecialpeople,places,andtimesandannouncespecificinformationaboutthem.Butclothcanalsobeusedasavehicleforrecordinginformation,suchashistoryormythology.

InthethirdbookoftheIliad(lines125–27),HelenofTroyisdescribedasweavingintoherpurplecloth“themanystrugglesofthehorse-tamingTrojansandthebronze-tunickedAchaians.”Infact,asshedoesso,themessenger-goddessIriscomestoherinhumandisguisetosaythattheGreeksandTrojansarenolongerfighting.Helenshouldcomeupontothecitywalltoseeforherselfthatnowherfirsthusband,MenelaosofSparta,andhernewhusband,ParisofTroy,haveengagedinsinglecombatforhersakewhilethetwoarmiesringaroundtowatch.ThepassageimpliesthatHelenshouldstopweavingoldeventsandmoveontorecordingthenewones.

WhetherornotHelenherselfactuallywoveepisodesoftheTrojanWar,weknowthatGreekwomensometimesdidproducelargestorytellingclothsandthatsomeofthese“tapestries”werekeptinthetreasuriesofGreektemples,wheretheycouldbeseenuponoccasion.(Greektemples,likemedievalcathedrals,servedasstorehousesforculturaltreasures,muchlikeourmodernmuseums.)Itisjustsuchtextiles,coveredwithstoriesofOrion(thehunterwhostillchasesthesevenPleiadessistersacrossthestarryskyeachnight),Cecrops(thesnake-bodiedprogenitorofAthens),andvariousbarbarianbattles,thatEuripideshasIonuseforhistemporarybanquethall.Penelope’sfamouscloth,whichshewovebydayandunwoveatnighttofoolhersuitors,wasalmostcertainlyastorycloth.Becausewearetoldthatitwasforherfather-in-law’sfuneral,mostpeopleinterpretthephrasefunerarycloth(usedbyHomerwhenhetellsthestoryinBook2oftheOdyssey)asashroudorwindingsheet.Butshecouldhavewoventhatinacoupleofweeksandwouldn’thavecomeclose

tofoolinghersuitorsforthreeyears.Homer ’saudiencewouldhaveknownthatonlytheweavingofanonrepetitiouspatternsuchasastoryissoverytime-consuming,butwewhonolongerweaveorregularlywatchothersweavearemoreeasilymisled.WeevenpossesspiecesoftwostoryclothsfromGreektombsintheBlackSeacolonies,wheretextilesarepreservedmoreoftenthaninGreece(fig.9.6).

WealsoknowfromAthenianrecordsthatyoungwomenperiodicallywoveanewwoolengarmenttodresstheancientcultstatueofAthenaontheAcropolisandthatthisrobehadscenesonit.Twopriestessescalledthe“workers”(ergastinai),helpedbytwoyounggirlschosenfortheprivilegefromamongthenoblefamiliesofAthens,wovethesaffron-coloredrobeoveraperiodofninemonths.Thisweavingtooksolong,eventhoughthestatuewasonlylife-size,becauseithadwovenintoitinpurpletheimportantstoryofthebattlebetweenthegodsandthegiants.Duringthishorrendousuproar(a“mythical”accountofamajorvolcaniceruption,probablytheexplosionofTherabetween1600and1500B.C.)Athenawascreditedwithsavinghercity,Athens,fromdestruction.Theentirefestival,occasionofthenewdress’spresentation,wasapparentlyagiantthank-youforsalvation,andthestoryonthedresswasoffocalimportance.

Recordsofhistoryandmythohistoryontextilesarenotuncommonelsewhereintheworld.TheHmongwomenwhorecentlyescapedtoLosAngelesfromCambodiaarebusymakingpictureclothsinatraditionalstyle,depictingtheincidentsofrecentwarsintheirhomeland,sincetheydonotknowhowtowrite.PilerugsknottedrecentlyinAfghanistansometimesshowStingermissilesdowningflamingSoviethelicopters,andtheconflictbetweenHaroldofEnglandandWilliamofNormandy(laterWilliamtheConqueror)wasimmortalizedintheBayeuxTapestry.(Ironicallyitisnot,infact,atapestry,whichiswoven,butanembroidery,whichissewn.)This231-footwool-on-linenstripalsoshowsaremarkablenaturalevent,thepassingofHalley’sComet,databletoApril1066.

Thirdandlast,clothandclothingofteninvokemagicintheirencoding.Withinthismagicalworld,fertility,prosperity,andprotectionarethreeofthemostcommonobjectives.

Wehaveseenthatatleastonemoderndescendantofthestringskirt,theGreekzostra,hasmovedfrombeingasignalthatthewomancouldbearchildrentobeingamagicaltalismantohelpherdososafely.ThehookedlozengeswovenonthemodernstringapronsfromSerbia,Macedonia,Albania,andRomania(andembroideredonotherpartsofthewomen’scostumesfromtheseareas)arealsotopromotefertility(fig.2.8).3Anothermotifonthesesamecostumesthatseemstobeveryoldistherose,asymbolofprotection.GeorgeBollingfurnishesaninterestingargumentthatHomerportraystheTrojanprincessAndromacheweavingspecificallyprotectiverosesontoacloakforherhusband,Hector,atthemomentatwhichshehearsthathehasbeenkilled.Herworkinvain,shedropsherbobbinandrushestothecitywalltoseeforherself,wrenchingfromherhead,asshecollapsesingrief,theelaborateheaddressthatmarkedherasamarriedwoman.Sheismarriednomore.Thepathosofherpatientattempttoweaveafrailwebofmagicforherbelovedinthemidstofthistumultuouswarheightensthepowerofthesceneenormously.4

MarijaGimbutashasdrawntogetherextensiveevidenceoftheuseofbirdandeggmotifs,fromfarbackintheNeolithic.Thesetwo—thebirdandtheegg,socloselyrelatedtoeachother—arestillcommontodayinGreekandSlavicterritory,aswellasinotherpartsofEurope,aspotentfertilitysymbols.Eggsencapsulatethemiraculouspowerofnewlife,andbirdsproduceeggs,alife-givingprocessremote(tothenaïveviewer)fromourownlivebirth,andmuchmoreabstract.Itisnoaccident,either,thateggsarepartofEaster,thecelebrationofrenewedlifeinthespring.AmongtheearlySlavs(andresiduallydownintothiscentury),birds—especiallywhiteoneslikeswans—were

thoughttobereincarnationsofgirlswhohaddiedbeforehavingchildren.Calledrusalkiorvily(willies),theywerethoughttopossessthepowersoffertilitythattheyhadn’tusedduringtheirlifetimesandtobeabletobestowthatfertilityonthecrops,animals,andhouseholdsofthosewhopleasedthem.Itisnoteworthythatthefarthernorthandwestyougo,themorecrotchetyandillwilledthewilliesbecome.InUkraine,althoughtheyaretouchyandyouhavetobenicetothem,theyareextremelybeautifulandarelikelytofavoryourcropsandmightevendoyourspinningforyou.BythetimeyougetupintosouthernPolandandeasternGermany,theyareterrifyingandoftenuglycreaturesthatwillharmpregnantwomenandwilldanceorruntodeathanymenunluckyenoughtoseethemoutintheforestatnight.Someonewho“hasthewillies”isbeinghoundedbythesewraiths.Imagesofbirdsandbird-maidenswerecarvedonthehouses,barns,andgatesandembroideredonthefolkcostumes,atraditionwhichundoubtedlygoesbackmuchfurtherthanweareabletodocumentinthatarea.Ladlesforfood,inalongtraditiongoingbackatleasttothemid-secondmillenniumB.C.onRussiansoil,wereformedintheshapesofwaterbirds.Manyaclassicalballethasusedvariationsonthesethemestoadvantage,themostfamousbeingSwanLake,inwhichanevilsorcererhasturnedawholeflockofmaidensintowhiteswans,andGiselle,inwhichtheheroinediesofabrokenheartinthefirstactandinthesecondsaveshernow-penitentloverfrombeingdancedtodeathatnightintheforestbyhercompanionwillies.

Snakes,frogs,andfish(egglayersall)arealsothoughttobringwealthandfertilitytothehousehold,invariouspartsofEurope.Rusalkiaresometimesshownasgirl-headedfish,atleastoneGreekvaseshowsawomanoverlaidwithafishfigure,andsnakeswereanintegralpartofancientGreekandMinoanlore.Phidias’greatstatueofAthenaintheParthenon,atemplebuiltinparttogivethanksfortheendofthePersianWarsin480B.C.,showsasnakeemergingfromunderAthena’sshield,whichshehasjustsetdown,Victorystandinginherhand.Themessageisclear:Itissafetocomeoutnowandgobacktorunninghappy,prosperoushouseholds.ItwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhetherthefamousMinoanstatuettesofyoungwomenholdingupsnakes,foundinreligiouscontexts,hadasimilarmeaning(fig.6.3).Quitelikelytheydid.AnimportantSlavicpagandeitynamedBerehinia(Protectress5),whosecultsurvivedupintothiscenturyandwhostillappearsonceremonialtowels,showsupasafigurewithafullskirtandraisedarms,inexactlythesamestance(fig.6.4).Inherhandssheholdsbunchesofvegetation(flowersorgrain),orbirds,oroccasionallysnakes.Orsometimes(andthisistheformweseeofteninGreekart)shecontrolswithherupraisedhandsapairoflargeanimals.InGreekthisformisknownasthePotniaTheron(MistressofAnimals).InUkrainianvillagesinthespringthewomencarriedanimageoftheProtectressaroundtheperimeterofallthevillagefields,inasolemnprocessioninthedeadofnight,toensurefertilityandprotectionthroughoutthecomingyear.Woebefellanymalesofoolishastogooutthatnight.

Figure6.3.Minoanstatuetteofayoungwoman—eitherpriestessorgoddess—displayingsnakesinherhands,whileacreatureperchesonherhat.Thisclayfigurine,anothersimilarone,andclaymodelsofornatedresseswerefoundinthetemplerepositoriesatthegreatCretanpalaceofKnossos(mid-secondmillenniumB.C.).

Figure6.4.Nineteenth-centuryA.D.RussianembroiderydesignofthepaganSlavicgoddessBerehinia,theprotectressofwomenandtheirfertility,displayingbirdsinherhands.SucharchaicsurvivalsarefrequentinSlavicfolkart;themotifoftheprotectinggoddesswithherarmsraised,handsfullofbirdsorplants,isstillinactiveuseinUkraineandotherSlavicareas.

Europehadnomonopolyonprotectiveimagesonclothing,althoughweknowmuchlessabouttheirhistoryelsewhere.InTutankhamon’stomb,amongthewealthofroyalclothingpreservedthere,layarichlydecoratedtunic.Itsneckholeformsanankh,orlong-lifesign,withtheking’snameembroideredatthecenterofthecrossandsurroundedbythetraditionalcartouche,aprotectiveovalmadebyamagicrope—theEgyptianequivalentoftheEuropeanmagiccircle.Aroundthebottomofthetunicarepanelsembroideredwithanarrayofrealandmythicalbeastsandplants,clearlyofSyrianworkmanship.Whatmessages,ifany,thesewereintendedtoconveytoorforthepharaohisunknown.

Sofar,allourexamplesofencodedmagichavebeenintheformofdecorativemotifs.Butpeoplehavedevisedmorestructuralapproachestoworkingmagic.Europeanfolktalesarefullofreferencestothemakingofmagicalgarments,especiallygirdles,inwhichthemagicseemstobeinherentintheweaving,notmerelyinspecialdecoration.

Onepossibilityistoweavethespellinasnumbermagic.InChapter2wementionedaMiddleBronzeAgebeltfromRoswinkel,intheNetherlands,thatsmackedofnumbermagic.Theweaverchosewarpthreadsofredwoolforherwork,24spunonedirection,and24spuntheotherway.(Oppositespinscatchthelightdifferentlyand,whenplacednexttoeachother,giveastripedeffect.)Shedividedthebunchspunonewayinto3setsof8,andtheotherbunchinto4setsof6,andalternatedthem.Allthisisperhapsperfectlyinnocent,butinthissameareaofnorthernGermany,Holland,andDenmarkatasomewhatlaterdatethesenumberswereconsideredparticularlysacred.Theschemeisbestknownfromtherunicalphabet,whichatfirstconsistedof24lettersin3setsof8,andlaterof32lettersin4setsof8.Alsoimportantwere3and6.Thusthehandsomeredsashfrom

Roswinkellookssuspiciouslylikea“magicgirdle.”6TheBataktribesofSumatrageneratewovenmagicanotherway.Inonearea,theethnographers

tellus,thewomenwovespecialmagicalclothsoncircularwarps,whichwerenevercutbecause

thecontinuityofthewarpacrossthegapwherethewoofhadnotbeenwoveninwassaidtobemagictoinsurethecontinuityoflifefromthemothertothechild....Thebirthofthechildwasrepresentedbythebeginningofthewoofatonesideoftheuncutfringe.Asonedrewthecloththroughthehandsitrepresentedthegrowingupofthechild,andwhentheothersideoftheuncutfringewasreached,itrepresentedthebeginningofanewgenerationwhoselifewouldrepeatthatofthemother,andsoindefinitely.

Thusthecircularformoftheclothitselfisseenasmagical.AmongtheBataktheactofcreationitselfisviewedaswomen’sspecialwork,notonlyin

producingbabies,whogrowwherenothinghasexistedbefore,butalsoincreatingcloth,whichcomesintobeingwherenothinghasexistedbefore.Clothanditsmakingarethustakenasanalogsforlifeandbirth,ineverysense.MattiebelleGittingertellsus,further:

[W]omenweretraditionallyresponsibleforthecultivationofthecotton,itsharvesting,cleaning,spinningand,astoday,dyeing,starchingandweavingtheyarns.However,thewoventextilecarriesconnotationsbeyondthoseofmerelywomen’slabor.Theulos[ritualcloth]isasymbolofcreationandfertility.Intheveryprocessofweavingthewomancreatesanewobject—aunitedwhole—fromseeminglydisparateelements.Thismagicalqualitycanescapenonewhoseethewovenclothemergebehindthemovingshuttle.Further,justasmusicisanexperiencemonitoredthroughtime,sotoodoesthetotalclothemergeasthefinishedexpressionofthemetricaltimeinvestedineachthrowoftheweft.Thecloththusbecomesametaphorforbothtimeandfruition.

Whenagirlispregnantforthefirsttime,herparentsgiveheraclothmadespeciallyforher.Calledhersoulcloth,itiscoveredwithtinydesignsthatareusedtoforetellherfuture(yetanotheruseofmagic).Shewillrelyonthiscloththroughoutherlife“asaguardianofherwellbeing.”Inparticular,“itsinherentrevitalizingandprotectivepowersaresoughtinthetimeofchildbirth...andincasesofherorherchild’sillness.”Themotifsontheseparticularcloths,andtheirarrangementsintozones,arethoughttobeveryold,fortheyarecharacteristicofthesortsofdesignsfoundonprehistoriccastbronzesinSoutheastAsia.

Wehavelookedatthevariouspurposesforwhichclothwasdeliberatelyencoded:givingorrecordinginformationandinvokingthepowersofmagic.Buthowdidpeoplecomeuponthecodestheyadopted?

Perhapsthemostfrequentmeansofarrivingatasignisthroughimitationonsomelevel,somesortofanalogyofformorcolor.TheBatak,forexample,useacircularwarpinanalogywithcyclesoflife.InEuropethehookedlozengeimitatedthevulva,toassurefertility,androseswereinvokedforprotection,apparentlybecauseoftheirthorns.(Asthethornprotectstherose,sotheroseprotectsme.)TheSlavs(andmanyotherpeoples)usethecolorredtosignifyvitality,inimitationofredblood;untilrecentlymenworeredsashesandwomenembroideredtheshirtsandchemisesofbothsexeswithredmotifs(rosesandlozengesinabundance).OurearliestEuropeanexampleofapersoncladinawhitetunicorchemisewithwoolenoverwrap,fromtheKubaninthethirdmillennium,alreadyhadredtasselsofthreadandpurplishredembroideryonthattunic(Chapter5).

Asanotherexampleofanalogy,notethatSlavicredembroideriesaregenerallylocatedattheopeningsoftheclothing—neckhole,wrists,andshirttail.Thisdecorationwasmeanttodiscouragedemonsfromcrawlinginattheopeningssincedemonswerethoughttocauseillnesses,bodilyandmental.Thenotionofthedemonsenteringisananalogicconstruct,basedonsucheventsasvermincreepingintofoodandcontaminatingit.Theplacementofthedemonrepellent(life-bolsteringcolorsanddesigns)followslogicallyfromsuchimages.

ThenorthernMediterraneanuseofthecoloryellow,ontheotherhand,appearstoderivefromassociation.IfthetheoryiscorrectthatprehistoricwomenintheAegeanIslands,liketheirmoderndescendants,sawsaffronasaspecificmedicineformenstrualills,thentheiruseofthisbrightyellowdyeandmedicinecametolinkthecolorwithwomen.Thewomenmayevenhavecometodyetheirclotheswithsaffronexpresslytoavoid—toturnaway—thesicknessaheadoftime.

Muchofthetime,however,aswithlanguage,therelationbetweenthecodeandthemeaningispurelyarbitrary,as,forinstance,withnumbermagicortheRomanstripedenotingrank.Butevenwithinthisgrouponecanspotanoccasionalsymbolthatstartedoutassomethingmorepractical.Thusveilsforthebride,whileameretokennow,onceservedtocoverthesexually“unknown”womanuntilthepropermoment.

Inalltheseways,then—throughimitation,analogy,andarbitrarysymbolsoftenviewedasmagical—humancultureshaveovertimebuiltasortoflanguagethroughclothing,allowingustocommunicateevenwithourmouthsshut.

1Oralspeech,asweknowit,isontheorderof150,000to100,000yearsold,tojudgebythefossilevidencefortheevolutionofamouthandvocaltractadaptedtooralspeech.Forcomparison,writingwasfirstinventedamere5,500yearsago,andawidespread,standardizedsignlanguageforthedeafwasdevelopedonlyinthelastcentury.(Uprightstance,togetherwith“modern”handsandfeet,developedabout4millionyearsago.)2Theyalsowearsmallstringskirtsovertheirclothes,butIhavenotbeenabletodeterminewhatsignificanceisattachedtothem.TheKafirpeopleareIndo-European;KafiristanisformerNuristan.TheseparticularwomenlivedintheBirirValleyoftheKarakoramMountains,atthenortheasterntipofAfghanistanandPakistan,accordingtoinformationgleanedattheEthnographicMuseum,Florence,wherephotosofthemwereondisplay.3Thelozengeisintendedtorepresent(rathergraphically)thefemalevulva.Europeisnottheonlyplacewherethissymbolisused.InHawaii,forexample,thehuladancerstraditionallymakealozengeshapewiththeirhandstosignifythesamething,andnoviceshavetobecarefulnottomakethissignaccidentallywhentryingtomakethepartlysimilarsignforahouse!4Thetranslationofthekeywordthronoihaslongbeenapuzzle,andBolling’ssetofargumentsthatitmeansrosesisnotacceptedbyallclassicists.Buthehasconsiderableevidence,andtheinterpretationmakesgoodliterarysenseoutofanotherwiserandomsetofdetailsinthescene.Homerisnotusuallysouneconomical.ThepassageoccursinBook22(lines438–72)oftheIliad.5Perhapsalsotobetranslated“riverbankspirit”sincetheSlavicwordrootsfor“protect”and“riverbank”arehomonymous.6ScholarshaveassumedthatnumbermagicbeganwiththeintroductionofMithraismintothearea,viatheRomans.TheMithraicreligion,fromtheNearEast,isfullofnumbermagic.ButIkeepwonderingwhyMithraismtookholdjustexactlyhere.Coulditbebecausethelocalpeoplewerealreadyintonumbermagicandviewedthenewcultasenlargingtheir“information”onasubjectalreadyimportanttothem?

7

ClothfortheCaravans

OneheavyclothtoAshur-Malikpreviouslyforhiscaravan-tripIgave;butthesilverfromithehasnotyetbroughtme...Whenthepurseyousend,includesomewool:woolinthecityiscostly.

—CuneiformletterfromAssyrianbusinesswoman,tohermerchanthusband,

ca.1900B.C.

Therealizationthatdomesticanimalscouldbeexploitedforwool,milk,andmusclepowerwhilealive,notjustformeatwhenkilled,revolutionizedhumansocietyasprofoundlyasdomesticationitself.By4000B.C.intheNearEastweseemajorchangesoccurringasaresult.Theadventofplowingwithlargedraftanimals,aswehaveseen,permanentlyremovedwomen,especiallythosewithchildren,fromthemainstreamoffoodproduction.Draftanimalswerebiganddangerous,butthesowingoflargefieldsofgrainprovidedsuchanefficientsourceoffoodthattherecouldbenogoingbacktotheoldways.Full-scaleagriculturewasalargelymaleoccupation.

Ontheotherhand,womenhadnewthingstooccupythem.Forsome,thisprobablyincludedsmall-scaledairyfarming,sincethemakingofyogurtandcheesefromthemilkofdomesticanimalsincreasedthevarietyofstorablefoodsandgotaroundtheproblemthatmostadulthumanscan’tdigestfreshmilk.Theabilitytoproducetheenzymesthatbreakdownmilksugar(lactose)inthestomach,beforeitgetstotheintestinesandcausesmajortrouble,iscontrolledbyadominantgenebuthastobeselectedfor.Longtimepastoralpopulations,liketheMasaiofAfricaandthepeopleofnorthernEurope,havedevelopedthattrait.TheMasaiconsumemuchmilk,whilenorthernEuropeancookingreliesheavilyonfreshcreamandmilk.Mediterraneanandsteppepeoples,however,developedtheircuisinesaroundyogurt,cheese,andkoumiss(fermentedmilk).Intheseproducts,nontoxicstrainsofbacteria(whicharecarefullypreservedandtransmittedfromonebatchtothenext)havebeenintroducedtobreakdownor“predigest”thesugar,therebyfunctioningalsoasashort-termpreservative.ThustheFrenchconsumethelargestamountofmilkpercapitaofanynation

intheworldtoday—almostentirelyintheformofcheese.MostChineseadults,ontheotherhand,cannottoleratemilk,yogurt,orcheeseinanyform.Theircivilizationdidnotusemilk,andgeneticselectionmovedinotherdirections.

Inareaswheremilkdidbecomeimportant,theworkbecamesogreatthatmenandwomendividedit.ThusinMesopotamiainthethirdmillenniumB.C.,wherethemilkherdswerelarge,sculpturesshowthatmentendedtheflocksandmilkedthem,butcylindersealsdepictwomendoingataskthatresembleschurning.

Astherelianceongrainincreased,anotherrelatedtaskgrewupthatfitwellwithchildrearing:grindingthegrainforuse,onceitcameinfromthefields.ThustheequipmentforspinningandweavingliessidebysidewiththegrindersinarchaeologicalexcavationsthroughouttheNearEast—forexample,atthelittleMinoanvillageofMyrtos(seeChapter4)ortheIronAgepalaceofGordion,incentralAnatolia.AtGordiontheservingwomenlivedinspecialquarters.Eachofthesehousesyieldedscoresofspindlewhorls,hundredsofloomweights—approximatelysixhundredinonecase—andlongrowsofgrindstones.OurearliestEuropeanauthor,Homer,repeatedlyyokesthetwooccupationstoeachotherandtofemales,aswehaveseenintheOdyssey(7.103–05):

Fiftyservingwomenbelongedtothehouse,someofwhomgrindonthemillstonetheruddygrain,whileothersweaveattheloomsandtwirltheirspindles....

Ordinaryhousewivesdailygroundtheflourandworkedonclothforthehousehold,whiletherichboughtslavestodothesetiresomejobsforthem.Slaverynowflourished—andindeedlasteduntilself-poweredmachinesbecameavailabletodothetasksinstead.

Usinganimalsformusclepowersolvedyetanotherproblem:Itmadeitfareasiertomovegoodsabout,especiallyaftertheinventionoftheaxledwheel,whichmadeaload-bearingcartpossible.Inasense,the“wheel”hadalreadybeeninuseforsometime,intheformofaspindlewhorl,andlogrollershadprobablybeeninusesincethePalaeolithic.Thetrickwastofigureouthowtoattachtherollingparttoanonrotatingloadbed.Ofcourse,cartsneededroads—anewconceptintheNeolithic—notjustnarrowfootpaths.Peoplehadtoconstructsuchroads,oratleastbeatthemflat,littlebylittle.(ManyaroadinusetodayinEuropeandtheNearEastwasfirstlaiddownintheBronzeorIronAge.)Furthermore,theearliesttypeofwheel(thesolidslice-of-a-logkindweseesoclearlyinSumerianrepresentationsof2500B.C.)wascumbersomelyheavy.Asaresultofboththesefactors—cumbersomevehiclesandfewroads—packanimalswerefarmoreeffectivethanwheeledtransportationforalongtime,forbothgreatdistancesanddifficultterrain.Theystillare,inremoteregions.

Theabilitytotransportlargequantitiesofgoodswithanimalpower(howeverharnessed)meantthattradecouldblossom,andwomen’stextileswithit.Tradeinsmallluxurygoodslikeshellsfromtheseacoasts,amberfromtheBaltic,lapislazulifromeasternIran,andobsidianfromscatteredvolcanicsites(suchaspartsofArmenia,centralTurkey,andtheislandofMelos)hadbeentricklingacrossthecontinentsforalongtime.EarlyintheNeolithic,peoplehaddiscoveredthatobsidian(volcanicglass)madeparticularlysharpstoneknives,andexplorershuntedeverfartherforsourcesofthesepreciousnodules.Infact,oneofthefirstlargetowns,ÇatalHüyükinsouth-centralTurkey(seeChapter3),grewupshortlybefore6000B.C.nearthefootofagreatvolcanothatineonspasthadspewedquantitiesofobsidianontotheflatlandaround.Thelocalinhabitantsgrewrich,itseems,fromtradingthisvolcanicglass.Amongthecraftsthatflourishedintheleisureprovidedbythisrelative

wealthwasweaving.Finetextilesofseveraltypes(bothwideandnarrowplain-weavefabrics,wefttwiningoftwosorts,fringededges,rolledandwhippedhems,andreinforcedselvedges)havesurvivedwheretheylayburiedunderthehousefloors,wrappedaroundtheexcarnatedbonesofancestors.Unfortunatelytheportionofthetowninwhichpeoplecarriedouttheircraftshasnotyetbeenexcavated,soweknownothingofthataspectofthissociety’sorganization.

Thesize,wealth,andcomplexityofthisveryearlytown,however,showthepowerfuleffectsoftradinganimportantrawmaterial,inawaystronglyparalleltotownslaterinvolvedinmetaltrade.Aswithobsidian,theadventofmetaltriggeredasearchthattookpeoplefarandwide.Theysoughtmostespeciallyforthetinwithwhichtohardencopperintobronze,aswellasforgoldandsilverforjewelryandtableware.Luxurygoodssuchasfancytextilesandornatemetalvessels,manufacturedinthegrowingcities,oftenpaidforthenewrawmaterialswithwhichtomakemore,inanever-endingcycle.Allthesegoodstraveledalongtheever-extendingtraderoutesbymeansofanotherinvention,thepack-animalcaravan.

AnarchaeologistexcavatingincentralTurkeyin1925locatedtheendpointofoneofthemostimportantoftheancientNearEasterncaravanroutes,atacityknowninearlytimesasKanesh(fig.7.1).Itsmodernname,Kültepe,simplymeans“ashmound”—afrequentplace-nameinTurkey,wherepeoplehavelived,warred,andburnedoneanother ’scitiesdownforthousandsofyears.Kaneshwasnoexception.Enemiesburnedittothegroundaround1750B.C.,abouttwohundredyearsaftertheAssyrians,trekkingwestwardacrosssixhundredmilesinpursuitofmetals,hadestablishedatradecolony,orkarum,there.Weknowfromthecuneiformrecordsthatninesuchkarumseventuallygrewup,ofwhichKarumKaneshwasthelargest.Italsofunctionedasthecenterofthenetwork.(AsecondoftheninewasrecentlydiscoveredandexcavatedatAcemhöyük,alittlefartherwest.)ThecityofKanesh,inhabitedbythenativepeople,satatopahighmoundcomposedoftheaccumulateddebrisofmanycenturiesoflivingthere.NearEasternhouseswerecommonlybuiltofmudbrick,whichlastsatbestafewdecades,andeachtimeahouseneededrebuilding,theremainsofthepreviousdwellingweresimplyleveledandthenewhousewasconstructedontop.Asaresult,suchcitymoundsgrewratherquickly,andtheycanstillbeseenalloverthelandscapeintheNearEasttoday.Beinghighupwasanadvantagetodefense,moreover,especiallywhentheman-madecliffwasenhancedbyacitywall.

Figure7.1.MapofNearEasterntraderoutes,thirdtosecondmillenniumB.C.,includingimportantsitesmentionedinthischapter.

AtKaneshtheAssyriankarumliesjustoutsidetheparapetsofthenativetown.Theretheforeignmerchantslived,didtheirbusiness,andkepttheirrecords—written,fortunatelyforus,incuneiformonclaytablets,whichsurvivethemillenniaverywell.Wehaveaccountsoftheirtransactionswiththelocalkingandhisdeputies,whoinspectedthegoodsfromeachincomingcaravanandtookaheftyportionasimporttaxbeforeallowingthemerchantstostartsellingtherestontheopenmarket.(Evenso,the100percentprofitsavailableclearlymadesuchtaxationbearable.)

Wealsohavemanyofthelettersthatthetraders’wiveswrotetothemfromfarawayinAshur,thecapitalofAssyria—lettersnotjustabouthowthefamilywasgettingalongbutalsoaboutbusinessmatters.Foratleastsomeofthewives,daughters,andsisterswereinbusinessforthemselves,actingastextilesupplierstotheirmenfolksixhundredmilesawayinAnatoliaandtakingconsiderableprofittherefromtousefortheirownpurposes.

Themen’stradeeffortsrevolvedprincipallyaroundmetals.Anatoliawasrichinsilverandgold,aswellasincopper.Buttoalloycopperintoabronzetoughenoughfortoolsandweapons,thelocalpeopleneededtinasahardener.TheAssyrianshadaccesstosourcesoftinfartotheeastofAssyria,andthistheytransportedwestwardacrossthecontinent,firsttoAssyriaandtheninpartontoSyriaandAnatolia.

Tinisheavy,however—tooheavytoloadmuchofitontoadonkey’sback.Butmixedwithtextiles,whicharebulky(toobulkytoputenoughofthemonananimalforaprofitabletrip),theloadiswellbalanced.Tinandtextiles:That’swhattheOldAssyriantraderscarriedfornearlytwohundredyearsfromAshurinnorthernMesopotamiatotheirtradecoloniesincentralAnatolia.Thetinbelongedtothemerchants,butmanyofthetextilesweretheproduceandpropertyofthewomenfolk,aswelearnincircumstantialdetailfromthelittleclaytablets.

AssyriantextilesfoundareadymarketinAnatolia,andthewomenscrambledtogetafewmorewovenbeforeeachpacktraindeparted,negotiatingdirectlywiththecaravandriverstocarrythemerchandise.Lamassi,thewifeofthemerchantPushu-ken,isthewomanaboutwhomweknowthemost.Shewritestoherhusbandsuchbusinessinformationas:“Kulumaisbringingyou9textiles,Idi-Suen3textiles;Elarefusedtoaccepttextiles(fortransport);Idi-Suenrefusedtoaccept(another)5

textiles.”Thesedrivershadtoloadtheirdonkeyscarefullyforthelongtripoverthemountains;oneletter

writerwarnstherecipientnottopiletoomuchonhisdonkeys.Theclothswereputintoprotectivebagsorwrappers,roughlyfivetoabagbutsometimesmore.Theclothsmightbesortedbyquality(ordinaryorexpensive),andthepackagemightbesealedbythewomansendingit.Mostofthetin,too,wassealed,afterbeingwrappedinspecialclothsthatwerealsosoldattheotherend.Thentherewasusuallysomeloosetin,purposelyleftunsealedsothedrivercouldtradeitasneededalongthewayforhistravelexpenses.Itwassomuchindemandthatitcouldfunctionasreadycash.(Coins,thefirsttruemoney,werenotinventedforanotherfifteenhundredyears.)TherecordstellusthatoneparticulardonkeyheadingforKaneshcarriedtwenty-sixclothsoftwosorts,sixty-fiveunitsofsealedtin,andnineunitsofloosetin.Usuallythegoodsweregroupedintotwosidepacks,carryingtenortwelvetextileseachand/orsometin,plusasmallerpackacrossthetopcarryinghalfadozenclothsorsome“loose”tinandthedriver ’spersonalbelongings.

Attheotherendthemerchantssoldthetextilesandthetinforthebestpricestheycouldget,afterpayingtheimporttaxesinkindtothelocalrulers.Thentheysenttheprofitsonthetextilesbackwellandwhatpoorly.AletterfromPuzur-AshurtoWaqartum(apparentlyLamassi’sdaughter)saysthatheissendingheroneminaofsilver(aboutapound),andpleasetomakemorefinetextilesliketheonehehadjustreceivedfromher,preferablysendingthembackwiththesamedriverbringingherthepayment.But,hesays,putmorewoolintoit,and“letthemcombonesideofthetextile;theyshouldnotshearit;itsweaveshouldbeclose.”Anddon’tsendanymore“Abarnian”textiles,heinstructsher;itmustbethathecan’tsellthemreadilybecauseAnatoliantastesdifferedfromAssyrianones.Thatdoesnotmean,however,nottokeepweaving.Infact,heconcludes,“ifyoudon’tmanagetomakefinetextiles[intimeforthecaravan],asIhear[it]thereareplentyforsaleoverthere.Buy(them)formeandsend(them)tome.”

Fromsuchlittleremarkswegleanthat,unlikethewomenoflatertimeswhowerestrictlyconfinedtotheharems,thesewomenwerefreetogoouttothemarketplacesandbuytextilesfromotherwomenorbuythewooltomakemorecloths.Theyalsodealtdirectlywiththedonkeydriversandsometimeswereaskedtoattendtolegalmattersfortheirabsentmen.

Thewomen’srightswerestillfarfromequaltothoseoftheirhusbands.ContemporarydowrycontractsfromfarthersouthinBabyloniashowthatifawomanrefusedtostaymarriedtoherhusband,shecouldbedrowned,whereasifherefusedher,hemerelypaidherafine.Butwomenownedtheirownpropertyandcouldengageinbusinessforthemselves.Onewoman’sdowrytabletlistsasetofweightsandacylindersealinitsownboxamongherpossessions;shewasallsetupforsomesortofcommerce.AnotherOldBabyloniandowryincludedfourslavesorservants,goldandsilverearringsandbracelets,“oneshekelofgoldasaringforthefrontofhernose,”aswellas“tendresses,twentyheaddresses[fig.7.2],oneblanket,twocoats,oneleatherbag.”Othergearincludedahugecauldron,twogrindstonesforflour,fourchests,abed,fivechairs,abasket,twotrays,andtwojarsofoil,oneofthemscented.

Figure7.2.Sumerianwomenwerefondoflargeheaddresses,likethisoneonamid-thirdmillenniumB.C.statuefoundatMarionthemiddleEuphrates.Seefigs.7.5and7.6forotherfancyheaddresses.

Noteverygirlwassowellequipped.OfthetendowrytabletscollectedandpublishedbyStephanieDalley,onlytwomentionlooms.Thepoorestgirlreceived“twobeds,twochairs,onetable,twochests,”plustwogrindstonesandtwoemptyjars.Thetenshekelsofsilverearnestmoneyputdownbythegroom’sfamily,wearetold,hadbeendulytiedtothehemofthegirl’sdress.Thus,accordingtothecustom,whenthegirlwasdeliveredandaccepted,theearnestmoneywasautomaticallyreturnedandthemarriagedealcomplete.Thedowrylist,however,ensuredthatifthemandivorcedherorleftherawidow,shewouldgetbackeverythingthatbelongedtoherpersonally,withouthisrelativesbeingabletocheatherofit.

Theparticularlyrichladywiththenosering,apriestess,wassuppliednotonlywiththehomemakingequipmentlistedabovebutalsowith“oneox,twothree-year-oldcows,thirtysheep,twentyminas(10kg)ofwool”plus“twocombsforwool,threehaircombs,threewoodenspoons,twowoodenasu-looms(?),onewoodencontainerfullofspindles,onesmallwoodenpot-rack.”Whatwithtwolooms,spindles,andallthosesheep,shewassetuptocarryonthekindofhome-basedbusinessthatLamassiwasengagedin.Indeed,amongtheclothsregularlytransportedtoAnatoliafromAssyriaarespecifically“Akkadianones”—thatis,clothsfromcentralBabylonia.

If,however,likeLamassiandWaqartum,onehadnosheepofone’sown,gettingthewooltomakethenexttextileswassometimesaproblem.InthreedifferentlettersLamassiasksherhusbandtosendherwoolallthewayfromAnatolia,complainingthatinAshuritisveryexpensiveatthemoment.(Inoneofthesesheevenaskshimtohidehersilverinthemiddleofthewool,toavoidtheattentionofataxcollectorwhoisafterher.)SendingwoolfromAnatoliawasunusualbutnotdifficult.Ingeneral,themenexpectedtobuyupgoldandsilverinAnatoliatosendhome,butwhensilverwasscarce,orwhensomethingelseprofitableoffereditself,suchasparticularlyniceAnatoliancloths(someofthemarementionedas“red”),thatwoulddo,too.Sincethesilverandgoldwererathersmallerthanthetinandtextilesofequivalentvalue,manyfewerdonkeyswenthometoAssyriathancaravanedouttoAnatolia(someweresoldoffatthekarum),andeventhosemightbemorelightlyladen.Sotherewasplentyofroomforthewool.Sometimesthemenevenincludedpresentssuchasjewelryfortheirwives.Thewomen,fortheirpart,occasionallysentother“goodbuys”totheirhusbands.AlettertoPushu-kenfromsomeoneelsementionsthatLamassihadjustarrangedtosendherhusbandtentextileswithonecaravan,andwithanotherdriverabundleofminerals.

Themoneythesewomenearnedwasnotforplayingaroundwith,however.Theyuseditchieflytoruntheirhouseholds,topaytaxes,andascapitaltobuyrawmaterialsforthenexttextilestobewoven.Asaresult,theycomplainedbitterlywhenthemendelayedpayment.Waqartumwritestoherbrotherthathetoldhernottogotoasolicitorandthatshetrustedhimanddidashesaid.“Butto-dayImeanevenlesstoyouthanapawned(?)slave-girl,fortoaslave-girlyouatleastmeasureoutregularlyfoodrations;buthereIhavetolivefrommydebt(s).”Shecomplainsthathehasswipedtheminaofgoldthatherhusbanddispatchedtoherasherprofitfromvariouscloths,whichsheenumeratesatlength,totaling“inallfifteentextilesofgoodquality.Allthisismyproduction,mygoodsentrustedfor(salewith)profit....Mygoldyouhavetaken!Ibegyou...,sendittomewiththefirstcaravanandgivemecourage!”

Wegettantalizingglimpsesofthehouseholdstheyran.Lamassihadseveralchildren;theoldersonswentofftojointheirfatheratKarumKanesh,whilethedaughtersstayedinAshurandundoubtedlylearnedtoweavebyhelpingtheirmother.Waqartumseemstohavebeentheoldestdaughter,doingweavingforherownprofit,aswehavejustseen,apparentlyinherownhousehold.Shewasalsoapriestess,andonegathersthatherhusband,likeherbrothers,joinedherfather ’sfirminAnatolia.ButtherewereothersinLamassi’shouse,asweseefromthefollowinglettershecomposedtoherhusband,Pushu-ken:“AboutthefactthatIdidnotsendyouthetextilesaboutwhichyouwrote,yourheartshouldnotbeangry.Asthegirlhasbecomegrown-up,Ihadtomakeapairofheavytextilesfor(placing/wearing)onthewagon.MoreoverImade(some)forthemembersofthehouseholdandthechildren.ConsequentlyIdidnotmanagetosendyoutextiles.WhatevertextilesI(lit.:“myhand”)canmanageIwillsendyouwithlatercaravans.”KlaasR.Veenhof,thescholarwhohastranslatedandanalyzedmanyoftheseletters,remarksthat“Lamassiisoccupiedbysomeimportanteventinthefamily—mentionedinseveralofherletters...,apparentlyareligiousceremonyinvolving[a]daughter....Inviewoftheseceremoniesthefamilyhadtobeprovidedwithgarmentsand‘textilesforthewagon.’...Unfortunatelywedonotknowwhothenisibitim[membersofthehousehold]were,butitispossiblethatthesepeopleco-operatedintheproductionoftextilesinLamassi’shouse.”Itisalsoconceivablethatpartoftheprofitatonetimeoranotherwenttopurchaseslavegirlswhocouldhelpwiththeweavingandthusexpandthebusiness.Capital,thenasnow,canbegetcapital.

IshalltakemanygarmentswithmytributetoBabylon;Ihavecollectedtogetherallthegarmentsthatareavailablehere,buttheyarenotsufficient.

—LettertoaMesopotamianqueenfromherhusband,aftertheneighboringcitywassackedbyHammurabiofBabylon;ca.1820B.C.

Womenofthemerchantclasswerenottheonlyonesrunningtextileestablishments.Queensdidit,too,butforthe“state”ratherthandirectlyforthemselves.Thecaravansforwhichthesetextilesweredestinedcarriedroyal“gifts”fromonecourttoanother,animportantpartofancientdiplomacywhichthekingsarrangedandthequeens,tosomeextent,providedfor.Againwelearnaboutitfromcuneiformletters,inthiscaseletterstoratherthanfromthewomen.

IltaniwasthedaughterofKingSamu-AdduofKarana,asmallcity-stateonthecaravanroutebetweenAssyriatotheeastandAnatoliatothewest.ShelivedacoupleofgenerationsafterLamassiandWaqartumandbecamequeenofKaranawhenherhusband,Aqba-hammu,usurpedthethronefromherbrother.Timesweretough.Samu-Adduhadlosthisthronetoanearlierusurper,andhisson

hadgottenitbackonlytoloseittoIltani’shusbandwhenpoliticalalliancesshiftedagain.Assyriawaslosingitsgriponthetraderoutes,whileHammurabiofBabylon—heofthefamouslawcode—wasontherise,andAqba-hammuseemstohaveseenwhatwascoming.Historyprovedhimright:Iltani’sbrotherfledtothegreatcityofMari,ontheEuphratesRivertothesouth,andwhenitsrulerZimri-Lim,thestrongestmaninnorthernMesopotamia,refusedtobecomeHammurabi’svassal,Hammurabisackedthecityruthlessly.Aqba-hammutookheedandlostnotimeinpayingtributetothegreatBabylonianprince—bettersafethansorry.

ComparedwiththegreatpalaceoperationsatMari,theroyalworkshopsatKaranaweresmall-timestuff(althoughofficialsfromMarireportedtheKaranapalacetobeespeciallybeautiful).Iltanihadatherdisposalonlyabouttwenty-fivetextileworkers,incomparisonwitheighty-seveninoneoffivetextile-relatedworkshopsatMari.BecauseKaranawasafairlysmallstate,thekingcouldnotaffordtheluxuryofamanpaidtomanagethepalaceanditsbusiness,asZimri-LimcouldatMari,andhisqueentookovermuchmoreofthisworkthanherMaricounterpart,QueenShibtu.AccordingtoStephanieDalley,whohascompiledtheinformationfromthetablets,Iltanihad

“some15womenwhospunandwove(2ofthembroughtachild)and10maletextileworkers.Inadditionsheemployed2millers,andabrewernamedSamkanum;and6girlswhoworked...inanunknowncapacity.13morewomen,3ofthem[each]withachild,workedforIltani,againwithanuncertaintask;shehadadoormannamedKibsi-etar,andamancalledAndainchargeofpack-asses,also4othermen.”

AmannamedKissurumsuppliedherwithwoolanddidhertextileaccounts(cf.fig.7.3),“whichhadtobecheckedandsealedbyIltani.”Themeninvolvedwithtextiles—tojudgefromnearlycontemporaryarchivesatotherMesopotamiansites—weremostlikelyemployedinsuchancillarycraftsasdyeingthewoolor“finishing”thewovenclothinsomeway(cleaningit,puttinginsizing,fluffingorshearingthenap,etc.).Menelsewherewerealsoassignedthearduousjobofmakingfeltforpads,covers,andliningsoutofsheep’swoolorgoathair.

Figure7.3.Hittiteladyspinning,attendedbyascribeholdingclaytabletandstylus.StonerelieffromMaraş,ineasternTurkey,ca.800B.C.

Palaceworkersseemtohavecomelargelyfromthespoilsofwar,frominheritance,or

occasionallyfromgifts.WhileoncampaignZimri-Limwrotetohisqueen:“ToŠibtusay,thus(says)yourlord:Ihavejustsentyousomefemale-weavers.Inamongthemare(some)ugbabātumpriestesses.Pickouttheugbabātumpriestessesandassignthem(i.e.therest)tothehouseofthefemale-weavers.”Hetheninstructedhertoselectthemostattractiveonesfromboththisgroupandthepreviousbatchofcaptives,tosendthemtoaparticularoverseer(apparentlytobecomereligioussingers),andtobesurethatallofthemgotenoughrations“sothattheirappearancedoesnotworsen.”Slaveswerevaluedfortheirwork,soitbehoovedonetofeedthem.Theymightevenbeblind,butiftheycouldstillwork,theymeritedtheirkeep.Ablindwomanwhogroundgrainislistedamongtherecipientsofrationsinanothercity,andherrationswereasbigasanyoneelse’s.Thechildrenofslavescouldgrowuptobecomevaluableslaves,too,addingtotheestate.Weknowthatwomenwhospunandwoveinthepalaceandhadchildrenwereissuedextrarationstofeedthem.

Iltani,ontheotherhand,hadtolivewiththefactthatherhusbandwastoosmallavassaltodoverymuchplundering,andfarfrombeingsuppliedwithlotsofextraslaves,thequeenwasconstantlybeingimportunedforslavesshefeltshecouldnotspare.Forexample,oneofhersisters,apriestess,writes:“Theslaveswhommyfathergavemehavegrownold;now,Ihavesenthalfaminaofsilvertotheking;allowmemyclaimandgethimtosendmeslaveswhohavebeencapturedrecently,andwhoaretrustworthy.Inrecollectionofyou,Ihavesenttoyoufiveminasoffirst-ratewoolandonecontainerofshrimps.”Alittlebriberythere.Presentsofslaveswerenotuncommonamongtherich,butDalleymentionsseverallettersshowingthatgivingawayslaveswhohadservedfaithfullyforalifetime“wasregardedasaninsensitivethingtodo.”ShecitesapleatoZimri-Limfromawomanwho“begshimnottogiveawayherageingmotherasapresent.”Ontheotherhand,onewonderswhetherveryoldandveryyoungslavesweresometimesgivenawayasameansofsatisfyingarequestforaslavewhilegettingridofaliability.ApparentlyIltanioncesentasapresentaservingboywhowassoyoungthattherecipientcomplainsthathehastotakecareoftheboyratherthantheotherwayaround!

Otherglimpsesintodailylife,throughthesearchives,showusthatmostofthewomenworkinginthepalaceswereeithermakingcloth—spinningandweaving(fig.7.4)—orhelpingwiththefood.Thelatterinvolvedgrindinggrain,drawingwater,cooking,baking,andmakingbeverages(icedfruitjuicesandwineswereamongthesummerfavorites).InIltani’spalace,however,Dalleypointsoutthat“themillersweremen,probablyforheavierworkonamuchlargerscale.”Womensingersandmusiciansofbothsexesentertained,awomandoctorwasavailableatMari,andnofewerthannineoftheMariscribeswerewomen.Thewomenwhoweremostcomfortablyfixed,afterthequeen,seemtohavebeenthepriestesses.OneofIltani’ssisterswasapriestessinanearbycity,whileanotheroversawsometypeofweavinginAshur.

Figure7.4.Mosaicfragmentsshowingtwowomenworkingwithaspindle.FromMari,onthemiddleEuphrates,earlysecondmillenniumB.C.

TherawwoolfromwhichIltani’sworkersmadethepalacetextilescamemostlyfromaregularsupplier,theaccountantnamedKissurum—presumablyfrompalace-ownedflocksoutinthecountryside.Occasionally,asinthecasejustquoted,woolcameinasapersonalgiftandmaythenhavebeenusedbythequeenforherowndresses.Inonecasesheherselfsentwooltoalessfortunatefriendlivinginacitythathadjustbeenplundered.Sometimes,too,herhusbandsentherwooldirectly,especiallywhenhewasinahurryforgiftstodistribute.Oneletterfromhimsays:“Now,Ihavesentyou25kgofwoolfor50garments.Makethosegarmentsquickly.Ineedthosegarments.”Largethoughitmayseem,thesizeofAqba-hammu’srequisitiondiffersradicallyfromthosemadebyZimri-LiminMari—inonecase,sixhundredgarmentsatonce,infivedifferentcolors!

Mostoftenthekingneededtheclothandgarmentsforgifts,notonlyfortheformidableHammurabihimselfbutalsoforminorvassals.OnelettertoIltanireads:“ThekingofShirwunhasarrived;heaskedthecaravanthatwasgoingoutofKarana,butithadnogarmentsfitforpresentsavailable.Nowsendmequicklyanygarmentsthatyouhaveavailable,whetheroffirst-rateorsecond-ratequality,forpresents.”Someofthetextileswereused,however,simplytoclothethepalacepersonnel.Zimri-Limreceivedanalmostcomicalletterfromhistrustedoverseerofpalacebusiness,whofinallyturnedtothekingtoresolveadisputebetweentwoobstinateheadsofdepartments.Itseemsthatthefourhundredpalaceworkerswereduenewsetsofclothes,butonlyonehundredhadactuallyreceivedthem.Whenthemanagerlookedintothematter,eachofthetwofunctionariesinsistedthatitwastheotherone’sjobtoprovidetheremainingclothes,andneitherwouldbudgefromhisposition.

Thetypesofclothprovidedwerequitevaried,andthoseintendedforpresentswereoftenquiteexpensive.OnerequesttoIltanireads,“Sendmequicklythegarments,bothwithappliqueandwithoutapplique,whichyouhavemade.”Zimri-Lim,ontheotherhand,sayshewilltaketoBabylon,asaroyalgift,aSyrian-stylecarpet—mostlikely,fromwhatwenowknowofthehistoryofpatternweaving,atapestry-wovenruglikethekilimsstillmadeinAnatoliatoday.NearEasternkingsrightupintothiscenturytraditionallygavesuchcarpetsasroyalfavors.

Thispalacesystemofmanufacturinganddistributingclothandclothingwasnotentirelynewin

thenineteenthcenturyB.C.TwokingsoftheSumeriancity-stateofLagash,wholivedjustafter2400B.C.,werealreadysettingupforbigbusiness.Lugalanda,theearlierofthetwo,employedtwelvespinnersandweavers.Yearbyyearthenumberincreased,untiladozenyearslaterhissuccessor,Urukagina,had114,dividedintoseveralworkshopsorweavinghouses,eachwithanoverseer.

Thepeoplemakingthetextilesatthisearlierdateareallwomen,mostlydesignatedasweaverswithafewextrawomencalledspinners(figs.7.5and7.4).Butfourspinnerscannotsupplythirty-sevenweavers(thesearethefigureswehaveforYear6).Spinningbyhandtakesmuchlongerthanweaving,soonehastoassumethattheweaversintheseshopsnormallyspunwhattheythenwove.Ontheotherhand,thecraftofspinningisquickertolearnandrequiresfarlessequipmentthanweaving,soperhapswomenwithlessskillwereassignedtohelpoutwiththespinning,perhapsevenwhilelearningweavingasapprentices.Theyarerecordedasreceivingthelowestamountofadultrations(one-eighthofaunit),alongwithafewoftheweavers.Atthebeginningamanknowntobeinvolvedinotherpalacedepartmentsfunctionedasoverseerofthetextilewomen,andbythebeginningofYear6ofLugalanda’sreign,twomoremenhadbeenaddedasgroupoverseers.Buttherapidexpansioninthenextfewyearsapparentlymadeitnecessarytopromotesomeofthewomenweaverstotherankofoverseer.Unfortunately,forthemthetitlecarriednoknowntangiblebenefits,onlytheextraresponsibilities,becausetheystillgotone-sixthofameasureofrations,liketheother“senior”weavers,insteadofhalfameasure,likethemaleoverseers.

Figure7.5.Figuresofwomenspinning(right),warping(center),andweaving(left),fromfourMesopotamiancylindersealsofthelatefourthmillenniumB.C.Thewomentypicallysatonlowstoolsorthefloortospin.Thewarpingframeconsistedoftwouprightpolessetinheavyblocks—seenheretwiceinsideviewandonceinanawkwardtopview.Theloomwaspeggedoutontheground,andtwoweaverssquattedoneitherside,asinEgypt(fig.3.5).

Amongtherationlistsfortheseworkshops(ourchiefsourceofinformationhere),weseeafewchildrenlisted,bothboysandgirls—clearlythechildrenofthewomen.Theyareassignedatwelfthofaunitofgraineach.Inaddition,however,thereareasmallnumberof“orphans,”alsobothmaleandfemaleandalsogivenatwelfthofgrain.Itwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhethertheywereassignedforapprenticeship(butthen,whyboys?)orforthewomenintheshoptoactastheirwetnursesorfostermothers—asecondjobinadditiontoweaving.

Althoughwedonotknowwhatproductstheseparticularwomenweremaking,weknowfromexcavationthatroyaltywasalreadysplendidlyarrayed.ThesumptuousburialofaladyknowninthearchaeologicalliteratureasQueenShub-ad(orPuabi)1astonishedtheworldwhenSirLeonardWoolleypublishedtheUrexcavationreportsin1934.Someseventy-fourretainers,maleandfemale,hadbeendruggedandkilledinthegreat“DeathPit”surroundinghertomb.Guardsfellbesidetheirweapons,cartattendantsbytheiranimals,musiciansnexttotheirgreatinlaidharps.Eachlady-in-waitingdepartedthisworldwearinganornateheaddressofgoldandsilver,hugegoldearrings,andnecklacesofpreciousstones.Thequeenherselfworeanevenlargerheaddressoverwhatmusthavebeenahugebouffantwig(fig.7.6).Thegarmentsofalltheladiesradiatedsplendor.Woolleysaysofthem:

Inthecaseoftwoorthreebodies...astrayfragmentofclothwaspreserved...,athickbutcloselywovenfabricthedustofwhichstillretainedabrightochrousredcolour.Verymanyof

thesesamebodieshadroundtheirwristsbeadsofgold,carnelian,andlapis-lazuliwhichhadnotbeenstrungtogetherasloosebraceletsbuthadbeensewnontotheedgesofthesleevesofagarment....[Aroundherwaist]QueenShub-adhadarowofgoldringspendantfromaheavybandofbeadswhichweresewntoaclothbackground.

Figure7.6.HeaddressofthequeenofUr,fashionedofgoldandpreciousstonesandwornoverahugewig.TheSumerianqueenwasburiedwithseventy-fourservants,manyofwhomalsoworeelaborateheaddresses.Mesopotamia,mid-thirdmillenniumB.C.

Aftercitingmuchmoreevidenceforthepositionsofdurablethingslikebeads,heconcludes:

[I]twouldseem,therefore,thatthecostumeofladiesofthecourt,atleast,includedacoatreachingonlytothewaistandhavinglong...sleeves;thecuffsandbottomhemofthecoatmightbeenrichedwithbeads,oralongthehemtheremightbearowofpendantringsinshellormetal;itislikelythatthecoatwasfastenedinfrontandtheborderwithitsringpendantsdidnothangloosebutformedabeltinonepiecewiththegarment....Ofskirtsandunder-garmentsnotraceswerediscovered.

Sucharetheproblemsoftryingtolearnaboutsomethingasperishableascloth.Inanotherspot,however,Woolleyhadbetterluck.

[T]herelayroundthelegsandfeetoftheskeletonagreatquantityofcloth;itwasallreducedtofinepowderbutdid,solongasitwasundisturbed,preservethetextureoftheoriginalsufficientlyforthreevarietiesofmaterialtobedistinguished.Onestuffwasrathercoarsewithaplainover-and-underright-angleweave;thesecondwasafinelywovenclothwithadiagonalrib;thethirdwasalooselywovenright-angleweavefabricononesideofwhichwerelongthreadsformingeitheraverydeeppileorelse“tassels”likethoseontheskirtsofthefiguresrepresentedonthemonuments.

ClearlythepalaceweaversandseamstressesofMesopotamiawerefardowntheroadtoproducing

sumptuousclothingby2500B.C.,theapproximatetimeoftheseburials.Thelabormayhavebeenincreasinglythatofslavewomen—haplesscaptivesoftheincessantwarsthathadsprungupoverwaterrights,territorialdisputes,andthefunofowningsheermaterialwealth.Butinsomeplaces,atleast,anindependent-mindedmiddleclassoffreewomencontinuedforcenturiestocreatehandsome,salabletextilesforthebusycommercialcaravansrunbytheirequallybusiness-orientedmenfolk.

EvenamillenniumaftertheOldAssyriancaravansceasedtoplytheirroutestoAnatolia,inanothercorneroftheNearEastwegetaglowingpictureinthelastchapterofProverbs(31.10–25)oftheHebrewwomanwhostillworkedindustriouslyathomeforthehouseholdgood:

Whocanfindavirtuouswoman?forherpriceisfaraboverubies.Theheartofherhusbanddothsafelytrustinher....Sheseekethwool,andflax,andworkethwillinglywithherhands.Sheislikethemerchants’ships;shebringethherfoodfromafar.Sherisethalsowhileitisyetnight,andgivethmeattoherhousehold,andaportiontohermaidens.Sheconsiderethafield,andbuyethit:withthefruitofherhandssheplantethavineyard....Sheperceiveththathermerchandiseisgood:hercandlegoethnotoutbynight.Shelayethherhandstothespindle,andherhandsholdthedistaff.Shestretchethoutherhandtothepoor;yea,shereachethforthherhandstotheneedy.Sheisnotafraidofthesnowforherhousehold:forallherhouseholdareclothedwithscarlet.Shemakethherselfcoveringsoftapestry;herclothingis[finelinen]andpurple....Shemakethfinelinen,andsellethit;anddeliverethgirdlesuntothemerchant.Strengthandhonourareherclothing;andsheshallrejoiceintimetocome.

1Theexactreadingsoftheseearlycuneiformsignsareuncertainbutneednotconcernushere.ManyofthesplendidartifactsdescribedbelowareondisplayintheUniversityMuseuminPhiladelphiaandtheBritishMuseuminLondon.

8

LandofLinen

TheEgyptiansdopracticallyeverythingbackwardsfromotherpeople,intheircustomsandlaws—amongwhichthewomengotomarketandmakedeals,whereasthemenstayathomeandweave;andotherfolkweavebypushingtheweftupwards,buttheEgyptianspushitdown.Mencarryburdensontheirheads,whereaswomendosoontheirshoulders.Thewomenpissstandingup,andthemensittingdown.

—Herodotus,Histories,2.35–36

Herodotus,wholivedinGreeceinthefifthcenturyB.C.,inventedthenotionofhistoryasanindependentformofstudy,usingthewordhistoria—literally“research,aseekingout”—atthestartofhisbookontheGreco-PersianWarsof490–480B.C.:“Thisisthelayingoutofthehistoria[research]ofHerodotusofHalicarnassus....”OtherGreekauthorssooncopiedthenewgenre.Thusbegan“history”asweknowit.Ofcourse,toreconstructthedetailsofancientlifeforperiodsafterpeoplebegantowrite“history”ismucheasierthantominetheearlierperiodswedealwithhere.AndHerodotus’bookprovidesanespeciallyrichmineofinformation,forhewascuriousabouteverything.ThroughouthisextensivetravelstoresearchthePersianWarsheinquiredaboutanythingthatcaughthisattention—andthrewitallintohisbook.ThushisvisittothelandoftheNile(fig.8.1)yieldedalengthydescriptionofEgyptanditspeople.

Figure8.1.MapofEgyptandPalestine,showingimportantBronzeAgesitesmentioned.

ArchaeologyamplysupportstheviewofHerodotusthattheEgyptiansdidthingstheirownway.Isolatedformillenniafromotherculturesbyaseaofsand,theyreceivedoccasionalbasicideasfromothers(suchasthenotionsthatonecouldspin,weave,andwrite)andthendevelopedthemlocallytosuittheirpeculiarenvironment.Inthissameway,totakeatrivialexample,theEuropeansettlersinNewEnglandlearnedofpumpkinsfromthelocalIndiansandthendevelopedpumpkinpieaccordingtotheirowntastes.

BythetimeHerodotusvisitedEgyptinthefifthcentury,hewasdescribingacultureinwhichcustomshadchangedlittleinmorethanthreethousandyears.Newtoolswereoccasionallytakenup.Themale-operatedverticalloom,forexample,wasintroducedintoEgyptaround1500B.C.Bythat

time,however,Egyptianwomen—andwomenonly—hadalreadybeenweavinglinenonhorizontalloomsforfullythreethousandyears.TheMiddleKingdom,whichlastedfromroughly2150to1800B.C.,isparticularlyinterestingfromthepointofviewofwomenandtheirwork.Egypt’sisolationhadnotyetbeenpenetratedbytheinvasionsthatendedtheMiddleKingdom,butstilltherecordsofdailyaffairsaremuchfullerthaninearlierperiods.

InthemagnificentOldKingdom,whichbeganabout2750B.C.,pictorialrepresentationsandthenewly-inventedwritingsystemwerelargelyreservedforimportantreligioususes,onesthatpromotedtheimmortalityofthepharaohandthenobility.Soweknowlittleofdailylife.ButwhenthekingsoftheSixthDynastyfell,around2250B.C.,themyththatpharaohsweregodsincarnateandthereforeinvinciblefellwiththem.Chaos,famine,andpoliticalscramblingensued.Somecommonersevenhadthetemeritytobeginwearingtheirkiltsfoldedintheroyalmanner,withtheleftedgewrappedovertheright,insteadofviceversa.WhenthepharaohsoftheEleventhDynastyemergedtriumphantacenturylater,thestrugglehadleftitsmark.Earlierrulerswereportrayedwithunshakablelooksofeternalpeacefulness,asthoughtheyexpectedtheirsmall,orderlyworldtomarchonunchangedforever,whereasMiddleKingdompharaohslookuniformlyworried,evenharassed,withfurrowedbrowsandsadeyespeeringoutatunendingdisruptionandinsecurity.

Withallitsuncertainties,however,lifeinMiddleKingdomEgyptcomesacrossasparticularly,vibrantlyhuman.Thestrugglesforpowerhadtaughtthatpettychiefscouldbecomemagnificentpharaohs—inotherwords,thatwhatonechosetodocoulddeterminewhatone’slifebecameandthathereditywasn’teverything.Sopeoplepiledinanddidthings,andtheyrecordedtheirliveswithgreatgustoandnotalittlepomposityintheirtombs.Thetheory—abasiccorollaryoftheEgyptianbeliefinanafterlife—wasthatifyourecordedyourwealthandachievementsandcomfortsattainedinthislife,youwouldhavethemforeternityinthenextlife.SothetombwallsofwealthyEgyptiansaboundwithpicturesofdailyworkandplay,andifthedeceasedwasn’twealthyenoughtohaveahugepaintedtomb,cheaplittlewoodenmodelsdepictingthedailyactivitieswoulddothetrick(figs.3.5and8.7).

Fromthemodelsandpaintingswelearnthatonceagainthechiefoccupationsofwomenwerespinningandweaving,grindinggrainandpreparingfood.Weknowlittleaboutthestepsoffoodpreparation,butwecanfollowtheprocessofmakingclothandtraceitssubsequentusewithsomeaccuracyfromstarttofinish,atleastinagenericway.InMesopotamiatheaccidentsofexcavationgaveusdetaileddataaboutafewwomen(seeChapter6).InMiddleKingdomEgypt,onthecontrary,weknowlittleaboutindividualwomenbutalotaboutwhatpeopleingeneralweredoingandespeciallyabouthowtheydidit.Ourknowledgeofwomen’sworkinEgyptthusfallslargelywithintheframeworkofhowtheymanufacturedclothforthesociety.ItrevealstoussomethingofhowEgyptianwomeninteractedbothwiththeirworkandwiththemalehalfoftheirsociety.

AlthoughtheMesopotamiansof2000B.C.wovemostlywoolandarathersmalleramountoflinen,theEgyptiansproducedalmostexclusivelylinenfortheirclothandclothingneeds.Therewerereasonsforthis.Egyptiansheepwerehairyratherthanwoolly,andHerodotustellsusthatwoolingeneralwasconsideredrituallyunclean—notkosher,asitwere.Moreover,linenwasadmirablysuitedtothehot,dustyclimateoftheNileValley,sinceitiscoolandabsorbentofmoisturebutshedsdirtreadilyfromitssmoothfibers.

Linenismadefromthestemfibersofflax,atall,skinnyplantaboutfourfeethighwiththindarkleavesandbrightblueflowers.Themenbegantheproductionchainbyraising,harvesting,anddryingtheflax,asweseeinthepictures.WealsocatchaglimpseoftheprocessinanArabianNights-

styleEgyptiantaleofmagic.Inthisstoryayoungservantgirl,whoseangeredmistresshadbeatenher,threatenedinrevengetoinformtheking.Butinstead,perhapsthinkingbetterofthatstrategy,“shewentandfoundherolderhalf-brotherbindingbundlesofflaxonthethreshingfloor”andtoldhimherwoe.Thuswelearnthatthemenbundledtheflaxafterdryingitandknockingtheseedslooseforthenextcrop.Eventually,inthestory,thebrotherscoldedthelittlegirl,soshewentdowntotheriver,whereacrocodileateher.Nexthermistressrepented—andthemanuscriptbreaksoffleavingushanging.(Sucharethefrustrationsofworkingwithancientsources.)

Someoftheharvestedflaxwenttothemenformakingropeandstring;thatwastheirspecialprovince,asitistodayintheNearEast.Onecanseeteamsofthem,eachpayingoutthroughaguideringastrandofthicktwinethathehasprepared,whileonestrongmanforcestheseveralstrandstotwistaroundeachotherintoasingleropeashebacksslowlydownthevillagestreet.Itisheavywork.Someflax,ontheotherhand,presumablythefinestgrade,wenttothewomenformakingcloth.

Toobtainthefibersfromthedriedflax,onehastokeepitwetordampjustlongenoughtorotthefleshypartofthestemawayfromthetough,usablefibers.AlthoughwehavenodepictionsinEgyptofthisnecessaryprocess,calledretting,womeninnearbyPalestinespreadtheirflaxoutingreatquantityonthefieldsorflatrooftopsandretteditfromthedampnessofthenightlydew,aswelearnfromacloak-and-daggersceneintheOldTestament:“Butshe[Rahab]hadbrought[thefugitives]uptotheroofofthehouse,andhidthemwiththestalksofflax,whichshehadlaidinorderupontheroof.”

MostoftheflaxgrowninEgyptwasraisedonthelargeestatesofnoblesandoftheevermorepowerfultemples.Servantwomenontheseestatesmadetheflaxintothelinensneeded.Theyseemtohavebeengroupedintocrews,andworkedtogetherinspecialweavingrooms,almostlikeamodernproductionlineinafactory.Sometimeslifeintheseweavingroomssoundsaswretchedasthatinthenineteenth-centurysweatshops.Alamentonthemiseryofconditionsduringaperiodofpoliticalchaossays:

Lo,citizensareputtothegrindstones,Wearersoffinelinenarebeatenwith[sticks]...Ladiessufferlikemaidservants,Singersareattheloomsintheweavingrooms,Whattheysingtothegoddessaredirges.

Templesingerswouldhavebeentoohigh-class,ordinarily,toweavecloth.Inlessstressfultimes,however,thewomenareshownattackingtheirworkwithspunk.

Paintingsoftenincludeanolderwomanactingasanimmediateoverseerintheworkshop(figs.8.2and8.4).Shehasdoublechinsorrollsoffatonhertummy.“Gettowork!”shecallstothegirlsbeforeher.Likeaprowlingwatchdog,themanwhomanagesalltheshopsoftenlurksbehindher,labeled“overseeroftheweavers.”SeveraltombsknownfromtheNewKingdombelongtomenwhostyledthemselves“overseeroftheweaversofAmon”—thatis,theoverseeroftheslaveworkersbelongingtothegreattempleofthesun-godAmonatThebes.Servitudeinthetempleswasatypicalfateofwomencapturedinwar.

Figure8.2.WomeninanEgyptianweavingshop.Thewomankneelingatthecenterissplicingflaxfibersendtoendfortheyounggirlattherighttospinintotighterthread.Thepairsquattingattheleftareweavingonahorizontalgroundloom(seefig.3.5foramorerealisticperspective),whiletheolderwomanstandingbehindoverseesthefactory.Thehieroglyphsnametheactivities.FromtheMiddleKingdomtombofKhnemhotepatBeniHasan,earlysecondmillenniumB.C.

Insidetheworkshopthreeorfourwomencrouchonthefloor,cleaningandseparatingtheflaxfibersandsplicingthemendtoendintocrudethread,whichtheyrollintoballsorcoilintoapileonthefloor.Egyptianestatemanagersexpectedtostoreupenormousquantitiesoflinens;wetypicallyfindhundredsoflargesheetsinasingleunplunderedtomb.Thejobmusthaveseemedendless,likefillingabottomlesshole.Thewomenprobablyinducedthesplices,whicharemerelytwisted,notknotted,tosticktogetherbywettingthemwithsaliva,sincesalivacontainsenzymesthatdecomposethecelluloseoftheflaxslightlyintoaglueysubstance.TheHebrewspracticedthesamemethod,learningitwhilelivinginEgypt;thespecialHebrewwordinExodusformakingthreadoutofflax,shazar,meansboth“totwist”and“toglue.”ThewomenintheEgyptiandepictionsworkonlittledome-shapedmoundssetonthefloor,muchaswemightuseatable.Thenamesforwhattheyaredoingarewrittenabovetheminthedrawings:s-sh-nforthewomenlooseningthefibersfromthestalksofflax,andms-noverthewomensplicingthemendtoend.1

Afterthesplicersfinish,theypasstheirproducttothenextteamoftwoorthreegirls,whohavetoaddtwisttothelooselyformedyarntostrengthenit.Twoproblemsconfrontthesewomen.Linenismoremanageablewhenwet,sotheEgyptianslearnedtokeeptheballsofcrudethreadinabowlofwater.Butanyknitterwhohastriedtoyankonaballofthreadinanopencontainerknowsthattheballimmediatelyandinvariablyhopsoutandrollsaway.SotheingeniousEgyptiansfashionedwettingbowlswithhandlelikeloopsinsideonthebottom(fig.4.2).Iftheendofeachthreadispassedundertheloopbeforeitisattachedtothespindle,thethreadisforcedthroughthewaterandtheballiskeptfromjumpingout,allatthesametime.

Thespinnernowadroitlyrollsthespindledownherthighanddropsitsoitkeepsturning—hangingfromtheattachedthread—asshepullsfromthebowlthecrudeyarntobetwisted.Eventuallyherspindlereachesthefloor,andthespinningstopsmomentarilywhileshewindsupthefinishedthreadontothespindle.Expertspinners,infact,don’tevenhavetoreachdowntogetthespindle.Theycangiveasharptugonthenewthreadthatmakesthespindlerollstraightupitlikeayo-yo.Duringallthisthewhorl,asmallroundweightstuckonthespindleshaft(fig.8.3),actsasaflywheel

tokeepthespindleturningaslongaspossible.GraceCrowfoot,ahistorianofspinning,hasremarkedthat“HerodotusmighthaveaddedtothosemannersandcustomsoftheAncientEgyptianswhichexactlycontradictedthecommonpracticeofmankindthefactthattheydroppedtheirspindleswhorluppermostinsteadofwhorldownwards.”

Figure8.3.SpindlesfromEgypt(a)typicalNewKingdomspindle,(b)typicalMiddleKingdomspindle,(c)unusualspindlefromGurob(NewKingdom)madeofEgyptianmaterialsbutintheEuropeanstyle—whorlatthebottominsteadofthetopandthreadgroove(nearthetopoftheshaft)goingtheoppositedirection.(LinentwistsnaturallyinthedirectionofthegroovesonthenormalEgyptianspindles,solinenspunontheGurobspindlewouldtendtobeweakandcomeapart—itwasprobablyusedforwool.)

Addingtwisttoasinglethreadgaveaveryfineproduct;wehaveEgyptianlinenswithuptotwohundredthreadsperinch,finerthanthefinesthandkerchiefyoucanbuynowadays.Itlookstranslucent,almostlikesilk.(Afinepercalesheettodayisusuallyonehundredthreadsperinch.)Twistingtwooreventhreethreadstogethergaveamuchstrongerandthickeryarn,whichwasusedformostoftheclothwoven.Someofthespinnersweresoexpertthattheycouldkeeptwospindlesgoingatonce.Inonemural,oneoftheseprodigiesglancesoverhershoulderatthewomensittingonthefloorbehindher,whosupplyherwiththehand-splicedyarn,andcries,“Come!Hurry!”

Amongthespinnersinanotherpaintingisayoungboy,probablythesonofoneofthewomen

(fig.8.4).Shehasbroughthimwithhertoherworkplace.Ifheisstilltooyoungtobesenttothemen,heisnonethelessoldenoughtobeputtowork,andspinning,atleast,willbeausefulskillforhimlaterinlearningtomakerope.(Weseeboysregularlyemployedinthosescenesalso.)Thewomen’sworkshopthusservesasbotha“day-care”centerandasortofvocationalschool.Whiteasopposedtoredpaintfortheskin(thecommonEgyptianpainter ’sconventionforwomenversusmen)provessomeoftheworkingchildrentobegirls;onehasbeensetuponahighplatformsoshewillbetallenoughforherspindletodropagooddistance.

Figure8.4.FriezesfromtheMiddleKingdomEgyptiantombsofafatherandson,BaqtandKhety(atBeniHasan),showingmenspinningcordandlaundering,whilewomenspinthreadandweave.AmongthespinnersinBaqt’stombisalittlegirl,whileinKhety’stombayoungboyhelpswiththespinning;day-careseemstohaveincludedvocationaltraining.Thewomenarealsoshownplayingavarietyofacrobaticgames.

Toweave,onemustfirstmakethewarp—asetofthreadstobetiedontotheloomtoformthefoundationforthefuturecloth(seeChapter1).Weseethatoneortwowomenoftheworkshopmightdothisjob,takingthethreadstraightfromthespindlesorfrompreparedballs.Sometimestheymeasuredoutthethreadonalargestandwithuprightpostsforthepurpose;oneofthehieroglyphsdepictssuchaframe.Butacheaperwarpingboardconsistedsimplyofpegsstuckintoawall.Wefindthisinoneofthewoodenmodelsandonceinreallife.

Around1350B.C.,theheretickingAkhenatonmovedtheEgyptiancapitaltoabrand-newsiteon

theedgeofthedesert.Thissite,nowknownasAmarna,wasabruptlyabandonedafterAkhenatondied.EveryonemovedbacktoThebes,leavingthehousestothedesertsands,wheretheruinshaveenduredliketimecapsules.

Intheremainsofasmallworkmen’svillageontheoutskirtsofAmarna,themodernvisitorencounterssuchhomelydevicesaswarpingpegsstillstuckfastinthewallofanalleyoppositethedoorsofsomeofthehouses.Inthetrashroundaboutwerefoundmanybrokenspindlesandafewweavingtools.Inthiscasethewomen—dependentsonthemenwhocarvedtheroyaltombs—wereprobablyweavingnecessitiesfortheirownhouseholdsratherthanforanestate.Anywomaninthelittlewalledvillagewhoneededawarpforherloomcouldhavewalkedovertothisconvenientspottomakeit.

Whereshethensetupherloomisamoredifficultquestion.HerAmarnavillagehouse,setinalong,monotonousrow,typicallyhadanentryroomthroughwhichfamilyandfriendsimmediatelypassedtotheall-purposemainroombehind,withitsstove,wallbenches,andcupboards.Herethewifecookedthefoodanddidherchores;herethefamilyworked,ate,andchatted.Steepstairsledupandoverthecornercupboardtoastoryabove,perhapsnomorethanaflatroofwithpalmfrondssetupasasunshelter.Sucharooftopprovidedacoolplacetosleepatnightandashadyspotforthewomantopegoutherloomforweavingduringtheday.(Rainwasnotaproblem;recentlyitrainedinCairoforthefirsttimeindecades.)Mostoftheweavingequipmentfoundbytheexcavatorsappearedtohavefallendownthestairs.EventodayintheNearEasttherooftopsaretheprovinceofwomen,placestotalkwithandsignaltooneanother,havensfromwhichtovieweventsinthestreetwithoutbeingseen.

Makingthewarpforhugeclothsmusthavebeentediousintheextreme.WehaveEgyptianlinensasmuchas9feetwideand75feetlong.Atamerehundredthreadstotheinch,that’smorethan153milesofyarntomeasureout—thedistancefromNewYorktoProvidence,orSeattletoPortland.ButtheEgyptianswereaningeniouslot.Perhapsthestabilityoftheircivilizationallowedgoodideastobepassedaroundeasily.Andsoweseeinonepaintingthatawomanismeasuringadozenthreadsoutatonce,pullingthemsimultaneouslyfromtwelveballsofyarnlyinginasmanycompartmentsinabigbox—arealworksaver.

Oncethewarpwasmade,helperstransferredittotheloomforweaving;“bindingonthewarp,”saysthelegend.Theshopmighthaveoneortwoloomspeggedoutonthefloor,andeachwasattendedbyatleasttwowomen,whocrouchedateithersideandspedtheweavingbypassingtheweftbobbinbackandforthbetweenthem.2Onewomanwasalsoresponsibleforthebeaterthatpackedtheweftintight,andtheotherwasinchargeoftheheddlebarthatraisedthealternatewarpthreadsforthewefttopassunder(seeChapter1).Sometimesanextragirlhelpedoutbyattendingtotanglesorotherproblemswiththeunwovenpartofthewarp.

Somewhereonthecloththewomenmightweaveinanextrathreadinalittledesignorlogothatfunctionedasaweavermark—probablythatoftheworkshop,butpossiblyoftheestate.(NotuntilClassicalGreektimesdidindividualartisansbegintosigntheirproducts.)Thekeeperofthelinenswouldlaterinkontoitalittlehieroglyphicnotationindicatingthequality,suchas“good”or“bestquality.”

VirtuallyalloftheOldandMiddleKingdomlinenwehaveisplainwhite.(Bycontrast,inanEgyptianmarketplacetoday,almosteveryonewearsblack.)Afewpiecesweredyedaswholecloth,usuallyredoryellow,andthedyeswerenotcolorfast,sothedyeingmayhavebeencarriedoutforfuneralsonly.Butnotalloftheclothistotallyplain.Mostpieceswerefringed,andafewpiecesfromtheMiddleKingdomhavesimplepatternsmadewithshorttuftsofextraweft,lookingnotunlikea

modernchenillebedspread.Garments,moreover,wereoftenpleatedwithrowuponrowoftinypleats,togivethemasnugbutelasticfit.Ourearliestpreservedgarment,fromabout3100B.C.,alreadyhasthisfeature(fig.5.3).

Whoaddedthepleatsorhow,wedon’tknow;butthemen,notthewomen,didthelaundering.Sometimestheyboiledthecloth,andsometimestheystompeditintheriver.Thiswasheavyandsometimesdangerouswork,aswelearnfromthescribes:

ThewashermanwashesontheshoreWiththecrocodileasneighbor...Hisfoodismixedwithdirt,Nolimbofhisisclean.Heisgivenwomen’scloths...Onesaystohim,“Soiledlinenforyou.”

CrocodilesposearealdangerinAfricaeventoday,butonehastotakethetextasawholewithagrainofsalt.MiddleKingdomscribesgavetheirpupilsliteraturetocopyforpractice.Aparticularfavorite,thesourceofthisexcerpt,wasalongtongue-in-cheekpoemthatextolledthevirtuesofbecomingascribeandexaggeratedthehorrorsoftakingupanyotherlineofwork,themoralbeingthatscribeshadcushylives,werewellfed,andwerehonoredbyeveryone,sothattheschoolchildwoulddowelltostudyhardandlearnthefiercelydifficulthieroglyphics.Theselittlestoriesservedascarrotstoenticethemulishstudentsforward,butthestickwasnotfarbehind—asintheschoolroomsofEuropeandAmericaupintothiscentury.Anotherversedescribesthelotofthematweavers(whoweremen)andatthesametimeputstorestanythoughtsthatwomen’sworkmightbeenviable:

The[mat]weaverintheworkshop,Heisworseoffthanawoman;Withkneesagainsthischest,Hecannotbreatheair.Ifheskipsadayofweaving,Heisbeatenfiftystrokes;Hegivesfoodtothedoorkeeper,Tolethimseethelightofday.

(These“satiresofthetrades”werecomposedwiththeassumptionthatallscribesweremen,butwenowhavedirectevidenceforfourorfivewomenwhowerescribesintheMiddleKingdom.)

Whenthelinenwasquiteclean,despitethesnappingcrocodiles,themenwrungitoutbytwistingitbetweentwosticks(fig.8.4),laiditouttodry,presseditwithweights,foldedit,andreturnedittothekeeperofthelinens,whostoreditinlargewovenhampersorinbigchestsofwoodorterra-cotta.SomeofthesestoragechestshavesurvivedfromtheMiddleKingdom.Others—fancywoodenonesfromtheNewKingdom—aregailypaintedtorepresentthelordandladysippingcoolrefreshmentsinacloth-coveredoutdoorpavilion,whileasmallservinggirlattendstheirwants,likeEnglishgentrytakingteaatAscot(fig.6.2).

MiddleKingdompavilions,likethosepicturedintheOldKingdom,werenormallymadeofbrightlycoloredreedmatsratherthancloth.ButthetombofHepzefa,adeputywhoruledthenome,orcounty,aroundAsyutintheTwelfthDynasty,around1900B.C.,displayedonitsceilingthedesignsofsixcloths,mostlyimportedfromtheAegean(seeChapter4)andsewntogetherintoacolorful

canopytop.Onlyonepavilioncoverhascomedowntous:thatofPrincessIsimkheboftheTwenty-firstDynasty.Itiswovenofstripsofgreenleatherwithhandsomefiguresappliquédaroundtheedgesandwasfoundtuckedintoacreviceinthetomb,whereithadescapedthenoticeofancienttombrobbers.

Linenwasmorethanjustclothingordecor.Sheetsofwovenlinen,madeandstoredupinhugequantities,alsocountedaswealthandservedasasortofmoneyforbarter.(Coinagewasanotherfifteenhundredyearsintothefuture.)Nofewerthanthirty-eightfoldedlinensheets,forinstance,layatopthemummyoftheestatemanagerWah,wholivedanddiedduringtheMiddleKingdom,andagreatmanymoresheetshadbeenusedtowrapthebody.Someweremarkedwithhisname,andsomewiththenamesofothers.NorwasWahparticularlywealthy.Hewasnottheowneroftheestate,andhediedratheryoung.Ifthismanylinenswentintohistomb,oneoftherareonestohavebeendiscoveredintact,thetombsofthereallywealthymusthavebeencopiouslysupplied.Infact,wegatherthatlinens,too,alongwithgoldandjewels,wereplunderedfromthetombsandsold.Afterall,noteveryhouseholdcontainedsomeonewhowove,sobasicclothandalsoclothingsometimeshadtobepurchased(seeChapter11).

Thelinen,oncewoven,hadmyriaduses.Plainlengthsofitservedastowels,bedsheets,andblankets,theblanketssometimesmadewithlongloopsofextraweftononeside,toinsulatebytrappingair(fig.11.4).Egypthasahotclimate,butinwinterthenightsbecomechilly.Stripsoflinenprovidedbandagesforwrappingthedead,andlittlepiecesweredraftedforwrappingallmannerofthings,muchthewayweusetissuepaper.Forexample,asmallwoodencosmeticscasketfoundinaMiddleKingdomtombandnowintheMetropolitanMuseumofArtwasdescribedbyWilliamHayes,thecuratorthere,as“containingatinyalabastervasetiedupinascrapoflinen,andfouralabasterjars,includingtwobeakersforointments,eachwrappedorsealedwithlinencloth.”

Bothwomenandmenregularlykeptsmallchestsorliddedbasketswithanarrayofcosmetics,themostimportantofwhichwereointmentstosoftentheskin(driedoutbyheat,dust,andfrequentwashing)andeyepaint,whichwasusednotonlyforbeautybuttohelppreventeyeinfectionsanddestroyparasites.Finelygroundgreenmalachite,aparticularfavoritefrom4000B.C.on,consistsofoxideofcopper—lethaltobothbacteriaandflyeggs.TheexaggeratedeyemakeupthatweassociatewithQueenCleopatrainHollywoodspectacularswasoriginallyofthisnature.AncientEgyptianwomen,however,clearlyenjoyedtheaestheticsoffacepaint,too(fig.8.5).

Figure8.5.Egyptianwomanapplyingfacepaintwithonehandwhilesheholdshermirrorandpaintpotintheother.Fromapen-and-inksketchonaNewKingdompapyrus.

Clothingwasentirelyoflineninthisera.Menworeknee-lengthkilts,especiallyforactivework,butmightalsopossesssleevedshirts,longkilts,andmantlesforotheroccasions.Thegarmentsweretiedonwithasquareknot.Womentypicallyworeslim,tubularjumpersreachingfromthebreasts(eitheraboveorbelowthem)totheanklesandsupportedbyshoulderstraps.OneexceptionisthecostumeofawomannamedSitSnefruandtitled“nurse”(fig.8.6).Herstatue,foundinAdanaonthesoutheasterncoastofTurkey,showsthearchaeologicalusefulnessofknowingaboutclothingstyles.Hayeslikensherankle-lengthdress,asinglelargerectanglewrappedsothattherightarmandshoulderarebare,tothemantlessometimeswornbyEgyptianmen.Itisidentical,however,tothewrappedtunicswornatthistimebySumerianandSemiticwomenofMesopotamiaandSyria.Hayessupposesthatshe“wasattachedtothehouseholdofanEgyptianofficialassignedtothisremotestation,and,beforeleavinghome,hadthestatuettemadetobeplacedinhertomb....”Sincethestatueisotherwise“whollycharacteristicofthebestsculpturaltraditionoftheTwelfthDynasty,”shemusthavehaditmade,instead,duringatemporaryreturntoEgypt,aftershehadadoptedthenativedressofhernewcountry.WelearnfromthisthatatleastafewEgyptianwomentraveledasgreatdistancesassomeofthemen.

Figure8.6.Left:StonestatueofSitSnefru,anEgyptiannurseoftheTwelfthDynasty(earlysecondmillenniumB.C.),whoaccompaniedthefamilysheservedallthewaytoAdana,atthenortheasterncorneroftheMediterranean.TheresheevidentlyadoptedthelocalNearEasternstyleofclothing;comparethetypicalwrappedtunicoftheMesopotamianwomanontheright(thisstatuecamefromTellAsmar,mid-thirdmillenniumB.C.),andcontrastthesewn-upjumpersnormallywornbyEgyptianwomen(e.g.,figs.8.2,8.4,and8.7).

Linen,withitsslick-surfacedfibers,isdifficulttodye,socoloredthreadwasnoteasytoobtain.

Furthermore,theEgyptians,pridingthemselvesoncleanliness,constantlywashedboththemselvesandtheirclothes.Thelinenwaseasiertobleachcleanwhenitwasplainwhite.Yetcolorisattractivetothehumaneye,andhereandthereonthestatuesandpaintingsoneglimpsesbrightpatternsontheclothes(fig.8.7left).Thesewomenarewearingskirtsandevenentiredressesofbeadednets,putonoverthelinenjumpers.OnesuchbeaddresssurvivesfromtheFifthDynasty,sothecustomalreadyexistedintheOldKingdom.WealsohaveMiddleKingdombeadskirtsfromburialsatthesouthernoutpostofKermaintheSudan,madewithhugequantitiesofblue,white,andblackfaiencebeadsandfoundalongwithsuchodditiesasfluffyrugswovenwiththelongbarbsfromostrichfeathersaspile.Occasionallythenetdresseswerenotlinen,butcutfromfineleather.Onepharaohonrecordgothisfun,infact,fromwatchinghisservinggirlsrowingupanddownhispleasurelakewearingnothingelse.

Figure8.7.Smallsculptedmodelsofwomenservants.Onewearsabeaddressoverherlinentunicasshecarriesabasketofbreadonherheadandabirdinherhand(MiddleKingdom,ca.2000B.C.).Theotherkneelsatthearduoustaskofgrindinggrain,thestapleoflife(OldKingdom,ca.2500B.C.).Insomeareasoftheancientworldthekneeandtoebonesofwomenarefounddeformedfromspendingsomuchtimeinthisposition(Chapter3).

TheEgyptiansarefamous,ofcourse,fortheirhugebeadednecklaces—pectorals,actually,coveringthewholechest—whichdidalottodressupacleanwhiteoutfit.Fancywoodenboxesinlaidwithpreciousmaterialslikeivoryheldthenecklacesandotherjewelryownedbywealthywomenandmen,formenworemuchjewelry,too,andparticularlytreasuredthepectoralsgivenoutbythepharaohasmarksofhonor.Bothmenandwomenmighthaveamongtheirjewelryapersonalseal,intheformofasacredscarabbeetlewithaninscriptionontheflatbottomandaholepiercedforalinencordbywhichitcouldbeworn.Upper-classwomenintheMiddleKingdomalsodevelopedatasteforhugewigs,thetressesofwhichweresometimesboundwithribbonsofsilverorlinenandtoppedwithstillmorejewelry,asfancyasanyfromthecourtofMarieAntoinette.Wefindthesewigscarefullystowedinthetombsinlargechestsandseetheservantgirlsinthepaintingsadjustingthem

fortheirmistresses.Onefemaletitlecarvedontothemonumentsofthetimeis“hairdresser.”Ifwejudgedonlybythegenrescenespaintedontombwallsandcarvedaslittlewoodenmodels,

wewouldhavetoconcludethatmosttypesofworkweredonebymen.Thewomen,instantlyrecognizablebytheconventionofpaintingtheirskinswhite(themen’sarered),appearaslaborersessentiallyonlyinthescenesofweavingandofgrindinggrain.Buttheyalsoappearasattendantsofwealthymistresses—servingfood,assistingthetoilette,entertainingassingers,harpists,anddancers—andtheyturnupinaninterestingsequenceshowingsomeratheracrobaticgames(fig.8.4).Inoneofthese,twogirlsplayballwhilesittingastridethebacksoftwoothergirls,whohaveleanedovertomake“horsie”andaresupportingtheweightwiththeirhandsontheirknees.Eachhasherhairpulledbackintotwopigtails.Othersperformflips,jumps,andbackbends,whiletwogirlstrytokeepapairofballsintheairatonce.

Ifweanalyzethetitlesaccordedtowomenontheirmonuments,however,welearnafewmoredetails.Inadditiontoweavers,wefindafewwomenlistedasoverseersand“sealers”ofstorehouses.Inonecasethestoreheld“royallinen”thatseemstohavebelongedtoatemple.Moreoftenthestoresinquestioncontainedfood,andalargenumberofthetitlesofwomenhavetodowithfood,allthewayfromscullerymaidthroughgrinder(fig.8.7right),brewer,andtableattendantuptoabutlerandthekeeperofthedininghall.Moreunusualareawomanwhohelpedwithwinnowingthegrainandanotherwhowasagardener.Elsewhereinthehousewefindhousekeepers,nurses(includingwetnurses—womenwhosuckledotherwomen’sinfants),hairdressers,cosmeticians,cleaningwomen,andjustplainservants.Wealsoencounterthedancersandvarioussortsoffemalemusiciansthatwesawinthemurals,bothfreecitizensintheserviceofadeityandservantsonaprivateestate.Notafewwomenwerepriestessesofsomesort.Then,ofcourse,wehavethewomenwhostyledthemselvesthe“ladyofthehouse”—thatis,amarriedwomanwhosejobwastorunherhusband’shousehold—andthosewhocalledthemselvessimply“townswoman”or“freewoman.”Theladyofthehouseoftenappearsinthemuralsseatedinanelegantchair,herpetgooseormonkeycrouchingbeneathit.

WilliamWard,inmakingathoroughstudyofMiddleKingdomwomen’stitles,pointsoutthat“ofalltheseprofessions,onlythe‘Gardener ’and‘Winnower ’workedoutsidethehouseanditssubsidiarybuildings.Thispointstothegeneralobservationthatoutsideworkinthefields,etc.,wasperformedbymen,includingwashingclothing.Therewouldseemtobeadivisionoflabouronlarge,privateestates:menworkedoutside(exceptforhouseholdservants)andwomenworkedinside.”Thedivisionwouldaccountfortheconventionthatmenwereshownwithdarkskinandwomenwithwhite.ItalsofitswellwithJudithBrown’sthesis(Chapter1)aselaboratedwithinthepeculiarEgyptianenvironment:IntheblisteringsunofEgypt,thecoolofthehouseshadeistheonlyreasonableplacetotendsmallchildren,especiallysince,astheancientsatirestellus,theinvitinglycoolwatersaboundedwithswiftandlethalcrocodiles.Theanalysisofonemummyhasrevealedthatthedeceased’slegshadbeentornoffandthelungsshowedsignsofdrowning.

Indoors,however,thewomenhadalltheworktheycouldmanage,preparingthefoodandturningflaxintolinencloth,which,alongwithmetal,wastheverycurrencyofEgypt.IntheMiddleKingdommostofthesewomen—weaversandgraingrindersincluded—werenotslavesbutserfsoftheestatesorentirelyfreewomen,equalineithercaseintheeyesofthelawtothemenofthatrank.Massiveslaverycamelater,withthewarsofconquestintheNewKingdom,anditchangedtheeconomicstructurethoroughly,rightdowntowhowasdoingtheweaving.InChapter11wewillexplorethatchangedworld,whenmenmovedintotextileworktomakeluxurygoods.FornowwewillleavethewomenoftheNilenotonlywiththeirendlessmanufactureoflinenbutwiththeirleisureactivities—theirballgames,dancingandacrobatics,petgeese,music,andcooldrinks.Theworkofthesewomen

wasnoteasy,butlifehaditspleasures.

1TheEgyptianwritingsystemspecifiedonlytheconsonants,notthevowels,ofthewords.Toreducetheresultingambiguity,asignthatindicatedthegeneralsemanticcategoryoftheintendedwordwasoftenadded.Asaresult,thesystemwasextremelylarge,complicated,unwieldy,andhardtolearn;thatiswhysofewpeoplewereliterate.2Onemustbecareful,ininterpretingtheweavingscenes,topayattentiontotheEgyptianwayofpresentingobjects.Theydidnotchoosetouseocularperspective,thewaywedo,becausethatanglewouldoftenhidesomeimportantpartoftheobjectorpersonthatneededtoarriveinthenextworldintact.Sotheloomsareshownasiffromabove,tomakeeverythingvisible,whereastheoperatorsareshownsideviewforthesamereason.Seefig.3.5forthetrueformoftheEgyptianloom;thencomparefig.8.2.

9

TheGoldenSpindle

Alkandre,thewifeofPolybos,wholivedinThebesofEgypt...bestowedonHelenbeautifulgifts:agoldenspindleshegave,andasilverwool-basketwithwheelsunderneathandfinishedwithgoldontherims.

—Odyssey,4.125–26,130–32

Goldandsilverspindlesmayseemtousthestuffoffairytales,aswhenSleepingBeautyhurtherfingeronagoldenspindleandfellasleepforacentury.Afterall,whyshouldawomanrichenoughtoownsomuchgoldneedtospinthread,theunendingtaskofthelowestservantgirl?Yetarchaeologistshaveactuallyfoundsuchpreciousobjects.TheearliestgoldenspindleslayinopulenttombsdatingtothemiddleofthethirdmillenniumB.C.,intheEarlyBronzeAge,notlongaftertheuseofsoftmetalshadbecomewidespread.

TheroyalgravesofAlacaHöyükincentralTurkey,spectacularlyrichinpreciousmetals,arethebestdocumentedofthisgroup.Eachbroad,flattombatAlacacontainedapersonlaidoutonhisorherside,surroundedbystatuettes,religiousorstatusobjects,jewelry,weapons,andtoolsofgold,silver,andcopper.InthegravethattheexcavatorslabeledTombL(fig.9.1),forinstance,layawomanwearingagoldendiadem,necklacesofpreciousstones,abeltwithagoldenclasp,goldandsilverbracelets,asilverpin,andbuttonsofstoneandofgold.Nearherfaceavarietyofreligiousobjectshadbeensetout,butjustbeyondherhandslaytwoimplementsusefulinnormalliving:alargesilverspoonandasilverspindlewithagoldenhead.Itistemptingtosaythatthiswoman,obviouslyafigureofprominence,wassymbolicallyequippedtodealwithfoodandclothing,thetwooccupationsmostcloselyassociatedwithwomenintheancientworld.

Figure9.1.BurialofarichandimportantwomanatAlacaHöyük,incentralTurkey(TombL),intheEarlyBronzeAge(mid-thirdmillenniumB.C.).Nearherhandslayagoldandsilverspindle,alargesilverspoon,andreligiousparaphernalia.Sheworemuchgoldandsilverjewelry.Bulls’headsandfeet,probablythetokensofamassivefunerarysacrifice,decoratedtheroofofthelowlog-builttomb.

WhenIfirstbegantoworkwiththismaterialfifteenyearsago,IassumedthattheAlacalady’sspoonandspindleweretranslationsintopreciousmetalofdailyobjectsmadeofwoodandhadbeenmadeonlyforfunerarypurposes.Theshapeofthelarge,flatwhorlinthemiddleofthespindleisnotsodifferentfromwoodenonesusedtodayinTurkeyandGreece.Itisaneasyshapetofashioninwood—certainlynotacopyofaclaywhorl,whichneedstobesmallandcompactbecauseofthegreaterdensityandgreaterfragilityofclay.So,yes,thesilverspindleprobablydoesimitateacommonwoodenprototype.

Butwasaspindlesopreciousmadeonlyforshow?BynowweknowofhalfadozenmorefromthesameEarlyBronzeeraandthesameregionofTurkey(fig.9.2):twofromHoroztepe,twofromMerzifon,atleastonemorefromAlaca,andonefromKarataştothesouthwest,madevariouslyofsilver,bronze,gold,andelectrum(ahandsomealloyofgoldandsilver).Thatwehavesomanyfromsoearlyanagesuggeststhatconstructingapreciousmetalspindlewasnotjustthepassingwhimofoneeccentricnoblewoman.WealsohaveHomer ’sdescriptionofgoldandsilverspinninggearbeingpresentedasgiftsbyonehighbornladytoanother,whichsuggeststhattheymighthavebeenpartofaformofdiplomacyakintothepresentsthatMesopotamiankingsandqueensgaveoneanother(seeChapter7).Now,thegarmentsandrugsthatcomposedthosegifts,nomatterhowostentatiouslyornatetheymightbe,weredirectlyuseful.Werethesespindlesintendedforuse,too?Ifso,theywouldhavebeenforthehandsofrichqueensandprincessesonly.Butwhywouldqueensbespinningandweavingatall?Thereliesthecruxofthematter.

Figure9.2.MapofGreece,theAegean,andwesternAnatolia,showingBronzeAgeandClassicalsitesmentioned.

Theanswerseemstobethatroyalladieswereindeedproducingcloththemselves,ornateclothwovenfromexpensiveyarnsthatotherwomencouldnotafford:linenstrungwithpreciousbeads,orskeinsofwoolcoloredwithcostlydyessuchasthepurpleobtainedfromseasnailslikethemurex.MurexdyewaslatercalledTyrianpurplebecauseitbecamethespecialtyofdyersfromTyreinPhoeniciaorroyalpurplebecauseitwassocostlythatinRome,forexample,onlytheemperorhadtherighttowearanentiregarmentdyedofit.Whywasitsodear?Becauseeachsnailcontainedonlyasingledropofthedyeandhadtobedestroyedtogetit.TheMinoansandGreekshadtheirown

banksofpurplesnails,offtheeastendofCrete,whichtheyfisheduntilnonewasleft.Inthescenequotedabove,HomergoesontoshowHelenofTroysittingcomfortablyathomein

Spartainachair,herfootonafootstool,chattingwithvisitorsandusinghergoldenspindletospintheexpensivepurplewoolwhichfillshersilverwoolbasketwithitsgold-rimmedwheels.Again,werethissceneunique,wecouldpointthefingeratpoeticlicense.Butoverandoverintheliteraturewehearofhighbornladieslearningtospinandweavepreciselyinordertoproduceornatecloth.Forexample,inEuripides’playIon,Ion’smother,Kreusa,describestheclothshewoveasagirlandleftinhisbabybasketwhensheabandonedhimatbirth:

Notafinishedpiece,butakindofsamplerofweaves...AGorgonisonthecentralwarpsoftherobe...borderedwithsnakeslikeanaegis.

Norwouldthisbetheonlytimeinhistorythatnoblewomenworkedattextiles.IntheMiddleAges,forexample,andintheeighteenthcentury,elegantladiespassedtheirtimespinningandembroideringsilks,notforsalebutforconspicuoususeatcourt.

Threadscoloredwithexpensivedyesthatdon’twashoutmakeitpossibletoweavedesignsthatwon’tdisappear.TherepetitivepatternsthattheMinoanswove(seeChapter4)couldbepartiallymechanized,buttheelaboratefabricsthatHelenandhernoblefriendswovemaywellhavebeenpictorial,akindofnonrepetitiveweavingthattakesenormousamountsoftime.Nonebuttherichhadthatkindofleisure.SaysHomerofHelen,livingatTroy:

Shewasweavingagreatwarp,apurpledouble-layeredcloak,andshewasworkingintoitthemanystrugglesofthehorse-tamingTrojansandbronze-cladAchaians.

Norweresuchpictorialclothsforpersonalclothing,butfortheritualsofthegodsandkings.So,too,inmedievalEurope,notextilewastooexpensivefortheglorificationofGodandhisservants.

ThesilverandgoldspindlesoftheEarlyBronzeAgesuggestthatatraditionofnoblewomenweavingmayhavesprungupquiteearlyinAnatolia,fourteenhundredyearsbeforetheTrojanWarofaround1250B.C.AtTroyitselfHeinrichSchliemanncameuponquantitiesofgoldfashionedintovesselsandjewelrynotunlikethoseatAlaca.PassionatelyfondofHomerandguidedbyancientdescriptions,SchliemannhadarrivedatthesiteofHissarlikinnorthwesternTurkeytodigupwhathehopedwouldbethelegendarycityofTroy.Theyearwas1870,archaeologywasinitsinfancy,andSchliemann(awealthybusinessmaninhissixties)hadnoclearconceptofstratification—theprinciplethatthedebrisfrommorerecentperiodsislaiddownontopoftheresidueofolderperiods,leavingasortoflayercakefromwhichonecandeducetherelativeagesoftheremains.AssumingthatTroy’smoundwashomogeneous,heandhishundredworkmenstartedshovelingtheirwaythroughtheverymiddleofthegreathillofdebris,huntingforbuildingsandobjectsworthyofgreatKingPriamandtheotherHomericheroes.AlthoughSchliemannwasbothcuriousandmeticulousenoughtosaveandrecordinhisdiarytheartifactshefound,hedestroyedirretrievablymostofthearchitecturalandstratigraphichistoryofthisimportantsite.

Whenthediggersfinallycameupongiantdefensewallsandaregalhoardofgold,theyhadburrowedrightpastPriam’sTroyof1250B.C.(nowidentifiedasLevelVII),allthewaydowntotheEarlyBronzeAge(LevelII),around2600B.C.Thiscity,too,hadclearlybeensackedandburned,justlikeHomer ’sTroy,afindingthatonlyconfirmedSchliemanninhisbeliefthathehadfinallyfound

whathewaslookingfor.BynowitwasJuneof1873,andSchliemannhadenduredfortoolongthescornandridiculeofEuropeanscholarswhothoughtthatbothheandhisschemetofindTroywerecrazy.Toenhancethesmalltrovesofgoldhefoundstashedaboutthecitybythefranticinhabitantsoftheburningcity,hesecretlysenthiswifeofftobuyadditionalpiecesofprehistoricgoldfromantiquitiesdealersroundabout,whilepartiallyfalsifyinghisdiariesaboutwhatwasfoundwhenandwhere.ThenhesmuggledthewholelotoutofTurkeytoAthensandeventuallytoBerlin,carefully“leaking”spectacularnewsofhissuccesstothepress,oncethetreasurewassafe,andsoonthereafterwritingtwocopiouslyillustratedbooksdetailingtheuncoveringofTroy.Aparticularlyfamouslithographportrayshiswife,Sophia,dressedupinlavishTrojanjewelry—notthatofHelen,Andromache,andQueenHecuba,astheybelieved,butofnamelessqueensandprincesseswhohadlivedsomefourteenhundredyearsearlier.

Amonghisfindsfromtheburntcity(LevelII),Schliemanndescribesasmallroundclayboxorcasket,withinwhichnestledtheremainsofalinenfabricdecoratedwithtinyblue-greenfaiencebeadsandaspindlefullofthread.Perhapsitwasanoblelady’sworkbox.Elsewherehementionstinygoldbeads.WhereSchliemannhadnoposturetomaintain,hisbooksareapparentlyexcellentrecordsofwhathefound.Butwheregoldisconcerned,amorereliablesourceishissetofcopiousdiaries(andeventheyhavetobetreatedwithdiscernmentattimes).WhileinGreeceafewyearsago,andcuriousaboutthesebeads,IcalledattheGennadionLibraryinAthens,whereSchliemann’sdiariesreside,andaskedifitwerepossibletoconsultthem.ThenextthingIknew,Iwasseatedatahugepolishedwoodentablewiththreevolumesofthediariespiledinfrontofme.

IconfessthatIspentthefirsthourinawe,leafingthroughthepagesjusttoseewhatthisgreatman,oneofmychildhoodheroes,hadbeenlikeinhisprivatemoments.Thediariesarenoteasytoreadsincetheyarehandwritteninfourdifferentalphabetsandatleastsevenlanguages.InthevolumesbeforemeIfoundGreek(Greekalphabet),Turkish(Arabicscript),Russian(Cyrillicalphabet),French,occasionallyEnglish,andmostoftenhisnativeGerman.Schliemannwasanastoundingpolyglot,havingtaughthimselftoread,speak,andwritemorethanadozenmodernlanguagesaswellastoreadClassicalGreekandLatin—oftenfromthemostmeagerresources.Hetendedtowriteinwhicheverlanguagehewasspeakingmostoftenatthemoment.Fortunatelyforme,thedaysatTroywererecordednotinTurkishbutinGerman,alongwithnumeroussketchesoftheartifactshewasfinding.AtleastonereasonforchoosingGermanwastokeepthediaryunintelligibletothelocalauthorities!Aftermuchbrowsing,usingthesketchesasthequickestguide,Igraduallylocatedafewmorereferencestosmallfindsofgoldandfaiencebeads,butnootherswithaclearcontextofclothdecoration.

Muchluckier,however,weretheAmericanarchaeologistswhoreexcavatedTroyinthe1930sinhopesofworkingoutsomethingofthestratigraphy.InanareamissedbySchliemann’sdiggers,theydiscoveredhundredsoftinygoldbeadsallthroughthedirtaroundtheremainsofawarp-weightedloom.Thisloomhadbeensetupinthepalacewithahalf-finishedclothonitonthatfataldaywhenTroyIIwassackedandburned.Givenwhatwenowknowofbead-decoratedclothfromothersitesinBronzeAgeGreeceandTurkey,wecanconcludethatamostroyalclothbeadedwithgoldwasinthemaking.TroyIIiscontemporarywithbothAlacaHöyükandtheothersiteswithgoldorsilverspindles;perhapstheroyalladieskneweachother.Atanyratethe“common”womenofTroywerebusywiththeclothindustry,too,fortheEarlyBronzeAgelevelsatTroydisgorgedsometenthousandclayspindlewhorls,atrulyphenomenalnumber.

Whatformsuchanextensiveclothindustrytookatthatearlydatewecanonlyguess.Weseeevidenceforlinen,formassiveproductionofwoolencloth,andforluxuryfabricslikethosewiththe

goldandfaiencebeads,andweseeconsiderablesocialstratification,withtheleadersofthecitycommandinggreatwealth.Butweknowlittleofthewomenwhomadethesetextiles.Ontheotherhand,wehaverathermoreinformationabouttheLateBronzeAgeandEarlyIronAgeonbothsidesoftheAegean—thatis,informationaboutsomeotherpalace-runsocietiesthatwereequallyappropriatesettingsforHomer ’sgoldenspindle.

ThedirectancestorsofthelaterGreeksthatwesoadmirebegantotrickleintotheGreekpeninsulafromthenortheastsometimeafter2000B.C.Theyarehardtotrace,butby1600B.C.theywerenumerousandpowerfulenoughtobuildcitadelsandpalacesinseveralkeylocationsintheeasternhalfofGreece,especiallyonthepreviouslyuninhabitedhilltopofMycenae(seemap,fig.9.2).MycenaeoverlookstherichagriculturalplainofArgostothesouth,afertilesourceoffood.Italsocontrolsthepassthroughthehillsfromthenorth,justbeyondwhichliesthenarrowIsthmusofCorinth,theonlywayfornorthernerstoreachtheentiresouthernhalfofGreecebyland.Trulyastrategicposition—sostrategicthatMycenaebecamethecapitaloftheloosefederationofchiefdomsthatensued,givingitsnametotheeraandtothepeoplethemselves.TheMycenaeanGreekswereaboveallwarriorsandorganizers,organizingeveryoneandeverythingtheyconqueredsothattheycouldkeepefficientcontrol,liketheRomansinlatertimes.

Onewaytokeeporderistokeeprecordsofwhoistodowhatandwhooweswhattowhom.TheMycenaeanGreeks,illiteratewhentheyenteredGreece,soonlearnedhowtowritefromtheMinoansorotherAegeanpeoplesandbegankeepingpalaceaccountsonsmallclaytablets,usingascriptthatwecallLinearScriptB.UnfortunatelyLinearBwasadaptedfromlocalscriptsthatwereillsuitedbothtoclayandtothesoundstructureoftheGreeklanguage(seebelow).Totheextentthatwecanunderstandthecontents,wecansaythatmanyofthetabletshavetodowithpersonnel,especiallywithrationsissuedandwithworkmetedoutandcompleted(fig.9.3).Itisinterestingforourpurposesthatmostoftheworkerslistedarewomen;theirnamedoccupationsincludegrindersofgrain,watercarriers,awidevarietyoftextileworkers,priestesses,nurses(?),servingwomen,andnewcaptives.

Figure9.3.ClaytabletfromPylos,Greece,inscribedinLinearScriptBandtellingofrationssenttotextileworkersandtheirchildren.Thesignsread:“Pu-lora-pi-ti-rya:WOMEN38,ko-wa20,ko-wo19.WHEAT16,FIGS16.”Thatis,“Pylosseamstresses:38women,20girls,19boys.Wheat:16measures,figs:16measures.”Thesignfor“woman”isapictogramshowingherheadandlongskirt.

Thelasttermisthekeytothesocialstructure:Mostofthesewomen,perhapsallexceptthetoppriestesses,seemtohavebeencapturedduringthesortsofraidssofrequentinHomer ’sepics,rightfromtheopeningoftheIliad,whereAgamemnon,kingofMycenae,makesthefollowingboasts:

WewenttoThebes,thesacredcityofEetion,andsackeditandbroughteverythinghere.AndthesonsoftheAchaiansdivideditupamongthemselves,[including]thefair-cheekedChryseis...AndIwillnotrelease[Chryseis],notbeforeoldagecomesuponherinourhouseinArgos,farfromherfather,walkingupanddownattheloomandtendingmybed.

Whenatownorsettlementwasoverwhelmedandlooted,themenwhosurvivedthefightingweretypicallyslaughtered,whilethewomenandchildrenwerehauledawaytobecomecaptivelaborers.

Ihesitatetocallthemslaves.Thegeneralattitudeseemstohavebeenthatwomenwererelativelydocileanddidnothavetobefetteredorbeaten,onceco-opted.Sothenewlycapturedwomenwereemployedinthepalacesandtemples,wheretheycouldbekepttrackofandtaughtskillsifnecessary.Butoncetheyhadachildortwo,bornofalocalfather,theyweretooencumberedandtootiedtotheirnewhomestorunaway.Fromthenontheymightliveinsuburbsorfarmhouses,continuingtodopieceworkforthepalace(likeweavinggarments)andperhapstendingorchardsorgardens,whiletheyraisedtheirchildren.Suchalifewasmorelikeserfdomthanslavery.Itisthecensusandsupplylistsforthesedependentworkers,bothinsideandoutsidethepalace,andaccountsoftheirproductsthatconstitutethebulkofourLinearBdocuments.

Notonlydothewomengreatlyoutnumberthemen,butthemajorityoftheworkingwomenlaboredinthetextileindustry.Indeed,textilesforexportmusthavebeenamainsourceofAegeanwealth.AtKnossosalone,recordsforasingleseasonlistatleastseventytoeightythousandsheep,thevastpreponderanceofthemwethers(neuteredmales,whichgivethefinestfleeces,butnomilkandonlytoughmeat).Atupwardofapoundandahalfofwoolperadultsheep,bytheMycenaeans’ownreckoning,wecomeupwithsomesixtytonsofwool—acountthatcheckswellagainsttheKnossosaccountsofclothmade.Forcomparison,abulkyskisweatertodaymightcontainapoundandahalfofwool.Imaginespinningandknittingeightythousandofthembyhandinoneseason.Thiswasnosmallindustry.Asingleshepherdcouldrunseveralhundredsheep,althoughfiftytoahundredwasmorenormal.Buttogetenoughwomentospinandweaveallthewoolgrownbythosesheep,thepalacewarriorshadtogooutraidingforcaptivefemalelabor,evenwhennowarwasafoot.BeingcarriedoffwasaconstanthazardforwomenandchildrenduringMycenaeantimes,especiallyforthoselivingnearthesea.AservingwomanintheOdysseyreportsherentryintobondagethus:

PiratemenfromTaphos[aGreekisland]grabbedmeasIwascomingfromthefields,andbringingmeheretheysoldmetothehouseholdofthisman;andhepaidagoodprice.

QuiteafewofthewomenlistedintheLinearBarchivesofPylos,animportantMycenaeantownonthewestcoastofGreece,camefromsuchfarawayplacesasLemnos,Knidos,andMiletosontheeastsideoftheAegean.

Muchofthepopulace,then,consistedofcaptivewomenmanufacturingtextiles.Asusual,menlentahandateachendofthetextileproduction,inthiscaseraisingthefibersanddisposingofthecloth,whilethewomenhandledthepartinthemiddle—chieflyspinningandweaving.

Acarefullookattheaccounts,however,revealsamarkeddifferenceinhowtheMycenaeanwomenwereorganizedtomaketextiles,comparedwiththeothersystemswehavelookedat.EgyptianandMesopotamianwomen,havingobtainedtheirfibersonewayoranother,madetheclothfromstarttofinish,eitheraloneorasaworkshopteam.NotsointheMycenaeanworld.Herethepalacecontrolledthemeansofproductionateachstage,manipulatingthesystemfromthecenterlikeanorb-spiderinitsweb.Thepeoplewhodidthesuccessivebitsofworkspecializedindoingonlythatonetask,livingandworkingseparatelyfromthosewhodidotherpartsofthejob,connectedasaproductionteamchieflyviathepalace.Asysteminwhichnoonepersonorworkshopalonecouldcompleteanentirepieceofclothfromstarttofinishgivesthecentralmanipulatoryetmorecontroloveralargecaptivepopulace.1Thesamesortofoutworkersystemforclothproduction,butrunby

privateentrepreneursforprofit,isdocumentedfromtheNetherlandsandnorthernFranceintheMiddleAgesandfromthetinyMediterraneanislandofMaltaasrecentlyasthelastcentury.2

LinenwasmanufacturedintheAegeanaswellaswool,andconsiderablequantitiesofflaxwereraisedinthewesternPeloponnesos,inthesameareainwhichtheClassicalGreeksproducedlinen.Butclearlywoolrantheshow.Letus,then,followapoundofwoolthroughthehandsoftheMycenaeanpeoplewhoworkedit,togetsomeglimpsesoftheirdailylives.

Firstwecatchandfleeceasheep,preferablyinthespring.Menraisedthesheep;thenamesoftheshepherdsaremasculine.Whoremovedthewoolfromthesheep,however,isnotclear.Scholarsoftenassumethatthewoolwasshearedoffinamass,asisdonetoday,butarchaeological,zoological,andlinguisticevidenceindicatesthatBronzeAgesheepstillmolted(shed)theirwoolandthatwoolforweavingwastypicallyretrievedbycombingitloosefromthebristlykemphairsthatmoltedlaterinthespringthanthewoolitself.(Modernsheephaveevolvedtotheplacewheretheydon’tmolt,andtheydon’thavescratchykempintheircoatseither.)Bycombingthewoolout,theBronzeAgepeoplethuscameawaywithamuchfiner,softerfleecetospinthanshearingeverythingatoncewouldhaveproduced.3IntheMycenaeanrecordswefindsomewomenlistedaspektriai,meaning“combers.”Onecanimaginethecombersandshepherdsworkingtogetheratthetaskinmoltingseason,when,asinmostharvestingjobs,speedmusthavebeenessentialsoasnottolosethecrop.

Thenasnow,andalsoasinHomer,theherdsmenlivedmostofthetimewiththeirflocks,inlonelyhutsoutinthehills.Thecombers,onthecontrary,livedintownsandvillages,perhapsgoingouttothepasturesonlywhenitwastimetofleecethesheep.OnetabletrecordsamonthlyrationofwheatandfigsforeightcomberwomenandtheirchildrenlivingatPylos.Theymayhavespenttherestoftheyearcleaningandcombingtanglesoutoftheharvestedwoolforspinning,forthosewerethenextjobstobedone.

Beforethewomencouldtouchit,however,ourpoundofwoolhadtobebroughttothepalace(oratleasttothepalaceofficials)andweighedinbalancepanswiththerest(seefig.9.4),onlythentoberedistributedforprocessing.Lestmothsspoiltheuncleanedwool,itmusthavebeensentoutagainjustasfastasthetextileworkerscouldmanage.Wereadoftheweighed-outunitsofwoolbeingdispatchedtovariousworkforcesforvariouspurposes,eachbatchcarefullysizedforthejobtobedone,fromlittleitemslikeheadbandstogreatcloaksandblankets.Thepalacebureaucratsintendedtolosetrackofnothing.

Figure9.4.Greekwomenengagedinallphasesoftextilework:preparingwool,foldingfinishedcloth,spinning,weaving,andweighingoutunworkedwool.FromaGreekvaseofca.560B.C.(fig.3.6isaphotographofonesideofthisvase).

Aftercleaningtheallottedwoolbyremovingthebursandotherdebris,thewomenneededtowash

it.Thatithadnotbeenwashedpreviouslyissuggestedbythefactthatsmallamountsofrawwoolfromtheinventorywentdirectlytotheointmentmakers,presumablysotheycouldextractthelanolin,anoilwithskin-softeningpropertiesstillindemandtoday.Sometimesthepalacedispatchedaromaticherbsalongwiththerawwoolandoliveoil.Withsuchplants,theseearly“pharmacists”couldhaveperfumedtheointmentsforthequeenandherladies.(PharmakonisaGreekword,occurringalreadyinMycenaeantexts,thatdenotedanysubstancethatcomesinsmallquantitiesandwilldosomethingusefulforyou.Itincludesdrugsandremediesbutalsodyes,aromatics,spices,andmiscellaneouschemicalslikeastringentsandfixatives.)Perfumesandointmentsmayalsohaveconstitutedimportantexports,asmuchindemandabroadasChanelperfumeisoutsideFrancetoday.

Onceourpoundofwoolwasclean,thewomenwouldhavecombedandrolleditintofluffysausagesoffiber(seefig.9.4),andfromtheserollsthespinnersspuntheyarnsrequiredbythepalacefortheweavers.Thespinners,liketheweavers,functionedingroups,atleastforadministrativepurposes,althoughspinningcaneasilybedonealone.OnegroupofspinnersworkingforthepalaceatPylosconsistedoftwenty-onewomen(alongwiththeirchildren:twenty-fivegirlsandfourboys);anothercontainedthirty-sevenwomen(withforty-twochildren).Manylivedinoutlyingvillages,othersinthelocalcapitalitself.Onememberwasputincharge,andsuppliesofwoolandfoodwereallocatedtohertodistributetotheotherwomeninhergroup.Forthisextraresponsibility(unlikeherMesopotamiancounterparts)shereceiveddoublerations.

Theirfoodrationsseemtousastrangediet:wheatandfigs.Occasionallybarleyreplacedwheat,andsometimesolivessupplantedfigs.EveninClassicalAthens,meatwasararetreatformostpeople,availableonlyafteranimalshadbeenslaughteredforareligioussacrificeandthemeatdistributedtothepopulace.(ThephilosopherSocrates,infact,complainsofassociatingstomachacheswithbigfestivalsbecauseoftheunaccustomedfeastingonmeat.)AsinClassicalandlatertimes,villagerscouldsupplementthegrain,figs,andolivesbycollectingtastywildvegetablesinseason,suchasmembersoftheonionandceleryfamilies.TheLinearBtabletslistcoriander,cumin,andfennelseeds—stillamongthebasicspicesinGreekcookingtoday—ascondimentscollectedandstoredforthepalacekitchens,alongwithsafflowerandtwotypesofmint(awordthatweborrowedfromtheGreeks,aftertheMinoanshadlentittothem).

Whenthespinnersfinishedtheirwork,halftheyarnwenttowomenwhospecializedinpreparingthewarponadistinctivebandloom—anentirelydifferentpieceofequipmentfromthelargeloomdesignedformakingcloth.

OuronlyancientEuropeandepictionofthekeyprocessofmakingthewarpcomesfromEtruscantimes,almostathousandyearslater(fig.9.5).Ourabilitytointerpretthisscene,however,comesfromaNorwegianscholar,MartaHoffmann,whodiscoveredthatwomeninremotepartsofnorthernNorwayandFinlandwerestillusingthewarp-weightedloomin1964.Shetraveledaroundtothefarmswherefamiliespossessedtheselooms(usuallystoredawaysomewhere)andpersuadedthemtodemonstratetheprocessestoher.Oddly,someofthewomenhadmodernfloorloomsaswell,buttheyexplainedthatonlyonthewarp-weightedloomcouldtheyproducethelarge,heavybedspreadsneededforwintersleeping.Haulingthepiecesoutofstorage,theysetuptheloomswhileHoffmanntooknotesandpictures.Fromsuchfirsthandevidence,itbecamepossibletointerpretmanyoftheweavingscenesfromancientEurope.Infact,someoftheNorwegianscholar ’spicturesofthewomenworkingattheirloomslookremarkablyliketheancientones.

Figure9.5.Etruscanwomenhelpingeachotherconstructawarp,thethreadsofwhicharebeingstretchedouttotheproperlengthonthepeggedstandatright.Yarnbasketssitonthefloor.Fromadamagedbronzependantofabout600B.C.,foundatBologna,Italy.

TheEtruscan(orVillanovan)sceneengravedinbronze(fig.9.5)showstwowomenworkingasateamtomakethewarp—thefoundationforthecloth.Onesitsinfrontofabandloomweavingthestartingbandthatwillstabilizethewarpasitisformed(seeChapter1fortechnicalterms).Shepushesaloopofwarpyarnthroughtheshedofthedozenthreadsonthebandloominfrontofherandhandsthelooptohercompanion.Astheweaverpaysoutyarn,thesecondwomantakesthenewloopandwalksacrosstheroomwithituntilitislongenoughtoslipitoverapegonaspeciallyconstructedstandsetupexactlyasfarawayasthewarpistobeinlength.Thenshewalksbacktofetchthenextloopwhiletheweaverchangestheshed(tolockthelastloopintoplace)andbeginstoformanotherloop.

Becauseofthestartingband,whichorganizesitandholdsittogether,awarpforthissortofloomcouldbemadeupseparatelyandcarriedfromoneworkplacetoanother.WepossessawarpfromNorwaydatingtotheIronAge,whenitwaslostinabogasitwasbeingtransported.Thewarpstringshadbeentiedupinlooseknotsingroups,tokeepeverythingneatlyorganizedintransit.

Around1400B.C.someweaverdiscoveredasimpletrickforweavingbrightlyvariegatedstartingbandsratherthanplainwhiteones,bydividinguptwoorfourcolorsofthreadintherightorderonthebandloomwhensettingup.Suddenlyitbecametheheightoffashiontowearthesebrightborders.Weseeapatternofbarsinalternatingcolorsonmanyafrescofromthiseraandreadof“clothswithwhiteedges”versus“clothswithvariegatededges”intheMycenaeanaccounts.Lappishwomenweavingonwarp-weightedloomsinruralScandinaviaonlythirtyyearsagowerestillusinganidenticalpatternfortheirstartingbands.

Oncetheentirewarpwasmade,itcouldbeturnedovertotheweavers,whoalsoworkedmoreefficientlyinpairs.Theywouldlashthestartingbandtothetopbeamofabigwarp-weightedloom,dividetheshed,addtheclayweightstothebottomfortension,andbegintoweavethecloth,usingtheotherhalfofourpoundofwoolspunupintoyarnfortheweft.Weftyarn,incidentally,oftendiffersconsiderablyfromwarpthread.Thewarphastobeverystrongandhard,tostandupunderthetensionandpunishmentoftheweaving,buttheweftcanbeofanyqualitydesired—forinstance,softandfluffysoastoproduceawarmcloth.

Weavingseemssimpleenough.Over,under,over,under,andsoonyouhavealengthofcloth.Butinfact,learningtocontroleverythingsoyoucomeoutwithanicepieceofcloth,withthethreadsevenlyspacedandtheedgesstraight,takesagooddealoftimeandpractice.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatwefindMycenaeanwomenbilledasapprentices.Forexample,onevillagenearKnossoshousedtwosupervisors,tenregularcraftswomen,onewomanwhohadjustbeentrained,fouroldergirls,andonelittleboy—theselastfivepresumablythechildrenofthegrownwomen.Thelisting,as

always,isinorderofseniority.Othertabletsdistinguishbetween“new”trainees,settowork“thisyear,”and“old”apprentices,whowereassigned“lastyear”andareapparentlyabouttoassumefullstatus.TrainingslavewomenwasaregularpartoftheworldHomerdescribes.Odysseus’elderlynurseandhousekeeper,Eurykleia,referstotheotherwomeninhishouseas“theservants,whomwetaughttodotheirwork,tocombthewoolandtobeartheirslavery.”

LinearBrecordsaretantalizinglycrypticregardingthekindsofcloththeMycenaeanswouldhavemadefromourpoundofwool.Welearnmuchmorefromthefrescoesdepictingpeopleandtheirclothes.AndthereweseeradicalchangesfromtheearlierMinoantimes(seeChapter4),amongbothmenandwomen.Minoanwomenhadwornelaboratedressesfashionedfromdenselypatternedtextiles(figs.4.5–7and6.3),whilethemensportedonlyskimpyloinclothswithcinchbeltsandornatefootwear.WiththeadventoftheGreeks,thetablesturned.InCretewesuddenlyseemenwearingtheintricatepatternsformerlyassociatedwithwomen,butintheformofanamplekiltratherthanabriefloincloth—anewformofdresswornalsobytheHittites,theIndo-EuropeancousinsoftheGreeks,nextdoorinAnatolia.Wealsoobservetheclothofthewomen’sdressessuddenlybecomingplain,withatmostadecorativeedging,asthoughthemenhadpreemptedforthemselvestheuseofthefancyMinoancloth.Soonthemen’sclothbecomesplainagain,too,althoughstillwithfancyedgingssometimes.

Itisnothardtoreconstructwhatwashappening.Infact,theclothingprovidesanexcellentmirroroftheradicalchangesineconomicandsocialstructurebroughtbytheMycenaeanGreeks.WehavealreadyseenthattheMycenaeanswereorganizationmen.UponenteringCrete,theyquicklymarshaledthedefeatedlocalpopulaceintolaborgroupstoproducequotasofclothforthecentralpalaceatKnossos;theLinearBrecordslistnotonlyhowmanypiecesofclothateamofweaversfinishedbutalsohowmanytheyfellshortoftheirquota.Apparentlytheseconquerorsrequisitionedtheexistingsupplyofhandsomelocalfabricsfortheirownclothing.Butclothingsoonwearsout,andthenewlaborsystemwasnotgearedtomanufacturingsuchfancycloth.Soverysoonthemen’sclothingbecameasplainasthedisenfranchisedwomen’s.

Workingwithinaquotasystemofproductionisnotlikeweavingforoneself.Itisnolongerfun,nordoestheweavergetthebenefitofextraeffortputin.Massproductionisnotatalllikemakingsinglepiecesatwill;thereisn’ttimetodoacarefuljob.Thiseconomicprincipleisillustratedmanytimesinhistory.Forinstance,inMesopotamia,whenpeoplefirstfiguredouthowtomakepottery,theypainteditwithtrulyexquisitedesigns,butwhenthepotter ’swheelwasinventedanditsuddenlybecamepossibletomass-producethepots,thedesignsrapidlydegeneratedintoaquickswishofthebrushforalittlecolor.ThesameeffectisvisibleinCretantextilesmadeforthecentralpalaces,underMycenaeanrule,astheyrapidlybecameplainwithatmostafancyedging.ElsewhereonCrete,however,inremoteareasthattheMycenaeansfailedtosubjugate,theMinoanwomencontinuedtomaketheirelaboratefabricsallthewaydownintotheIronAge.

Indeed,independentlywovenedgingssuitedMycenaeanparsimonyverywell:Whenthemainclothwearsout,thegoodpartsofthefancyborder,whichismoreexpensivethanthecloth,canberemovedandreused.(ManyaEuropeanfolkcostumehasbeenadornedinthisway.)LinearBaccountsmentionseveraldifferentkindsofbandweaversandseveralstylesofedgings.

Wedonothavethebookkeepingonthedyerswhocoloredthethreadfortheprettyedgings.Butwehaverationlistsforthirty-eightseamstressesatPylos,togetherwiththeirchildren.Theseam-stressesmusthavesewnontheedgingsandstitchedupthelinentunicslisted.Elsewhereafewmenwhosewarementioned,buttheyseemtobeinvolvedwithstitchingleatherforharnessesandthelike.

Oncetheclothhadbeenfinishedbytheweaversandenhanced,ifneedbe,bythebandmakers,

seamstresses,andfullers,itwasreturnedtothepalacetobestoreduntilneeded.Someclothsweredesignated“royal”inquality,othersassuitableforretainers,andyetothersforguests.Againwecatchaglimpseofdiplomacythroughthegivingoftextilestohonoredvisitors,apracticeoftenseeninHomer.AsthePhaiakianspreparetosendOdysseushome,theypresenttohimanewtunicandcloakandachestfullofclothingandothergoods.Wealsoseethatthekingwasresponsibleforclothinghisretainersaswellashisservantsandslaves,acommonpracticeintheancientNearEastandinmedievalEurope.Thustheclothmadebythecaptivewomendidnotmerelydresspeoplebutalsofunctionedattheheartoftheeconomy,bothdomesticandexternal.

AttheotherendofthesocialscalefromthedependentworkersintheMycenaeanaccountswerethosewhoruled.Astheresultofreconstructionworkdoneinthewakeofarchaeologicalexcavation,wemaynowstrollthroughtheirfrescoedhalls,tryouttheircontouredthronesforsize,andadmiretheirgreathearths,pillaredporticoes,andcomfortablebathtubs,whilewepicturethemlivingalazylifeonthelaboroftheircaptives.

ButanotherHomericexampleoftextilesusedasguestgiftsfurnishesuswithadifferentperspective.WhileMenelaospreparestogiveOdysseus’son,Telemachos,asilvercupandmixingbowlasguestgifts,hiswife,Helen—sheofthegoldenspindle—picksoutaparticularlybeautifulrobefromthoseinthestoreroom,one“whichshehadmadeherself.”Shepresentsittotheyoungman“asaremembrancefromthehandsofHelen,foryourbridetowearatthetimeofmuch-desiredmarriage;anduntilthenletitlieathomeinthecareofyourmother.”Wededucefromthisandnumerousotherpassagesthatqueens,inHomer ’sview,wereinthehabitofspinningandweavingcertaintypesofspecialclothsthemselvesandofkeepingatleastsometrackoftheroyalstoresofclothandclothing.PenelopeandHecubaarepresentedthesameway.

Inshort,Mycenaeanqueenswererememberedasbusyladies,justliketheircounterpartsatMariandKarana(Chapter7),withmanyofthesamedutiesinrunningthepalaces.ThelargenumbersofstoreroomsintheexcavatedpalacesatPylos,Tiryns,andMycenae(SchliemannstartedintodigatMycenaejustassoonashehadfinishedTroy)suggestthattherewasmuchtorun.

Managingapalaceisonething,butactuallyspinningorweavingliketheslaves,evenwithaspindlemadeofgold,isanother.Tounderstandwhatclothwassospecialthatittookaqueentomakeit,ithelpstounderstandotheraspectsofearlyGreekandindeedIndo-Europeansociety(seeChapter2).

Overandover,wefindearlyIndo-Europeanliteratureobsessedwithrenown—therenownoftheindividual,ofthefamilyorclan,andofthedeitiesthoughttoprotectthatfamily.WefindthisastrueinGermanicandIndicepicsandsagasasinGreekandRoman,andweseetheHittites,whentheybecomeliterate,creatingagenrenewtotheancientNearEasternworld:thelonghistoricalexpositionsthatprefacedtheirtreaties,cataloguingthedeedsthatleduptotheeventathand.Buthowdoyoucarrypeople’sfameondownintofuturegenerationsforeverifyoudon’tknowhowtoreadandwrite?

TechnicallyMycenaeansocietywasliterate:ithaditssyllabicLinearScriptB,builtonthemodelofsuchlocalAegeanscriptsasMinoanLinearA.ButLinearBisverypoorlysuitedtowritingGreek.Itsmodelsmadenoprovisionforclustersofconsonants—Greekischock-fullofthem—andtheyallowedlittleroomfordistinctionsbetweenmanysoundsthatarecriticaltotellingwordsapartinGreek.ThustheGreekwordkhiton“tunic”wouldbewrittenwiththesyllablesignsthatwetransliterateki-to.Butkicouldtheoreticallyrepresentki,khi,gi,ski,skhi;kin,khin,gin,skin,skhin;kis,khis,gis,skis,skhis;kir,khir,gir,skir,orskhir,whiletocouldrepresenteithertoortho,withlong

orshortoandwithorwithoutn,s,orrattheendofthesyllable.Theoreticallymorethanthreehundreddifferentwordscouldendupwrittensimplyki-to,withnowayofdistinguishingthem.4InpracticethisallbutintolerableambiguitymeantthatLinearBcouldbeusedonlyforshort-term,repetitive(i.e.,veryredundant)recordsthatwouldprobablybereadonlybythepersonwhowrotethemoriginally,asamemoryaidsoondiscardedasobsolete.(Theaccounttabletswerenotbakedbythescribetopreservethem,astheyoftenwereinMesopotamia,sotheysurviveonlywhensomeoneconvenientlyburneddownthepalace.)Thatis,thescriptwasfitonlyformundaneandfleetingaccounts,inwhichmostoftheinformationlayinthenumeralsratherthaninthewords—andthatisjusthowwefinditused.Nocomplexconfectionshere:nopoetry,nohistory.

HowintolerableitmusthaveseemedthatsuchgloriouskingsandqueensasruledMycenaeandSpartashoulddieunremembered!Epicstherewere,buteventhebardneededajogtohismemory.Itwasforthisexpresspurposethatmentoiledtoraisehugefuneralmounds—variouslycalledbarrows,kurgans,ortumuli—overthebodiesoftheirheroes,fromcentralAsiaallthewaytoGreeceandBritain.AchillespileduponeforhisdeadcomradePatroklos,ontheshorenearTroy,thatallmightseeandremember,justasthefriendsofBeowulfraisedoneforthatearlyGermanickingafterhisdeath:agreatmound“ontheheadland,[built]sohighandbroadthatseafarersmightseeitfromafar.”ThelargestoneweknowofwasraisedoverthewoodentombofKingMidasofPhrygia—hewhosetouchwassaidtoturnanythingintogold—justafter680B.C.,atGordionincentralTurkey.Onehundredandseventyfeethigh,themounddominatesthelandscape,dwarfingthedozensofothertumuliintheneighborhood.(Ironically,GordionhadjustbeensackedbyanotherwarlikeIndo-Europeantribe,soMidas’followershadnotascrapofgoldlefttoputintotheirlord’stomb.)

ThustheIndo-Europeanmenraisedmoundsandcomposedoralepicstotrytoattainimmortalityfortheirnamesanddeeds,duringlongperiodswhenwritingwasnotwidespread.Butthewomenturnedtotheirtextilestoportraythedeedsoftheirfamilies.WehavealreadymentionedthewomenwhomadetheBayeuxTapestrytoglorifyWilliamofNormandy’svictory(Chapter6),andfromwesternEuropewecouldaddthestoryfoundintheNibelungenliedthatBrünhildedepictedtheexploitsofSiegfriedonherweb,rippingtheclothinfurywhenhebetrayedher(nomorememoryofhim!).ThereismountingevidencethatnobleMycenaeanladieslikewiserecordedthedeedsand/ormythsoftheirclansintheirweaving.HomerimpliesasmuchofHelenandPenelope,andinClassicaltimesnobleAtheniangirlsstillcarriedonanancienttradition(almostcertainlyfromtheBronzeAge)ofweavinganimportantstoryclothforAthenaeveryyear(Chapter6).Thestorieswerewoveninfriezes,usingasupplementarywefttechniqueperfectedinEuropeintheNeolithicandBronzeages.WehavemanydepictionsofIronAgeGreekstorycloths,andfragmentsofatleasttwohavebeendiscoveredinClassicalGreektombsintheCrimea(fig.9.6).

Figure9.6.Greekstoryclothcomposedofseveralfriezesofmythologicalandquasi-historicalfigures,reserve-dyedinred,black,andwhite,fromthefourthcenturyB.C.FoundinatombneartheGreekcolonyatKertch,onthenorthshoreoftheBlackSea.Itwassufficientlypreciousthatithadbeencarefullymendedinantiquity.

Captivewomenundoubtedlywovethemassoftowelsandbedsheets,cloaksandblankets,tunicsandchemisesusedbytherulinghouseholdanditsmanydependents,plusextrasfortheguestsandtheexporttrade.Thenobleladiesmayhavechosentomakeespeciallyfancyclothingforthemselvesandtheirhighbornfriendsaswell.Buttherecordingofthemythohistoryoftheclanwouldhavebeenatasksoimportantthatitcouldbeentrustedonlytothequeensandprincesses,withtheirgoldandsilverspindlesandroyalpurplewool.

1SomeoftheMesopotamianpalaces,too,mayhaveusedthiskindofoutworkersystem.Wehavelittleinformationabouttheinternalorganizationofthewomentextileworkerstowhomrationswereissuedthere.Butwedonotseemtoseethesewomendividedaprioriintosuchspecialtygroupsascombers,spinners,weavers,seamstresses,etc.,andtheMesopotamianformofagriculture,whichrequiredlargenumbersofpeopletobandtogethertomaintaintheirrigationchannelsacrossgreatwide-openspaces,seemstohaveprecludedthesortofscatteredvillageswithcottageindustriesthatwerethenorminEuropeformillennia.Securityforworkersinoutlyingdistrictswouldhavebeennil.

2Bowen-Jonesetal.describestheMaltesesystemthus:“In1861therestillremainedalmost9000workersoccupationallydescribedasspinnersandweaversandsome200beatersanddyers.Ninety-sixpercentofthetotalwerewomen,andmalelabourwasgenerallyusedonlyinthefinalstagesofclothpreparation.Theindustryincludedallprocessesfromthegrowingofindigenousshortstapleannualcottonstothemanufactureofcloth.Theactualoperationshoweverwerecarriedoutalmostentirelybyindividualworkersintheirownhomesandwerelinkedonlybymerchantsspecialisinginthistrade.Inmanycasesmerchantsadvancedseedtothefarmersonacrop-sharingbasis.Inallcasestheyboughtthepickedlintandthendistributedquantitiesbyweightto‘out-work’spinners.Thesewouldreturntheyarn,...andwerepaidbyweightandfinenessoftheyarn.Thevillagemerchantwouldstoretheyarnuntilhereceivedanorderforclothandthenwouldmakesimilarcontractswithdomesticweavers.”3Norwasitpossibletoinventanefficientpairofshearsforafewmorecenturies,untiltheadventofiron.Ironhasspringtoit,sotheshears(builtmuchlikeold-fashionedgrassclippers)willopenautomaticallyaftereachclip,butbronzewillnotdothis.IftheMycenaeanscutthewoolofftheirsheep,theywouldhavetohavedonesowithastraightknife,whichismuchslowerandriskier.Worseyetforsuchahard-drivingeconomy,clippingamoltingsheepwastesalotofgoodwool—namely,thepartbetweenthecutandtheroot,whichwillsoonfalloutanywayandcouldhavebeenused.Thepartnershipbetweenkemplesssheepthatnolongermoltreadilyandefficientironshearsseemstohavebeguninthemid-firstmillenniumB.C.4Somelanguages,bycontrast,arewellsuitedtosuchawritingsystembecausetheirwordsarebuiltlargelywithoutconsonantclusters.JapaneseandCherokeeusesyllabarieswithnotrouble,andHawaiiancouldifitweren’talreadyusingtheRomanalphabet.(ConsiderthesequencesofconsonantsandvowelsinHawaiianwordslikea-lo-ha,Ho-no-lu-lu,Ka-me-ha-me-ha,andhu-la.)WeareawareofoneortwosuchlanguageshavingexistedintheAegeanbeforetheGreeksarrived.Presumablythespeakersofoneofthemwereresponsibleforinventingthefirstofthesesyllabicscripts,whichlatercomersthentookupwithoutrethinkingthestructure.WedonotknowhowwellMinoanfittedthemold,butapparentlyitfitteditwithlessambiguitythanGreek,forwefindmanymorekindsofinscriptionsinLinearAthanjustaccounts—onjewelry,onpottery,onwalls,onreligiousobjects.(MinoanLinearAisstillundeciphered,butwecaninferagooddealaboutitsstructure.)

10

BehindtheMyths

Iwilldonawhitedressandturnintoawhiteswan;andthenIwillflyawaytowheremydarlinghasgone.

—Russianfolksong

Whitelinenisthepaperof[housewives],whichmustbeonhandingreat,well-orderedlayers,andthereintheywritetheirentirephilosophyoflife,theirwoesandtheirjoys.

—GottfriedKeller,DergrüneHeinrich(1854)

OnceuponatimeanAthenianprincessnamedProknewaswedtoTereus,kingofthebarbarousThraciansofthenorth.WhenProkne’sunfortunatesister,Philomela,cameforavisit,Tereusfellmadlyinlovewiththegirl,lockedherawayandrapedher,thencutouthertonguetopreventherfromtellinganyoneofthecrime.Philomela,however,woveintoacloththestoryofhermisfortune.WhenProkne,receivingthecloth,understoodwhathadbefallen,shefreedhersister,killedherownson,Itys,whomshehadbornetoTereus,andservedthechilduptohisfatheratafeast—thevilestrevengeshecouldthinkof.WhenTereusdiscoveredthetruth,inwrathhepursuedthetwosisters,thinkingtokillthem,butthegodstransformedallthreeintobirds:Tereusintothehoopoe(alarge,crestedbirdwithadaggerlikebeak),Philomelaintotheswallow,whichcanonlytwitterunintelligibly,andProkneintothenightingale,whichspendsthenightsinging“Itys,Itys!”inmourningforherdeadson.Allthesebirdshavereddishspots,itissaid,fromgettingspatteredwiththebloodofthechild.

SoOvidtellsthetaleforhisjadedRomanaudience,embroideringitmoreprofuselythanPhilomelaherself.(Aeschylus,fivehundredyearsearlier,tellsitinbriefestoutline.)Clearlywehaveherea“justso”story—theexplanatorysortoftalefoundworldwideandpolishedtoamodernartformbyRudyardKipling.Itisinterestingforourpurposesbecauseitshowsinyetanotherwaythegreatimportancethatclothmakinghadinwomen’slives,becomingcentraltotheirmythologyaswell.

Inanincreasingnumberofcases,archaeologicalunderstandingthrowslightonmythsandtheirshaping.Considerthestoriesinwhichsomeoneispoisonedbydonningclothesdippedindragon’sblood—preposterousonthefaceofit,sinceweknowthatthereisnosuchthingasadragon.

ThereareatleasttwosuchstoriesinGreekmythology.Inone,thesorceressMedeausespoisonedclothtokillherrival,Kreusa,theyoungprincessofCorinth,whomherlongtimehusband,Jason,has

justarrangedtomarrybehindMedea’sback.Shesendsabeautifuldresssteepedindragon’sbloodasaroyalbridalpresentandgloatsoverthelethalresults.Intheother,thecentaurNessos(halfman,halfhorse)offersviolencetoHerakles’bride,Deianeira,forwhichoffenseHeraklesmortallywoundshim.Ashedies,NessoswhisperstoDeianeiratogathersomeofhisblood—itselfmixedwiththatoftheHydra,awaterdragon—andtokeepit,sothatifsheshouldeverdoubtthehero’sloveshecancoloragarmentwithitandwinhimbackthroughhiswearingit.DeianeirafallsforthetrickandmanyyearslaterusesthebloodonagarmentinanattempttowinHeraklesbackfromayoungerwoman.Themonster ’sbloodturnsouttobefatalpoison,ofcourse,notalovecharm,andNessos’revengeiscomplete.

Bitsofevidencepiecedtogetherfromarchaeology,geology,andancienttextsnowsuggestthatthesoftmineralrealgar,whichisadarkpurplishred(afavoriteroyalcolor),wasoneofseveralstonessometimescrushedandusedaspigments—forcloth,amongotherthings.Realgaralsouponoccasionwasknownasdragon’sblood,asitsbrightcolortypicallyoccurredsplashedacrossthesurfaceofharderrocks.Butrealgarhasanotherproperty:Itisthe“arsenicruby,”sulfideofarsenic—adeadlypoisonifkeptinprolongedcontactwiththeskin.Ihavecollectedestimatesthatamonthorsoofwearingagarmentcoloredroyalpurplewitharsenicwouldbesufficienttodoonein.Arsenicpoisoningisnotafastandfierydeath,asEuripidespicturesitfordramaticpurposesinhisplayMedea(writtenperhapsamillenniumaftertheallegedevents).Butitkillsjustasdead,after(ironically)givingthevictimanespeciallylovelyskincomplexionforafewdays.Andsoweseethatdeathbypoisoningfromclothdippedindragon’sbloodcouldbequitereal,evenwithoutanydragons.Oncethecauseofdeathishandeddowninstorytoatimeorplacewherethispigmentisunknown(realgarisnotwidelyfound),itbecomeseasyforfertilemindstosupplythedragons.

Anotherexampleoftherealturningfantasticwhenpeopledon’tunderstanditconcernsmagicalshirtsmadefromnettles,whichoccurinfairytalesfromseveralpartsofEurope.Everyoneknowsthatnettlesstingtheskinpainfully;therefore,tomakeasoftandhandsomeshirtfromsuchaplantwouldclearlytakenothingshortofmagic.Oratleastsoitmusthaveseemedtopeasantswhowerevaguelyawarethatsuchobjectshadonceexisted.LaboratorystudieshaveshownthatalltheScandinavianarchaeologicalfindsoffabricthoughttobelinenwereinfactmadeofnettlefiber.Thenettleshadbeenpickedinthewild,thenretted(seeChapter8),spun,andwovenexactlylikeflax.Furthermore,thetechnologywaspracticedrightupintothiscentury.(DuringWorldWarII,whendomesticsuppliesofthecommonfibersweregettingscarce,elderlypeasantwomenwhostillknewhowtopreparenettlefiberweresettoworkbytheGermans.)Itturnsoutthatnettlescanbepickedcomfortablyifoneiscarefulalwaystomovethehandinthedirectioninwhichthestingerswilllieflat(upthestalk),andtheprocessofrettingrotsawaythestingers,sothereisnoproblematallafterthat.Theresultingfiberisfinerandsilkierthanflax,givingamuchnicerchemise.Magicindeed!

Manyancientmythsthatrevolvearoundwomen’stextileartsfunctiononthebasisofanalogy.Forexample,fate,totheGreeks,wasspunasathread.Boththreadandtimewerelinear,botheasilyandarbitrarilybroken.Onecouldarguethat,sincewomenwerethepeoplewhospun,thespinnersofone’sdestinywouldhavetobewomen.ThesedivinefemalespinnerswerecalledtheMoirai,orApportioners,andareoftenmentionedinGreekliteratureasbeingthreeinnumber:Klotho,“Spinner,”whospunthethreadoflife,Lachesis,“Allotment,”whomeasureditout,andAtropos,“Unturnable,”whochosewhentolopitoff.Homerislessspecific,andinboththeIliadandOdysseyherepeatsastockcoupletprobablypasseddownfrombardsmucholderthanhe:

Andthen[theperson]willsufferwhateverFateandtheheavy[-handed]Spinnersspunintotheirlinen[thread]forhim,comingintobeing,whenhismothergavebirthtohim.1

ThetripleimageofKlotho,Lachesis,andAtropos,however,hascaughtthepopularimaginationboththenandnow.Inamodernclaysculptureofthreepeasantwomen,theHungarianartistMargitKovacshassplendidlyencapsulatedthistraditionoffate.Hungariangirlscustomarilylearnedtospinatabouttwelvetothirteenyearsofage,sothespinnerisshownasayounggirl,plyinghertaskwitharathernaïveandhopefulexpression.Ayoungmatronbesideher,nowoldenoughtobemistressofherownhousehold,measuresoutthethreadbetweenherhandsingentleself-importance.Beyondthemanoldwoman,slightlystoopedandeyeinghercompanionsabitenviously,wieldstheshears.2

ThenotionoffemaledeitiescreatingalifebyspinningathreadisparticularlyGreekandrunsthroughGreekmythologicalthinkingataverydeeplevel.Itmayhavebegunfromtheassociationofchildbirthwithattendantwomenwhodidtheirspinningwhilewaitingtoactasmidwivesinthebirthingroom.Theparallelbetweenbringingforthnewthreadandnewhumans—bothdonebywomen—strengthenedtheimage.TheRomans,fortheirpart,equatedtheGreekMoiraiwiththeirminorgoddessestheParcae,whopresidedatchildbirthbutwerenotnecessarilyspinners.ScholarsalsocomparetheMoiraitotheGermanicNorns,ofWagnerianfame.Thesefemaledeitieshadindeedtodowithfate,buttheirfunctionseemstohavebeentowarnhumansofimpendingdoombyspeakingoutsomehow—theirnamehasetymologicallytodowithvocalnoises—andsometimestoproducedestiniesbyweavingcloth.

TheGreeksassociatedanotherdeityofprocreationwithspinning.CloseanalysisofthemusculatureofthefamousVenusdeMilo—theancientGreekstatueofAphroditefoundontheislandofMelosin1820andnowintheLouvre—showsthatshecouldn’tholdontoherdraperyevenbeforethestatuelostitsarms.Why?Shewasholdingbotharmsout(fig.10.1).One,theleft,sheheldhighandalittleback,counterbalancingitsweightbycurvingherbody.Theothersheheldoutinfrontofherselfataboutchestlevel;hergazerestsaboutwherethehandwouldbe.Inthosepositionsliesastory.Modernartcriticsarenotoftenawareofit,butthiswasaposepainfullyfamiliartowomeninancientGreeksociety.Theyspentmanyhoursholdingadistaffloadedwithfiberhighintheleftwhileworkingthethreadandspindlewiththemore“dexterous”right,outinfrontwhereitcouldbewatched.ThisAphrodite(orVenus,astheRomanscalledher)wasspinning.

Figure10.1.VenusdeMilo,thefamousmarblestatueofAphrodite(Romanname:Venus),goddessofloveandprocreation,foundontheAegeanislandofMelos.ThemusculatureofwhatisleftofherarmssuggeststhatshestoodinthetypicalpositionforspinningthreadintheGreekmanner.SpinningwasacommonsymbolforthecreationofnewlifeinGreeceandelsewhere.

WehaveotherstatuesofAphroditewiththearmssimilarlyplaced,althoughthedistaffandspindle,whichwouldhavebeensculptedfrommoreperishablematerials,arenotpreserved.Wealsopossessseveralvasepaintingsofwomenspinningthatshowasimilarpositioningoftheimplements(cf.figs.1.3and9.4).

Whyshouldthegoddessofloveandprocreationbeaspinner?Forthesamereason,ultimately,thattheMoiraiwhoattendthebirtharespinning.Somethingnewiscomingintobeingwherebeforetherewasatmostanamorphousmass.Listentothedescriptionofanaïveonlooker;thescenehappenstobelaidinAfrica:

Thewoman...tookafewhandfulsofgoats’hairandbeatthemwithawhippysticksothatthehairsbecameseparated.Then,takingastiffpieceofdriedgrasssteminherrighthandshetwistedsomehairrounditandcontinuedtotwist,whileathreadasifbymagicgrewoutofthemassofhaircontinuallyfedintoitbyherlefthand.

Theanalogyofaperson’slife-spantoathreadgoesbeyondlengthandfragilitytotheveryactofcreation.Womencreatethread;theysomehowpullitoutofnowhere,justastheyproducebabiesoutofnowhere.Thesameimageislatentinourowntermlifespan.Spanisfromtheverbspin,whichoriginallymeant“drawout,stretchlong”andonlylatershiftedtomean“turn,whirl”aspeoplerefocusedonthewhirlingspindlethatstretchedthenewlyformingthread.

Theanalogybetweenwomen’smakingthreadandbringingsoulsinto(orbackinto)theworldfindsexpressioninanotherfamousGreekmyth.Accordingtothetale,theAthenianheroTheseuswenttoCretetobringdownKingMinosbyconfrontinghispowerfulbeast,theMinotaur.ThereMinos’daughter,Ariadne,fellinlovewithTheseusandgavehimaballofthreadthatwouldleadhimbackoutoftheLabyrinthifhesucceededinkillingthefearsomebull-monster.(LinguistshavearguedthatLabyrinthwasactuallythenameofthepalaceatKnossos.ItshundredsoframblingroomsinatleastthreestorieswouldhavebeenbewilderingtoamainlandGreekaccustomedtohouseswithtworoomsandaporch.Bull-jumpinggameswereapparentlyheldinthehugecourtyardinthecenterofthispalace.)

Anicestory—andperhapstheoriginalpurposeofthethreadwasindeedtoleadTheseustosafety.Butatsomepointacultof“AphroditeAriadne”spranguponsomeoftheGreekislands.ThereTheseuswassaidtohaveabandonedtheprincessAriadneonhiswayhometoAthensafterkillingtheMinotaur.Thiscult—ofAriadneandAphroditecombined—includedthepeculiarcustomofhavingayoungmanimitatethesoundsandmotionsofawomangoingthroughlabor.3ThuswefindAriadne,thegirlwiththethread,tiedsimultaneouslytothebringingbackofsouls(Theseusandhiscompanions)fromdeath’sdoor,tothebirthingofnewlives,andtoAphrodite,goddessofprocreation.

Weaving,asopposedtothreadmaking,wasthespecialprovinceofAthena.Whereverdivineweavingwastobedone,ancientGreekstorytellerslookedtoAthena.InHesiod’staleofPandora(“All-gifts”)andherinfamousbox—aboxfilledwithalltheevilsoftheworld,includinghope(nobetterthandelusion,totheGreekmind)—ZeusordersHephaistostomaketheimageofabeautifulgirloutofclay.Aphroditeisto“shedgraceonherhead”and“Athenatoteachherskills—toweaveacomplexwarp.”AsthevariousgodsbusythemselvesintrickingPandoraout,

Theowl-eyedgoddessAthenagirdledher,andbedeckedherwithashininggarment,andonherheadafancyveilshespreadwithherhands,awondertobehold.4

ThusAthenaprovidesfortheyoungbridebothherclothingandherinstructioninweaving,thebasichouseholdcraft.

PerhapsthemostfamousstoryofAthena’sweavingisthatofArachne.ThisuppitygirlboastedthatshecouldweavebetterthanAthena,thepatrongoddessofweaving.Notawisethingtodo:Athenaheardandchallengedhertoaweavingcontest.AccordingtoOvid,againembroideringhistaletotheutmost,Arachneboldlywoveintoherwebthestoriesofthemostscandalousloveaffairsofthegods:howZeus,thekingofthegods,repeatedlywasunfaithfultohiswifeashedisguisedhimselftorapeorseduceadozenwomen—appearingtoLedaasaswan,toEuropaasabull,toDanaëasashowerofgold,and,mosttreacherouslyofall,toAlkmeneasherownabsenthusband,Amphitryon.Notcontentwiththat,ArachnedepictedPoseidon,Apollo,Bacchus,andHadesastheyalsoassumedfalseformstotakeadvantageofvarioushaplessmaidens.Athena,forherpart,grimlywovestories

ofmortalswhohadlostcontestswiththegodsandbeensoundlypunished.(WehavearepresentationofthisweavingcontestonalittleoilflaskfromCorinth,fromabout600B.C.—fig.10.2.Athena,adivinebeing,issomuchtallerthanthehumanwomenthatherheadscrapesthetopofthepicture.)Godsalwayswin,ofcourse.Whentheclothswerefinished,inwrathAthenaturnedArachneintotheSpider,doomedtoweaveindarkcornersfortherestoftime.5

Figure10.2.DesignonasmallGreekperfumeflaskfromCorinthshowingthecontestbetweenthegoddessAthenaandthemortalArachne.Arachneunwiselyboastedthatshecouldweavebetterthanthegoddessofweavingherself.AfterthecontestAthena(recognizablehereastallerthanthehumans)turnedtheunfortunategirlintoaspidertoweavewebsforever.TheGreekwordforspiderisarakhnē,fromwhichwegetourscientificnameforspiders,arachnids.

ButAthena’spurviewismuchwiderthanjustthemakingofclothandclothing.Atheniansworshipedheralsoastheonewhobringsfertilitytothecropsandprotectiontothecity,astheinventorofthecultivatedolive(oneofthecentralcropsintheAegean),asthepatronessofshipbuildersandotherhandcrafters,asagoddessofwar,andsoon.Infact,sheisthegoddessofsomanythingsthatmoderncommentatorslosesightofhercentralnature.

Thatnatureismostclearlyseenbylookingatwhatsheisnot,atwhatopposesher.HertraditionalopponentisPoseidon,withwhomshestrovefirstforpossessionofAthens.Asasignofsupremacy,Poseidonhittherockwithhistridentandasaltspringgushedforth,butAthenaproducedthefirstolivetree.(Boththetridentmarkandthe“original”olivetreewereproudlyshowntovisitorsattheErechtheum,ontheAthenianAcropolis,inClassicaltimes.)ThecitizensofthenewstatejudgedthatAthena’sgiftwasgoingtobemuchmoreusefultothemthanasaltspringandawardedhertheprize.ButPoseidonwasapoorloserandinrevengesentatidalflood,whichAthenabarelyhaltedatthefootoftheAcropolis,protectingherpeople.(BadtidalwavesdidoccurintheAegean.)

Thiswholetale,despiteitsanchorsinreality,isobviouslyanotherpacketof“justso”storiestoexplainorigins,butthenatureoftheoppositionshowsusthatAthenaisthebeneficentdeitythatprotectshumansandmakesthemprosper,pushingbacktheuntamedforcesofnaturerepresentedbyPoseidon.6Moreexactly,sherepresentseverythingthathumanskillandknow-how(tekhnē,whenceourwordtechnology)canaccomplish;sheisgoddessof“civilization”itself.ExactlythissameoppositionmotivatestheOdyssey,whereAthenahelpsOdysseusbymeansofcleverstratagemsandskills(includingbuildingaseagoingraft)toescapethewrathofPoseidon,whoforhispartthrowsanendlessbarrageofstorms,gales,andwildseasatthepoormortal.HomertreatsAthenainbothepicsasthegoddessofgoodadviceandcleverplans.Henceshefunctionsastheembodimentofone’s“conscience”andbrightideas.

IfhumanskillandcunningarepersonifiedbyAthena,andthecentralwomanlyskillisweaving,thenweavingcanitselfbecomeametaphorforhumanresourcefulness.One’slife-spanwasconceivedbytheGreeksasathread,formedbytheFatesatbirth,buttheactofweavingthethread

symbolizedwhatonedidwiththatlife,thechoicesoftheindividual.ThusthroughouttheOdysseyAthenaand“thewilyOdysseus”(herfavoritedevotee)areconstantlyhatchingingeniousplotstoescapeonetightsituationoranother,rallyingwiththewords“Come,letusweaveaplan!”

Odysseus’cleverwife,Penelope,isfromthesamemold.Notonlydoesshe,too,usethisphrase,butsheactuallyattemptstoweaveherwayoutoftrouble,tellingthesuitorswhopesterherinOdysseus’prolongedabsencethatshecannotmarryuntilshefinishesanimportantfuneralclothforheragedfather-in-law.Forthreeyearsshetricksthesemenbyunravelingatnightwhatshehaswovenduringthedaytime.TrulyshewasaworthywifeforthetrickiestofalltheGreeks.

GoodevidenceexiststhatthebasisofAthena’smythologyliesfarbackinAegeanprehistory,longbeforetheGreeksthemselvesarrived.ThenamesofAthenaandAthensarenotGreekorIndo-Europeannamesbutcomefromanearlierlinguisticlayer.Furthermore,mostoftheGreekweavingvocabularyisnotIndo-European.Theproto-Indo-Europeans(seeChapter2)seemtohavehadscantknowledgeofweaving,theirwomenknowingonlyhowtoweavenarrowbeltsandbands.Probablytheywereignorantevenofheddles,whichmechanizetheweavingprocessandmakeitefficient(seeChapter1).TheGreeksclearlylearnedhowtousethelargeEuropeanwarp-weightedloomaftertheybrokeoffandmovedawayfromtheproto-Indo-Europeancommunitysincealltheirtermsforusingalargeloom(asopposedtoasmallbandloom)havebeenborrowed.ThepeoplewhotaughttheGreeksthistechnology,vocabulary,andassociatedmythicalloremusthavebeenthe“indigenous”inhabitantsoftheBalkans(skilledinweavingsincethemiddleoftheNeolithic,perhapseven5000B.C.).TheAtheniansreferredtothesenativesas“autochthonous”—bornofthelanditself—andAthenamustbelongoriginallytothem.Afterall,noonedevelopsamajordeityaroundatechnologyonedoesn’tevenknowyet.

TheantiquityofAthenaasalocal,non-Indo-Europeandeityishintedatfurtherbyherfrequentrepresentationasanowl,thatwise-lookingbirdsocommoninpartsofGreece.InClassicaltimes,aftermoneyhadbeeninvented,theAthenianschoseAthena’sowltostampontheirsilvercoins.Butwealsohave,fromthesameperiod,loomweightsstampedwiththeowloftheirfavoritegoddess.Aparticularlycharmingweightshowstheowlwithhumanhands,spinningwoolfromawoolbasketatitsfeetasitlookscockilyoutatthespectator(fig.10.3).ItgivesanewimagetoHomer ’sstockepithet,“owl-eyedAthena,”7anditunderscoresonceagaintheimportanceofthisdeitytothewomenonwhosetextilessomuchofAegeancommerceandsocialinteractionwasbuilt.

Figure10.3.Greekloomweightshowinganowlspinningwool.ThereferenceistothegoddessAthena,patronessofspinningand

weaving,whosesacredbirdwastheowl.Severalsuchweightsareknown,datingtothefourthcenturyB.C.

ThefairytalesoftherestofEuropefrequentlyinvolvespinningandsometimesweavingandsewing.MostofthesetaleswerefirstwrittendownlongafterClassicalGreektimes,andtheyoftenshowtheinfluenceofthatimportantculture.Butoften,too,theygotheirownway.

InlateRomantimestheneuterpluralwordfata—“thosethingswhichhavebeenspoken”(thereforeequatedwithdestiny)—wasreanalyzedasafemininesingularnoun(bothendina)andconsequentlypersonifiedasawoman.ThisdivineladyFatethendevelopedahostofidenticalsisters(theFates)andtookoverthedutiesandattributesoftheParcae,thebirthgoddesseswhodeterminedaperson’sdestiny.EnglishfairycomesfromaderivativeofFrenchfée,whichitselfcomesdirectlyfromtheLatinfata.8InFranceandothercountriesthatdevelopedfromRomanculture,afairyispopularlyviewedasafemalespiritwhoturnsupatbirthtobestowgoodorevilonthechild’slife.Sheneednothaveaspindle—asimplewandismorelikely—butoccasionallyshedoes.

ThetaleofSleepingBeautyillustratesthetypewell.Tocelebratethebirthoftheirchild,thekingandqueenofamythicallandthrowamagnificentparty,invitingamongothersthebirthfairies.Onefairyisnotinvited—eitherbecausesheisevilorbecausesheisthethirteenthfairyonthelist(whichinChristianloreamountstoevil,sincethethirteenthpersonattheLastSupper—countingJesusasthefirst—betrayedtheSavior).Enraged,theuninvitedonecrashesthepartyandcursesthebabyprincess,sayingthechildwilldiewhenshereachesfifteen(someversionssaysixteen),uponprickingherfingeronaspindle.Allseemslost.Agoodfairywhohasnotyetmadeherwish,however,commutesthesentencetoacentury-longsleepinsteadofdeath.Asaprecaution,thekingbanishesallspindlesfromthekingdom,buttonoavail,foronthegirl’sfifteenthbirthday,theevilfairyintheguiseofanoldwomanbringsthefatefulspindleintothecastle.Entrancedbythespindle’sdancingmotion,theprincessreachesforit,pricksherfinger,andsheandtheentirecourtfallasleepforahundredyears.Anenormoushedgeofthornyrosesgrowsuparoundthecastletoprotectit(intheversioncollectedbytheGrimmbrothers,sheisnamedDornröschen,meaning“LittleThornRose”).Onehundredyearspass.Attheendofthemtheprincessisarousedbythekissofahandsomeandvaliantprince,whohasfoundhiswaythroughthethickettoherside.

TheoldelementsofbirthFatesarestillthere,buttheirpurposesareonlyhazilyremembered.Nolongerdoesthethreadcarrythechild’sdestiny.Thatfunctionhasmovedtothespindleitself,eventhoughonewouldbehardputtofindaEuropeanspindlesharpenoughtoprickone’sfinger.Spindlesaretypicallymadewithratherroundedendsandpolishedsmoothsoasnottocatchonthethread.Thefingerprickseemsalmosttohavewanderedoverfromtherosethorns,whichhavetheveryrealandancientjobofprotectingtheinnocent(seeChapter6).

MostEuropeanfairytalestodowithspinningconcerntheplightofsomepoorwomanlefttocarryoutthisendlesstask.Forexample,supernaturalcreaturesmaytransformroomfulsofflaxorevenworthlessstrawintothefinestofspungold—henceinstantwealth—asinthetaleofRumpelstiltskin.(Thesourceoftheimageisnotfartoseek.Flaxthathasbeenrettedinstandingorrunningwaterturnsgolden;flaxrettedinthenightlydewispalesilver.)Ortheymaysimplyspinprodigiousamounts.

InoneoftheGrimms’tales,called“TheThreeSpinsters,”alazygirlwhohatesspinningisforcedtospinimpossibleamountsforthequeen.Threedeformedwomenturnupinthenickoftime,onewithahugefoot,thesecondwithahugelowerlip,thethirdwithanenormousthumb.Theyoffertospinitallforthelazygirlifshewillpromisetoinvitethemtotheheadtableatherwedding.Sheagrees,andinnotimetheyspinallthethread.Thequeen,amazedatwhatshethinksisthegirl’sskill

andindustry,marrieshertothecrownprince.Butthegirldoesnotforgetherpromiseandseatsthethreewomenatthebridaltable.Thecuriousprinceaskseachonehowshegotherdeformity.Thewomanwiththelargefootallowsthatitcamefromtreadlingaspinningwheelallthetime,theonewiththeenormouslipsaysshegotitfromalwayswettingtheflax,andsheofthehugethumbblamesherproblemonconstantlydraftingthefibersintotheyarn.Horrified,thebridegroomdecreesthathisbeautifulnewwifeisnevertospinagain.9

Morethanalittlewishfulthinkinglurksinboththesetales!

TheSlavicwomenofeasternEuropetookaslightlydifferentapproachtogettinghelp,onethatseemstogoveryfarback.InthenorththeSlavicwomenpreservedmemoryofapagangoddessnamedMokoshorMokusha,possiblyFinnicinorigin,whowalkedatnightspinningwoolandtowhomonemightprayforhelpbothwithspinningandwithdoingthelaundry.Ifthesheepwerelosingtheirwool,thesayingwas:“Mokoshhasshearedthesheep.”TheeasternandcentralEuropeansalsopaidattentiontofemalespiritsknownasrusalkiorvily(mentionedinChapter6),thoughttobethesoulsofgirlswhohaddiedbeforehavinganychildren—thatis,cutofffromlivingonthroughtheiroffspring.Assuchavila(rusalka)hadthepowertobestowherunusedfertilityonthecrops,livestock,andfamiliesofothers.Inthecoldandinfertilenorththesedeitieswereportrayedasuglyandunkempt,andofvicioustemper,butfarthersouth,inUkraine,theywereimaginedasbeautifulyoungnymphswithlonghair,whohidinthewaterandmadeitrainbycombingtheirwettresses.Ifproperlytreated,theymighthelpoutduringthenightwithsuchfemaletasksasspinning.Butifsurprisedduringtheirnightlydances,especiallybyaman,theywouldsurroundthepoorunfortunateanddancehimtodeath.(Someonewho“hasthewillies”hasjustbeenterrifiedbyaforbiddenglimpseofthem.)Imagesofthevily,usuallyhalfgirlandhalfbirdorfish,adornedthewomen’sdistaffsandweddingjewelryaswellasthewindowframesandbarnyardgates,inperpetualsilentappealfortheirprotectionandfertility(fig.10.4aandb).

Figure10.4.Slavicrepresentationsofvily(rusalki),femalefertilityspiritswhoappearedtypicallyasbirds([a],fromamedievalweddingearringofgold)orfish([b],fromaneighteenth-centurywindowsillcarving).Inancienttimeswomendancedintheirhonor,usingtheirlongsleevestoimitatethevila’swings([c],fromatwelfthcenturyweddingbraceletofsilver).

Sincethevilywereconceivedasbird-women—beingsthatcouldtakeeitherwomanlyoravianshape,especiallythatofwhitewaterbirdslikeswans—thewomenperformeddancesintheirhonoratcertainfestivalsbylooseningthetremendouslylongwhitesleevesoftheirchemisesandwavingthemaboutlikewings(fig.10.4c).Someofthesedancefiguressurvive,asdoseveralrepresentationsofthewomendancingwithloosenedsleeves—bothinamedievalmanuscriptandonancientweddingbraceletsdugupinUkraine.(Thebraceletsnormallyheldthesleevesupatthewristssothewomancoulduseherhands.)ThesedancersofthesummerRusaliifestivalswerevehementlytakentotaskbytheproselytizingChristianpriests,newlyarrivedfromByzantium,whoconsideredthewhole

businessutterlyanti-Christian.Wewishtheyhadtoldusmoredetailsintheirrailings,however,sowecouldunderstandtheritualmoreclearly.ButknowingeventhismuchwillallowustointerpretbetteroneofthemostfamousRussianfairytales,thatoftheFrogPrincess.

“Inancientyears,intimesofyore,”akingofafar-offkingdomdemandedthathisthreesonsshoottheirarrowsintotheairandthenmarrywhoeverretrievedandreturnedthem.Thearrowsofthetwoolderprinceswerebroughtbackbyhighbornladies,butIvan’swasretrievedandpresentedbyafemalefrog,whichhewasobligedtomarryanyway.Soon,totesttheirskill,thekingrequestedhisdaughters-in-lawtomakeshirtsforhim.Ivanwasindespair.Hiswifewasafrog.Howcouldsheweave?Butduringthenight,asheslept,thefrog-brideshedhergreenskin,turnedintoabeautifulgirlforashortwhile,andprocuredfromherrusalka-handmaidsashirtsofinethatthekingchoseitasbestbyfar.

Nextthekingorderedthethreebridestobakebreadforhim—thesecondhouseholdskillrequisiteinagoodwife.Thistime,suspectingthatthefrogwasmagical,thebridesoftheolderprincesspiedonthefrogtolearnherrecipe.Awareoftheirpresence,thefrogsetaboutmakingbreadinpreposterouswayssothatwhenthebrideswentoffandimitatedwhattheyhadseentheirbreadfellandtastedterrible.Then,inthemiddleofthenightwheneveryoneslept,thefrogcalledherservantstobringherthefinestloafevertasted,decorated,moreover,withfiguresofbirds,animals,andtrees.10

Finallythekingannouncedagreatballatthepalace,tojudgewhichofthethreebridesdancedthebest.Thefrogtoldherdejectedhusbandtogoonahead,thatshewouldfollowinanhour.Thensheshedherfrogskin,dressed,andwenttothebanquethalltojoinhim.Hewasoverjoyedathergreatbeauty,buthersisters-in-lawweredismayed,sincetheFrogPrincesswasclearlyamagician.Againtheydecidedtoimitatewhatevershedid,inhopesoflearningtodomagicalthingstoo.Whentheysawherputthebonesfromherswan-meatsupperintoonesleeveandthedregsofherdrinkintotheother,theydidlikewise.

Itcametimetodance;thetsarcalledontheolderdaughters-in-law,buttheydeferredtothefrog.SheimmediatelytookholdofPrinceIvanandcameforward:howshedancedanddanced,spunandturned—everythingamarvel!Shewavedherrightarm—forestsandwatersappeared;shewavedherleft—allsortsofbirdsbegantofly.Everyonewasastonished.Shefinisheddancingandalldisappeared.Theotherdaughters-in-lawwenttodance,andtriedtodothesame:butwhenonewavedherrightarm,thebonesflewout,rightamongtheguests,andfromherleftsleevewaterwasflungabout,alsoalloverpeople.Thetsarwasnotpleased.

Entrancedbyhiswife’snewform,theprincerushedhome,seizedthefrogskin,andburneditsohisbeautifulbridewouldhavetokeepherhumanshape.Theprincess,uponreachinghome,washorrified.Mournfullyshetoldhimthatifonlyhehadwaitedthreemoredays,theevilspellthathadmadeherafrogwouldhavebeenbroken.Nowshemustreturnwhenceshecame,andhewouldhavetoseekforher“beyondthethriceninthkingdom.”Atthatshevanished.

EventuallytheprincelearnedfromanoldwitchthatElenatheBeautiful(asshewascalled)waslivingwiththiswitch’seldestsister.Theyoungerwitchthengavehimthefollowingadvice:“Asyoubegintocomeclose,theywillbecomeawareofit.Elenawillturnintoaspindle,andherdresswillbecomegold.Mysisterwillstarttospinthegold;whenshefinisheswiththespindleandputsitinaboxandlocksupthebox,youmustfindthekey,openthebox,breakthespindle,throwthetopbehind

youandtheaseinfrontofyou—andshewillspringupbeforeyou.”PrinceIvanfollowedherinstructionsandfinallyregainedhiswife.Theyflewawayhome,wheretheycontinuedto“liveandfeastwonderfully.”

Itisclearfromwhatweknowoftherusalkithattheprincess’sdanceinvolvingwavingthelongwhitesleeveswasintendedtosymbolizenotjustbirdsandcountrysidebutthemagicalcreationofnatureitself—theplants,waters,andcreatures(especiallythewhitewaterbirds)overwhichthevily/rusalkipresidedandamongwhomtheylived.Themysteriousandpowerfulnatureoftheegg,andwithitthebirds,frogs,fish,andsnakesthatproduceeggs,isthecentralimageofSlaviccreationlore.(InoneversionofthisstoryPrinceIvanmustalsofeedtheprincessaneggatthewitch’shousebeforeshecanrecognizehimagain.)IntheSlavicrusalkadance,thewomanarrangesthecolor,form,anduseofherclothingtoimitatethelife-givingdeitiesintheirformofswan-maidens,thussharingtheirmagic“sympathetically.”ThisisquiteadifferentimagefromtheGreekoneofcreatingbyspinningthread,althoughevenmoreintimatelytiedtofemales.Bycontrast,thespinningthatoccursattheendofthetaleequatesthegoldenthreadonthespindlewiththegirl’sgoldendress.Thethreadismerelythesourceofclothing,andthewomanthetoolthatmakesthethread.11

WhenAdamdelvedandEvespan,Whowasthenagentleman?

—JohnBall,atWatTyler ’sRebellion,1381

Laynotupforyourselvestreasuresuponearth,wheremothandrustdothcorrupt....

—Matthew6:19

Biblicalreferencestospinning,weaving,andotheraspectsoftextilemakingareratherfew,comparedwiththoseinearlyEuropeantexts,butpopularculturedrawsuponthemconstantly.WhilestayingwithfriendsinthehillcountryofWalesrecently,Iwastakentoseeaflockofsheepthatwereconsideredremarkablebecausetheywereallspeckledandspotted,insteadoftheusualwhitewithblackfaceandfeet.“Jacob’ssheep”theywerecalled.ThereferenceistoGenesis30–31,whereJacobperformsabitofsympatheticmagicbyplacingspeckledrodsinfrontofthematinganimalssothattheoffspringwillbespeckled.Thishedoesinordertoincreasehispay,sinceheistoreceiveallthespottedanimalsfromhismaster ’sflock.

ThelackofreferencestospinningandweavingissurelynotbecausethesecraftswereunknowninthedaysofGenesisandExodus.FromthepointofviewofAbrahamandhisfamilythetextileartswereveryold;EvehadconsignedherselfandallwomankindtoaneternityofspinningandweavingthemomentsheateoftheTreeofKnowledgeandrealizedthatsheandAdamwerenaked.ThePatriarchs,infact,wereprimarilyshepherdsandhadlotsofwoolattheirdisposal.Moreover,theyuseditformodesofclothingthattheEgyptianswhocameincontactwiththemfoundquitedistinctive.Joseph’s“coatofmanycolors”answersnicelytoEgyptiantombpaintingsoftheirwell-to-doneighborsinPalestine(fig.10.5),depictedfromtheirvisitstotheNileintheTwelfthDynasty(theearlysecond)—probablynotfarfromthetimeofJoseph’sarrival.Thereweseebothmenandwomenwearinggailystripedandpatternedtunics,someofthemfringed,thatlookveryheavycomparedwiththeEgyptians’thinlinengarments.Colorplusthickness,inlightofwhatweknow

aboutancientcloth,almostguaranteesthattheforeignersarewearingwool.Theyaredrivingdonkeysladenwiththeirchildrenandtheirgoods,muchthewayJoseph’sfamilymusthavelookedwhenitmovedtoEgypt.

Figure10.5.EgyptiandepictionofAamuvisitorsfromPalestine,bringingeyepainttotradetotheEgyptians.LikethebiblicalJoseph,theywear“coatsofmanycolors.”FromtheMiddleKingdomtombofKhnemhotepatBeniHasan,earlysecondmillenniumB.C.(cf.fig.8.2).

PhilologistsstilldisputetheexacttechnicalmeaningoftheHebrewwordtranslatedbythephrase“ofmanycolors”intheKingJamesBible—whetheritmeans“striped”orsimply“patterned.”12Onescholar,however,providesaslightlymoresinisterslanttothewholestorybypointingoutthat,whateveritmeans,thesametermisusedofsomeprincessesin2Samuel13:18,wherewearetoldthatthiswasthespecialdressoftherulingclass.NowonderJoseph’solderbrothers,alreadyenragedathimfortellingthemhisdreamsthathewouldbecometheirruler,strippedhimofhisruler ’sgarment!

InExoduswebegintohearabitmoreoftextilearts.WhenMosesralliesthepeopletofurnishthenewtabernacle,astheysettleintheirnewlands,heasksthemtobringallthenecessaries,includingclothofvarioussorts:“Andallthewomenthatwerewisehearteddidspinwiththeirhands,andbroughtthatwhichtheyhadspun,bothofblue,andofpurple,andofscarlet,andoffinelinen.Andallthewomenwhoseheartstirredthemupinwisdomspungoats’hair.”Fromtheseofferingsweremadegreat“curtainsoffinetwinedlinen,andblue,andpurple,andscarlet[wool].”Thedistinctionmadeintheverbsbetweenthespinningofthecoloredwool(tavah)andthe“twining”ofthelinenthread(shazar)showsusthatthesewomen,whohadjustcomefromEgypt,hadlearnedtospliceandtwistlineninthepeculiarEgyptianmannerwhilelivingthere(seeChapter8).IntheearlylayersoftheLateBronzeAgesitesinIsrael,moreover,wesuddenlybegintofindlocallymadeclayimitationsofEgyptianfiber-wettingbowls(fig.4.2),developedforjustthispurpose.Theappearanceofthesehumbletextiletools,usedonlybywomen,alertsusthatthisisatimewhenwomenhadjustarrivedinPalestinefromEgyptinconsiderablenumbersandsettledthere—andthereisnoothersuchtimethatwehavefound.Thus,outoftheseveralpointsinEgyptianhistorythatscholarshavesuggestedforthedateoftheExodus,thewomen’sartifactstellusthatthisone(around1500to1450B.C.)isthearchaeologicallymostprobablelayertoequatewiththeirExodusfromEgypt.13

InlaterbooksoftheOldTestamentweseefurtherreferencestoweavingthatareelucidatedbyexcavation.ThenextmajorchangeintextiletechnologyvisibleinthearchaeologyofthisareaoccursaroundthestartoftheIronAge,shortlyafter1200B.C.,whenweseeloomweightsofthesortlongusedinAnatoliaandtheBalkanssuddenlyfloodingintopartsofIsrael.By1000B.C.theyareturningupingreatnumbersinspecialweavers’shops—thatis,mennowseemtobeweavingonalargescaleforcommerce,atGezer,Lachish,andTellBeitMirsim,tonameafew(seemap,fig.8.1).Equallyabruptlywebegintofindmetaphorstodowiththisindustryusedamongmen’saffairs.Themostintimidatingspears,forexample,arenowsaidtobethickasaweaver ’sbeam.Goliath’swasamong

them.Indeed,GoliathwasaPhilistinechampion,andthematerialremainsofthePhilistines—loomweights,pottery,andall—showstrongconnectionswiththeMycenaeansandothernorthernersfromwarp-weightedloomterritory.(Forthatmatter,thebonesintheroyalburialsatMycenaefromaslightlyearlierageshowedthatthosewarrior-kingsstoodoversixfeettall—veritablegiantsincomparisonwiththefive-footmenoftheeasternMediterranean.)Onceagainthetextileremainshelpgluethefragmentarydatabackintoamorecoherentpicture.

ByNewTestamenttimestheweavingtechnologywasshiftingonceagain,tothemoreadvancedloomsandmethodsgatheredtogetherbytheRomanEmpire.Oneofthenewtechniques,knowndirectlyfromCopticEgypt,wasthatofdividingthewarpintotwolayersandweavingwithacircularweft,soastoproduceaseamlesstubebigenoughforatunic.Judiciousmanipulationoftheweftatthesidesandtopmakeitpossibletobuildinarmholesandaneckholewithoutanycuttingorstitching:thesortof“coatwithoutseam”mentionedinJohn19:23asbelongingtoJesus.Woolstilldominatedtheeconomy,asweseefromreferencestomothsasthecorruptersofearthlytreasure.

Thefinal(thoughnottheonlyother)mentionintheBibleofamatteroftextileinterestcomeswiththereference,towardtheendofRevelation,toanapocalypticbattletobefought“attheplacecalledintheHebrewtongueArmageddon.”Thereissomememoryhereofanotherdevastatingbattlefoughtatthisspotshortlyafter1500B.C.,whenThutmoseIIIsetforthfromtheNileintoPalestinewithhistroops,determinedtopushfarawayfromhisborderstheenemythathadharassedEgyptforcenturies.InoneofhisbloodiestfrayshecapturedandsackedthewalledcityofArmageddon(nowknownasMegiddo;ashadowoftheoldnamestilllurks).Itmusthavebeenaterriblecatastropheforthepeoplethere—theendoftheworldastheyknewit.InhisannalsthepharaohrecordsthathenotonlytookhomemassesofbootyintheformofbeautifultextilesbutalsocarriedoffthecraftworkersintobondageinEgypt,afterkillingthesoldiers.ShortlythereafterwefindtheEgyptiantextileindustry,whichbeforethishadproducednothingbutwhitelinen,undergoingathoroughrevolution:newtypeofloom,newtechniquesofpatterning,andincreasinglylavishuseofcoloredthread.Allthesetechniqueshadbeendevelopedmuchfarthernorth,inSyriaortheCaucasus,inthethirdmillenniumB.C.,andwerefinallytransmittedtoEgyptviasuchmenandwomenasthepoorcaptivesfromArmageddon.

Allthesestoriesandmanymore,tuckedawaythroughoutearlyliterature,containreferencestowomen’swork—tospinning,toweaving,andtotheclothesthewomenmade.Mostofthemythsandlegendsaboutwomen,infact,hoveraroundthecraftthatwasofsuchcentralimportancetotheirlives.Archaeologyandthetechnologyofclothmakinghelpusunderstandthesestories.Butthelatter,inturn,adddetailsaboutclothandclothingthatarenotrecoverabledirectlyfromthearchaeologyand—betteryet—detailsaboutwomen’slives.Intruth,clothforthousandsofyearswasthenotebookthatrecordedthewoesandjoys,hopes,visions,andaspirationsofwomen.

1TheselinesoccurintheOdyssey,Book7(197–98)andalmostverbatim,forexample,intheIliad,Book20(127–28)andBook24(210).Ineachcasetheparticiplegignomenōi,whichmeans“comingintobeing,”isambiguousinitsreference,applyingequallywellinbothsenseandgrammaticalagreementtothethreadandto“him,”thusfurtheremphasizingtheparallelismperceivedintheevents.2ThissculptureandmanyothercelebrationsinclayofwomenandtheirworkareondisplayinthemuseummadefromMargitKovacs’shouseinSzentendre,justnorthofBudapest.Malesubjects,thoughfewer,areequallypowerfullyportrayed.VisitorstoHungarywhoenjoythevisualartswillfinditwellworththeirwhiletomakeasidetripuptheDanubetoSzentendre.3Mocklaborbyamaniswellknowninotherpartsoftheworld—forexample,inGuyanaandamongtheAinuofnorthernJapan—asawayofdeludinganddivertingtheattentionofevilspiritswhomightharmthenewbornchild.(ItisknownintheliteraturebytheFrench

termcouvade.)Thewomanwhoisundergoingparturitionelsewhere,meanwhile,issupposedtokeepquietandtrytolookasthoughnothingwerehappeningtoher.CouvadehasbeenreportedfairlyrecentlyinEurope,too,inCorsicaandAlbania.4Notethatthefirstandapparentlymostimportantgarmentforthisyoungwomanisthegirdle,aseverywhereelseintheearlyGreektexts.Isuspectthatthisissometraditionalformoftheancientstringskirt,withallitssignificanceformating(seeChapter2).Unfortunatelyweareseldomtoldmore,becauseeveryoneatthattime,ofcourse,knewallaboutitanddidn’tneedtohaveitexplained.5TheEnglishwordforspidermeans“spinner”;ourculturehasfastenedontoadifferentaspectofthespider’srepertoire.Biologists,ontheotherhand,callallspidersbythenamearachnids.6ModernscholarshiphasmadeitclearthatPoseidonisalocalAegeandeityofearthquakesandtidalwaves,whogotgraftedontothepantheonoftheincomingGreeksinthespotwheretheIndo-Europeangodoffreshwaterbelongs(RomanNeptune,etc.).“Ragingwaters”arethepointofcrossover.BigriversweremajorforcestoIndo-EuropeanslivingaroundtheVolga,Don,Danube,etc.,buttherearenosuchenormousriversinGreece.Themostfearsomebodyofwaterthereisthesea,especiallywhenseismicactivitywhipsitupintoakillertidalwave.7Thismuch-disputedepithet,glauk-opis,isoftentranslated“bright-eyed”or“gray-eyed,”whichisetymologicallyapossibility,butthetermhasgoodcompanyinHera’sepithetbo-opis,whichcanonlymean“cow-eyed.”(Thewordforowlisglauks.)SuchanimalformsfordeitiesarecommoninthelayersofEuropeanculturethatprecededtheclassicallyIndo-Europeanpopulace,persistinghereandthereindarkcornersevenuptothepresent.8Neuterpluralandfemininesingularsoundedthesame,bothendingin-a:fata.TheswitchtofemininesingularwasfurtherhelpedbytheParcae(singular:Parca),whohadthesamefunction,andFama,meaning"Rumor,"whohadthesamekindofname.TheItalianwordfatastillpreservesboththeformandthemeaning,whereastheFrenchfée(whenceEnglishfee-rie,fairy)andtheSpanishhada(bothmeaning“fairy”)haveundergonechangesinthesoundsthatarenormalineachoftheselanguages.9NotethatthetaleasitstandsisnoearlierthanlatemedievalbecausethatiswhenthespinningwheelwasintroducedintoEurope.10InvillagesinpartsofRussiatothisdaythebridebringsbreaddecoratedinexactlythiswaytothegroom’shouseforthewedding.Itisthetraditionalweddingloaf.Infact,theentirestoryoftheFrogPrincessembodiesstepbysteptheancientSlavicweddingcustoms,startingwithlocatingaprospectivebride,testingherabilitiestomakeclothingandfood(traditionallyinthatorder),testingherstrengthandendurancethroughdancing(isshestrongenoughtodothefarmwork?),allthewaydowntopresentinghertothefamilyinagoldendressthemorningaftertheweddinghasbeenconsummated.Thegroom,too,wastested,butthoseritesarehardertodecipherinthistext.11Infact,anotherlayerofsymbolisminvolvedthespindleitself.TraditionalRussianweddingsongsoftenspeakoftheyoungherofindinghisbridebyshootinghisarrowintothemaiden’stower—asimplephallicimage.Thelockplatesofstoreroomsandweddingchestsweretraditionallymadeintheformofalozenge(asimplefemalesexualimage,butoftenpaintedtobequitegraphic).Insertingthekeyintotheholeinthecenterthussymbolicallyopenedthewaytonature’sriches.HerethespindlefunctionsthesamewaysincethepartIvanistothrowawaybehindhimistheshaft(whichisnothis),andthepartthathethrowsinfrontofhimthatbecomeshiswifeisthespindlewhorlatthebottom—adiskwithaholeinit(fig.8.3).12Orperhaps“pattern-woven”(Genesis37:3).TheHebrewoftheSeptuagintisktonethpasim,thefirstwordmeaning“tunic”(seeChapter5)andthesecondwordsomethinglike“striped”(tojudgefromotherpassagesandfromtheLatinVulgate’schoiceoftranslation).13ThechiefcontendershavebeenthattheExodustookplaceinthethirteenthcenturyB.C.,underthelongreignofRamesesII,oraround1500to1450,duringthereignsofHatshepsutandThutmoseIII.

11

PlainorFancy,NeworTriedandTrue

Forpeoplepraisethatsongthemostthatisthenewesttothoselistening.

—Homer,Odyssey,1.351–52

Wearemorereadytotrytheuntriedwhenwhatwedoisinconsequential.

—EricHoffer,TheOrdealofChange(1964)

Clothandclothing,onceuponatimenoveltiesinthemselves,rapidlybecameessentialsoflivingintheancientworld,lockedintothefabricofsocietyateverylevel—social,economic,andreligious.Thosemembersofsocietyresponsibleformakingthesenewnecessitiessoonfoundthemselvesontheproverbialsquirrelwheel,alwaysrunningjusttokeepupwithdailydemand.

Earlyon,becauseoftheeasycompatibilityofclothmakingwithchildcare,womenhadalmosttotalresponsibilityforproducingtheclothandclothingintheirsocieties.ButtowardtheendoftheBronzeAgeandintheIronAge,referencestomaleweaversturnupinincreasingnumbers.Whathaschanged?

First,theconnectionsbetweensocieties.Themen,incontrastwiththewomen,appearlinkedwithnewtypesofcloth,newtechniques,new

equipment,allbroughtinfromelsewhere.Nordotheyweavefortheirownhouseholds.Whereverwegetagoodglimpseofthem,theyareweavingforcashprofit,forprestige,or(andherethewomenjointhem)foraslavemaster ’sprofit.

Novelty,prestige,andcashareremarkablycloselyintertwined.“Cash”—notinthesenseofcoinagebutofsurpluscommoditiesavailabletopayforthings—had

grownincreasinglyavailableduringtheNeolithicandBronzeages(probablyfromabout4000B.C.on),asspecializationflowered.Peoplecametohaveextragoods—morethantheyneededtolive—goodstheycouldtradeforthingsnotessentialtodailylife:itemstoindulgeone’sfancy,tomakelifeeasier(includingslavelaboraswellasbettertools),ortoenhanceone’sprestigeandpositioninsociety.

Whatisnovelcatchesourinterest;thepurveyorofthenewislookeduponasspecial.Fashionthrivesonthisprinciple,andwhatissoresponsiveto“fashion”asclothing?Whatarethetopmoviestarswearing?Theroyalfamily?Thereisprestigetobehadfromcopyingnewfashions—despitethesometimesconsiderabledanger.Indeed,textilehistoryisasfullofpeoplefearingnoveltyasitisofthoseobsessedwithit.Forinstance,whentheEastIndiaCompanybeganimportingcottonprintsfromIndiaintheseventeenthcentury,thiscolorfulclothsweptoverEurope.ItwaxedsopopularthatEuropeanspinnersandweavers,threatenedbythecompetition,hadstringentlawsenactedagainstits

importation.Whenpeopleworeitstill,storieshaveitthatinpartsofFrancewomencaughtwearingthecottonprintswerestrippedandmensellingthemweresentencedtohardlaborinthegalleys.

Thosewhocanproduceimitationsofnewobjectsofprestigewill,ofcourse,turnafatprofit.Butwhocantakeupthisenterprise?Notthoserunningonthesquirrelwheelofprovidingdailynecessities;theyaretoobusy.Theonlypeoplewhohavetheleisuretoexperimentwithhowtomakenewarticles,orhowtousenewtools,arethosenotlockedintobasicsubsistenceproduction—peoplewithtimeand/orcashtospare.Sonotonlyissparecashneededtobuytheprestigiousnewthings,butcashoritsequivalentintimeisrequiredtodevelopandproducethemaswell.

Loose“cash”hadbeenavailableforsometimealreadywhenmenfinallyenteredthetextilebusinessinabigwayinthelatesecondandearlyfirstmillenniaB.C.Butnowaccesstothenewwaseasier,apparentlyasaresultofthevastsearchesformetaloresbegunintheEarlyBronzeAgeandthemassivetradethatdevelopedinthewakeofthissearch.Untilabout1500B.C.textiletoolsandtechniquesweredevelopinginseveralareasoftheOldWorldinvirtualisolationofeachother.Egypt,forinstance,usedflaxandthegroundloom,anddecorateditsclothoneway;MesopotamiaandtheLevantwovewoolaswellasflaxonthegroundloombutdecorateditsclothbyadifferenttechnique;Europewovebothflaxandwoolonthewarp-weightedloomandpatternedityetathirdway.Significantdifferencesalsoseparatedthespinningmethods.

After1500B.C.,however,suchdistinctionsfade.Thetechniquesandeventhetoolsformakingpatternedclothwerebeingpassedfromoneareatothenext,nottomentiontheclothitselfandtheideasfordecoration.Andthisiswhenwebegintoseemaleweaversturningupinsignificantnumbers,startingwithEgypt.

ShortlyafterThutmoseIIIsackedArmageddon(seeChapter10),anewtypeofloom,newtypesofweavers,andaprestigiousnewkindoffancyclothappearedinEgypt.ThefirstmanifestationcomesfromawallpaintinginthetombofThutnofer,anoblemanoftheEighteenthDynasty(Table11.1,fig.11.2).Thutnoferheldthehighlyprestigiouspostof“royalscribe”atthecourtofThutmoseIII’sson,AmenhotepII,orhisgrandson,ThutmoseIV,lateinthefifteenthcenturyB.C.OnonewallofhistombthisscribeproudlypresentsaviewofhistownhouseintheroyalcityofThebes—notpaintedfromapicturesquedistance,aswemightdo,butshownincutawaycrosssectionsothatallitsimportantinternalactivitiescouldbepreservedfortheeternalafterlife.

Pharaoh LengthofRuleHatshepsut(wife,halfsister) 2yearregency+20yearsThutmoseIII(stepson,nephew) 32yearsafterHatshepsutAmenhotepII(son) 30yearsThutmoseIV(son) 9yearsAmenhotepIII(son) 38yearsAkhenaton(=AmenhotepIV)(son) 17yearsTutankhamon(son-in-law,cousin) 9years

Table11.1.SuccessionoflateEighteenthDynastypharaohsmentionedinthetext.Inparenthesesisgiventhefamilyrelationshipofthatpharaohtotheprecedingone.Absolutedatesarestillarguedbytheexperts,buttheperiodcoversroughly1500–1350B.C.

Figure11.2.TheThebantownhouseoftheEgyptiannoblemanThutnofer,ashehaditdrawninhistombinthelatefifteenthcenturyB.C.Themastersitsinthemainroomatleft,acceptingacooldrinkandflowersfromhisservants,whileanotherservantfansthemistressabove.Maleservantsinthebasementweaveclothonnewlyimportedverticalloomsandspinrope;otherservantsrunupanddownthestairs,stowingsuppliesintotheattic.

Inthemainhallthemasterisbeingservedacoolingdrinkashesitsinhisgreatchairinperpetuity.(Heisrenderedasfarbiggerthananyoneelsebecauseheisthemostimportant.)Upstairsanotherattendantfansthemistress.Despitetheheat,servantsbusilyrunupanddownthestairs,cartingsuppliestotheattic,whereyetotherservantsstorethemaway.Belowthemaster ’sfeet,inthebasement—thedampestplaceinthehouse—somemensittwistingfiberforropewhileothersweavelinenattwogreatlooms.Linenismoretractablewhendamp,andkeepingitthatwaymusthavebeenaconstantprobleminhot,dryEgypt.Thebasementwasidealforsuchwork.

Menweaving:That’snew.Moreover,thetwoloomsshownherediffercompletelyfromthehorizontalgroundloomswithawomansquattingoneithersideinvariablydepictedintheMiddleKingdomandearlier(figs.3.5,8.2,and8.4).Thutnofer ’sloomsarevertical,withadoubleframetoadjustfortension.Themaleweaverssitonlowstoolsinfrontofthewarp,soclosethattheirkneeshavetostickouttoeitherside.Oneloomislargeenoughthattwoweaversworksidebyside;theother,rathersmaller,ismannedbyasingleoperator.Thutnoferseemstohavebeenasproudofhisunusualloomsasofhiswell-appointedhouse.

AnotherdetailedpictureofthenewuprightloomsoccursinthetombofNeferronpet(fig.11.3),whostyledhimself“ChiefoftheweaversintheRamesseumintheEstateofAmunonthewestofThebes.”ThisnoblemanservedRamesesIIoftheNineteenthDynasty(thirteenthcenturyB.C.).Inthepreservedpartofthepaintingweseefiveweaversworkingatfourlargelooms,aswellastwowarpersandtwospinners(?).TheloomsaremuchthesameintheirdesignasThutnofer ’s,twocenturiesearlier,butoneoftheweaversisnowawoman,whohastositwithbothkneestwistedtoonesidebecauseofhertightskirt.Allareguardedbyadoorkeeper—ahintthatwearelookingatslavelabor.Oneisremindedofthetradesatire(quotedinChapter8)describingthepoorweaversittingwithhiskneesunderhischin,whomustbribethedoorkeeper“tolethimseethelightofday.”

Thisparticulardoorman,however,busieshimselfatthemomentkeepingpeopleoutratherthanin,asheshakesastickandgesticulatesattwoimpishlittleboysrunningawayasfastastheycan.(Egyptiansrelishedanoccasionalhumorous“sliceoflife”amongtheformaldrawings,andguards—probablyhatedbyall—comeinformorethantheirshare.Inanothertomb,servantsbringinghomethenewwinepoundinvainonthedoorofthecellarbecausethedoormaninsidehasbeensamplingtoomuchandhasfallenasleepdrunk.)

Figure11.3.ANineteenthDynastyEgyptianweavingshopcontainingverticallooms.Themaleweaverssitonlowstoolswithonekneetoeachside,inordertogetclosetotheirwork,whilethefemaleweaversitswithbothkneestooneside.Totheirleft,womenmeasureoutwarpsonverticalstands;twoother(damaged)figuresareprobablymakingthread.Nexttothedooronthefarrightsitsanirateguardchasingawaytwoimpishlittleboys(above)fromthedoor.Theworkersareprobablyslaves.PaintingfromthetombofNeferronpetatThebes,thirteenthcenturyB.C.

ThethirdknowndepictionofanuprightloomoccurredinthetombofoneNeferhotep,fromthelatefourteenthcenturyB.C.Badlydamaged,thepaintingnonethelessshowsusonenoteworthyfeature:Theclothbeingwovenwaspartlycolored,unlikethetraditionalwhitelinen.Inshort,themenwereweavingnewpatternedfabricsonthenewverticalweavingframethatwetodaycallatapestryloom.ItisnoaccidentthattextileswithcoloreddesignsalsobegintoturnupinEgyptatthistime,mostlyexecutedinanewtechnique,weft-facedtapestry.1

Theearliestwell-datedclothswithcoloreddesignthatwehavefromEgyptcomefromthetombofThutmoseIV,theshort-reignedgrandsonoftheillustriousandenergeticThutmoseIII(seeTable11.1).Therearefourlinenfragments,belongingprobablytothreecloths.Thesimplesthasrowsofpinkandgreenrosettessetoffbyathinstripe,woveninatechniquethatcombinesrathertentativelyabasicideaoftapestryweavingwiththeantiqueEgyptianmethodofinlayingabitofthickerweft.(Theinlaymethodwasusedpreviouslyonlyforsuchthingsasfringesandweavers’marks,notforanorganizedall-overpattern.)

Thenextcloth,nowintwopieces,hasmulticoloredhieroglyphswovenintruetapestrytechniqueonawhitelinenground.Buttherearetwopeculiardetails.First,whoeverwovetheglyphswasaverycompetentweaverbuthadnotyetmadesomeverybasicdecisionsabouthowtoweavetapestryandsokeptvacillatingbetweenmethods,asthoughthiswereanentirelynewtechniquefullofunfamiliarproblems.ThesecondpeculiarityisthatthehieroglyphsonitspelloutthenameofThutmoseIII,notofhisgrandson,ThutmoseIV.Theglyphsonthethirdpiece,moreover,belongtoThutmoseIV’sfather,AmenhotepII,sonofThutmoseIII.Asamatteroffact,ThutmoseIV’stombwasremarkablyfullofheirlooms—fiveofthevaseshadbelongedtohisfatherandonetohisgrandfather—asthoughthebestthispharaohcoulddowasrestonthelaurelsofhispredecessors.ItseemsthattapestrytechniqueenteredEgyptatjustthesametimeasthenewvertical“tapestryloom.”Andnowonder!Canyouimaginesquattingforhoursoveragroundloomtodothedetailedworkofatapestrypattern?Sittinguprightwiththeworkatacomfortableandwell-litheightnearone’sfaceisinfinitelymorepractical.Thetwo-beamverticalloomistothisdaythetoolofchoicefortapestryweavers,althoughitcanalsobeusedforothertechniques.

BytheendofthelongandprosperousreignofAmenhotepIII,sonandsuccessorofThutmoseIV,boththenewloomsandthefancynewclothhadtrickleddownfromthepharaohstothenobility.Tapestry,however,isaparticularlycostlywayofdecoratingcloth,andweseesignsthatthenoblesofnotsogreatmeanswerehittinguponwaysoflookingaselegantastheirbetterswithoutquitetheexpense.“KeepingupwiththeJoneses”hasatleastaforty-five-hundred-yearhistory.

IntheunplunderedtomboftheroyalarchitectKha,Italianexcavatorsfoundseveralhandsomelypaintedlinenchestswithcolossalnumbersoflinensheetsandtunicsstowedforthenextworld.Amongthelinensweretwolargetapestry-wovenbedspreadsorcoverlets(fig.11.4).Broadbandsoflarge,simplebudsandleavesonstemsoccupythefouredges,whiletheplainwhitecenteristuftedunderneathtoinsulatethesleeper.Thedesignseemsinnocentenough,butweaverswillnoticethattheflowershavebeencleverlyorientedinadirectionthatmakesthemascheapandeasytoweaveaspossible—farlesscostlythanthepharaoh’stapestries.2

Figure11.4.OneoftwotapestryspreadsfromtheThebantomboftheEgyptiannoblemanKha(mid-EighteenthDynasty,ca.1450–1400B.C.).Theendsofthewarpthreadshavebeenbraidedintoanornamentalfringe.Notethatthetapestrydesignsrunasmuchaspossibleinlinesacrossthecloth—thatis,intheweftdirection—whichisbyfartheeasiestandcheapestwaytoweavetapestry.Theblankareainthemiddleisworkedwithlongwhiteloopsofthreadonthebackside,probablytoinsulatethesleeper.

Anotherprestige-seekingnobleoflessthanadequatemeansownedatapestryoftheNineBowsandCaptives(fig.11.5).Inthistraditionaldesignaseriesofboundcaptivesrepresentbytheirdressandskincolortheninepartsofthe“knownworld”andalternateinthecompositionwithastrungEgyptianbow,symboloftheir(wished-for)subjugation.Forthiscloth,theredandblackpartsofthedesignwerewoveninwithtapestrytechnique,buttheothercoloredparts(blue,green,andprobablyyellow)werepaintedonafterward—aninfinitelycheapermethod!Unfortunatelywedonotknowjustwhichtombthisfragmentcamefrom,sowecansaynomoreabouttheowner.3Butclearlytapestryclothwasbecomingimportanttoanobleman’ssocialstandingifpeoplewenttosuchlengthstoimitateit.

Figure11.5.FragmentoftapestryclothwoveninafavoriteandtraditionalEgyptiandesign,theNineBowsandCaptives.Eachcaptive(thelegsandtorsoofonecanbeseenhere)appearsintheregionaldressofoneofthenineareasthattheEgyptiansthoughtconstitutedtheworldoutsideEgypt.BetweencaptivesappearsanEgyptian-stylebow,symbolofEgypt’swished-fordominationofitsenemies.Allofonebowandpartofanotherhavesurvived,aswellassomeveryelaborateedgepatternstypicalofEgyptiantombpaintingsofthetime(mid-EighteenthDynasty,ca.1400B.C.).

Othersweregettingintothecoloredclothbusiness,too.AfterAmenhotepIIIcametheheretickingAmenhotepIV,whosoonrenamedhimselfAkhenaton(orIkhenaten—theexactpronunciationofthevowelsisuncertain).AmongtheruinsofhiscapitalcityatAmarna,whichhebuiltfromthegroundupandwhichwasabandonedafterhisdeath(seeChapter8),excavatorsfoundahandfulofcutendsfromawarp—thatis,thewastedpartleftontheloomaftertheclothhasbeenfinishedandcutfree.Theseendsareremarkablebecausetheyarenotlinenbutwool,almostcertainlyimported,anddyed:mostlyblue,withsomeredandgreenyarnsaswell.Therewouldbenoreasontofindweaver ’swastehereunlesssomebodyatAmarnahadactuallybeenweavingacoloredwoolencloth,anothernoveltytextileapparentlyfashionableatthattimeandonethatalmostcertainlyinvolvedforeigners.

ThefactthataEuropean-stylespindlewasfoundinawoman’sgraveelsewhereinEgyptduringthelateEighteenthDynasty(atGurobintheFaiyum,knownfromotherdatatobefullofforeigners—fig.8.3c)suggeststhatalienwomenlivinginEgyptmayhavefoundanadequatelivingmakingcolorfultextilesintheirnativestyles.Thespindlebyitsverydesignwasunsuitedtospinninglinenandmusthavebeenusedforimportedwool,theeasilydyedfiber.Thiswoman,infact,hadapredilectionforcolor,fortheothernoteworthyfindinhersimplegravewasapairofredslippers.

Akhenatonwasfollowedpresentlybytheshort-livedbutnowworld-famousTutankhamon.Enthronedattheageofeightornineanddeadbynineteen,thisyoungandinconsequentialpharaohwasbundledawayintoasmallandhastilybuilttombwithhisbasichouseholdandotherworldlyfurnitureandclothing,probablyamerefractionofwhatabigandimportantkingtookwithhim.ThetombsurvivedchieflybecauseanothernoblemansoonundertooktohollowoutahugetombslightlyhigheruptheslopeintheValleyoftheKingsandsototallyburiedtheboyking’sdoorwayinanavalancheofrockchipsthatitwasnotseenagainuntil1922.

FortwentyyearsarchaeologistshadbeenhuntingforthetombofTutankhamon.AlmosteveryotherNewKingdompharaoh’sburialsitewasknown.TwocachesofobjectsclearlytakenfromTutankhamon’stombhadturneduprightinthecenteroftheValleyoftheKingsatThebes.Near

those,in1908,someonediscoveredbehindaboulderabluefaiencecupwithTutankhamon’snameonit.Clearlyanancientrobberhadstasheditthereinhasteandnevergottenbacktofetchhisprize.Nowitlayasatantalizingsignpostwithoutanarrow.Thetombwascloseby.Inwhichdirectionshouldonelook?

HowardCarterandLordCarnarvontookupthesearchafterWorldWarI,buttheyduginvain,yearafteryear.Finallyin1922,LordCarnarvon,whofinancedtheexpeditions,wasabouttocallahalt,butCarterbeggedforabitmoretimeinwhichtodigonelastspot:underthepathhehadcourteouslyleftfortouristsvisitingthetombofRamesesVI.Onthefourthdayhisworkmenhitthetopofastaircasecutintothebedrock,andquicklytheyclearedenoughstepstoreachthetopofasealedtombdoor.Whose?Mindfulofhislong-sufferingsponsor,Carterrefilledthepassage,cabledLordCarnarvoninEnglandtocomeatonce,andsatdowntoguardthetombandwait.

Thethree-weekjourneymusthaveseemedlikeeternitybothtohimwhowaitedandtothetravellers,LordCarnarvonandhisdaughter(andassistant)LadyEvelynHerbert.Meanwhile,offersoftechnicalhelppouredinfromeverysideasnewsofthefindspread.Finallythetimecametoopenthetomb.Thefirstdooratthebottomofthestepsprovedtohavethelong-anticipatedsealofTutankhamon—butalso,atthetop,aresealingbytheofficialguardsoftheroyalnecropolis.This18th-Dynastytombhadindeedbeenrobbedbeforethe19th-Dynastyrockchipsburiedit,butnotrobbedagain.Howmuchremained?Laboriouslytheexcavatorsemptiedthelong,rubble-filledpassagetothesecondsealeddoor,andboredasmallholethroughthetopcornerofthebarriertotheroombeyond.Carterwrote:

“Iinsertedthecandleandpeeredin,LordCarnarvon,LadyEvelynandCallender[Carter ’schiefassistant]standinganxiouslybesidemetoheartheverdict.AtfirstIcouldseenothing...,butasmyeyesgrewaccustomedtothelight,detailsoftheroomemergedslowlyfromthemist,strangeanimals,statues,andgold—everywheretheglintofgold.Forthemoment—aneternityitmusthaveseemedtotheothersstandingby—Iwasstruckdumbwithamazement,andwhenLordCarnarvon,unabletostandthesuspenseanylonger,inquiredanxiously,“Canyouseeanything?”itwasallIcoulddotogetoutthewords,“Yes,wonderfulthings.”

Ancienttombrobbershadindeedgottenin,buttheymusthavebeensurprisedinmid-robberybythevalleyguards.Onethiefinhisflighthadstashedthebluecup;another,theotherobjectsthathadbeenfound.Therobbershadmadeaterrificmess,yankingopenboxesandpackagesasfastaspossibletofindthemostvaluablecontents.Theguardshastilytidiedupbeforetheyresealedthetomb,shovingthingsintocontainersthatdidn’tfitandpilingeverythinghodgepodgeintothecorners.ItwasthisdisorganizedbutgloriousheapofroyalbelongingsthatCarternowsaw.

Theancientrobbers’losswasourgain.Evensoinsignificantapharaoh’stombwasfullofanastonishingarrayofarticlesthatalmostneversurviveforustosee.Gold—thatuntarnishableprize—makesheadlinesanyday,andtheamountinTutankhamon’stombwasprodigious.Cartersoonlearnedthattherobbershadnotreachedtheinnerchamberwherethekinglayencasedingold.Yetthemostprecioustreasureinsomewayswasnotthegoldbuttheperishables:elegantwoodenfurniture—carvedbeds,tables,chests,stools,andchairs(onetherightsizeforachildking)—andsumptuousroyalclothing,includingtunics,tapestrygloves,andsandalspaintedwithboundcaptivessothekingcouldtreadonhisenemieswitheverystep.

TwoofTutankhamon’stunicsinterestusinparticular.Oneisdoneentirelyintapestryweave,whichtheking’sweaversbythistimehandledwithconsummateeaseandsophistication.Theother

tunicisapuzzle.First,ithassleeves—ararityinEighteenthDynastyEgypt.Fancybandsadornit—tapesthatwerewovenseparatelyandsewnoverthesideseamsandaroundtheneck.TheneckwasdesignedintheshapeofanEgyptianankhhieroglyph(theloopedcrossmeaning“longlife”thatmodernoccultistsstilluse),withTutankhamon’snameembroideredatthecrossingpoint.ThusthegarmentwascreatedspecificallyforTutankhamonbypeoplewhounderstoodEgyptianbeliefs.Aroundthebottom,however,thedesignerssewedonaseriesofpanelsembroideredwithtypicallySyrianmotifs.Notonlyarethedesignsforeign,buttrueembroideryisotherwisevirtuallyunknowninEgypt.Furthermore,thepanelsdon’tfitaroundthehemline;thereisasmallgaptowardthebackwherethingsdidn’tcomeoutquiteeven.Everythingpointstothepanels’havingbeenmadebyforeignersinatechniquepreferredbythem—namely,embroidery—andproducedseparatelyfromthetunic.TheensemblemayhavebeenmadeinSyriaandsenttotheyoungkingasaroyalgift(wehaveseenplentyofthatkindofactivityinSyria—seeChapter7).OritmayhavebeenputtogetherinEgyptbyforeignersintheserviceoftheroyalfamily.WeknowthatThutmoseIIIhadbroughtbackcaptivecraftworkersfromhiscampaignsinPalestineandsouthernSyria,womenandmenwhohadpresumablyhelpedintroducetheverticalloomandtapestryweavingintoEgypt.Butthathadbeenahundredandfiftyyearsearlier.

ThutmoseIV,however,hadbrokenEgyptiantraditionbymarryingaforeignprincess,fromthekingdomoftheMitanni(whichextendedoverpartsofeasternSyriaandnorthernMesopotamia),andhisson,AmenhotepIII,hadfollowedsuit.TothetotalamazementoftheEgyptians,thissecondMitanniladyarrivedwithanentourageof317handmaidens.Wehearnothingmoreofthem,butwecansurmisethattheyspenttheirdaysdoingsomething—mostlikelyfinetextilework.BackinSyriaandMesopotamia(aswesawinChapter7)aqueen’swomenweremostlytrainedtomakecloth,thefancierthebetter.Didthesurvivorsofthese318MitanniwomenstillliveandworkinTutankhamon’spalace?

Allinall,themakingofprestigiouspatternedtextilesinEgyptseemstohavebeendevelopedintheNewKingdombyroyalcaptives,wherethecaptivesintheearlystagesofthisrevolutionwereteachingtheEgyptians.Manyofthenew-styleEgyptianweaverswereclearlymen.Meanwhile,thenativeEgyptianwomencontinuedtoweavethehouseholdlinensmuchasbefore,aswelearnfromtheglimpseswehaveofachapnamedPaneb.

Panebwaswithoutdoubtarascalandanevil-temperedbully.Heworkedasastonecutterandheadedagangofworkmencarvingoutanddecoratingnoblemen’stombsatThebesattheendoftheNineteenthDynasty.Theseworkmenandtheirwives,children,andservantslivednearthetombsitesinavillage.Theretheyreceived,prepared,andatetheirgovernmentrationsofgrain,vegetables,andoccasionalmeat;theretheykepthouse,slept,occasionallypartied,andworkedouttheirlivesofhardlabor.

Someoftheinhabitantswereslavewomenassignedbythegovernmenttoseveralstonemasonsincommon.Agivenworkmanmight“own”afewdaysamonthofaparticularslavewoman’sworkatgrindinggrainandwhateverelsewasneeded.Mostoftheweaving,however,wasdonebytheworkmen’swives,aswegatherfromashortpapyrusintheBritishMuseumlistingthechargesbroughtagainstPanebbyaniratefellowworkman.Panebhadlongagousurpedthisunfortunateman’srightfulpositionasheadoftheworkgangbybribingahighofficialandthenhadgoneontootheroutrages.

Thechargesbeginwithanaccountoftheofficial’sbribery,followedbychargesofthieveryfromtheroyaltombs,sacrilegeinatemple,andperjurywhenconfrontedwithsame.Rapeandrobberyofawomancomenext,then“debauchment”ofatleastthreeotherwomen,harassmentoftheformerchief

workman,andbatteryofninemenwhocametoprotectthismanwhenPanebthreatenedtomurderhim.NextcomesachargeoffrequentpersonalconscriptionoflabortowhichPanebwasnotentitled,includingmakingtheotherworkmen’swivesweaveforhim:“ChargeconcerninghisorderingtotheworkmentoworkontheplaitedbedofthedeputyofthetempleofAmun,whiletheirwiveswoveclothesforhim.AndhemadeNebnufer,sonofWazmose,feederofhisoxfortwowholemonths.”Thenfollowallegationsofmoremurderthreats,thecursingoftombs,morebattery,throwingbricksattheworkmen,stealingtools,moreperjury,throwingstonesattheservantsofthevillage,andfinallymurderingsomepeoplewhowereontheirwaytotellthepharaoh.

Arascalindeed!IfyougotoEgypt,youcanvisitatDeirel-Medinahthevillagewherehelived—excavatedovermanyyearsbytheFrench—andseebothPaneb’shouseandtheplacewherehebrokedownthedoorofhisformeroverseer.Fortunatelyyouwon’thavetotanglewithPanebhimself.Histombisnearbyandisdecoratedinpart—ifwemaybelievethecharges,atleastsomeofwhichwecansubstantiatefromexcavatedevidence—withthingsstolenfromothertombs!

Fromsuchcircumstantialdetailsastheseweseethat,despitetheintroductionofanewloomandnewtypesofcloth,thewomenofordinaryfamiliessuchasthoseinPaneb’svillagecontinuedtoweavehouseholdlinensmuchasbefore.Andapparentlytheydidsoonthetraditionalgroundloom.Onereasonforthisclaimisthatthenewverticalloomrequiredlarge,heavybeamsfortheframe.Butwood,especiallybig,strongpieces,wasexceedinglyexpensiveinEgyptbecauseithadtobeimported.Itwasprobablybadenoughforalower-classfamilytoaffordthefewthinsticksandpegsneededforagroundloom;fourthickbeamswouldhavebeenoutofthequestion.Norhaveanyoftheexcavatorsyetpublishedgoodevidenceforuprightloomsintheworking-classhousesthathavebeenexcavated.

Plainwhitelinens(whichdidnotneedafancynewloomfortheirefficientmanufacture)alsocontinuedtobeamainstayofEgyptiancivilizationforanothertwomillennia.WomenwerethusnotdisenfranchisedoftheirmainproductandcontinuedtoenjoyequalstatuswithmenintheeyesofEgyptianlaw—bothforprotectionandforpunishment.

AnotherNineteenthDynastylawsuitofwhichwehaverecordconcernsawomannamedErenofre,accusedofusingsomegoodsthatbelongedtoanotherwomanaspartofthepricefortwoslaves.Theobjectsusedforpaymentincludedvariousbronzevessels,somebeatencopper,andalargequantityoflinen:ashroud,ablanket,fivegarmentsofsomesort,andtenshirts.Fromthiswelearnthatlinen,likemetal,wasstillamajorformofcurrency,thatwomencouldmaketheirowncommercialdeals,purchaseslavesforthemselves,and,ofcourse,sometimesbeascrookedasmen.Suchslavesperformedmostlyhousework,especiallytheconstantandlaborioustaskofgrindinggrainforthefamily.Butoccasionally,especiallyinlatertimes,theyweresettoworkenlargingafreewoman’stextileproduction.Forwomen’sstrongpositioninEgyptiansocietyeventuallyenabledthemtogointobusinessforthemselves.OneofthelastinterestingtextilerecordstocomeoutofancientEgypt,somefifteenhundredyearslater,A.D.298,concernsawomannamedApolloniawhoboughtalargeandcomplicatedsecondhandloomforthehighpriceofmorethanthreehundredtroyouncesofsilver.Theonlypossiblereasonforspendingsomuchmoneywasthatsheexpectedtorecouphercapitalbyproducingexpensivetextilesinherownweavingshop.

ArrivinginthelandofEuelthon,PheretimarequestedofhimanarmywhichshecouldleadagainstKyrene.ButEuelthongaveheranythingandeverythingotherthananarmy,whileshe,

acceptingeachpresent,saidthatthiswasnicebutgivingherthearmysheneededwouldbeevenbetter.Sincesherepliedthiswaytoeverygift,finallyEuelthonsentherasapresentagoldenspindleanddistaff,andsomewoolbesides.AndwhenPheretimaagainmadethesameremark,Euelthonansweredthathehonoredwomenwiththesekindsofpresents,notwitharmies.

—Herodotus,4.162

Athenianwomen,unlikeEgyptianones,losttheirsocialequalityduringthetransitionfromtheBronzeAgetotheIronAge.WelearnfromvarioustextsthatbythedawnoftheClassicalagethemarriedwomenofAthens,liketheirMesopotamiansisters,wereheldinharemlikeseclusionandscarcelyallowedoutofthehouseexceptformajorritualsandfestivals.Theirdutiesweretotakecareofthefoodandtheservants(ifany),tospinandweavethewoolneededforclothingandotherhouseholduses,tobearandcareforthechildren,andtoobeytheirhusbands.

Weseethisarrangement,forexample,intheunusuallyintimateglimpsesofAthenianmarriedlifethatwecatchinLysias’legalorationonthekillingofEratosthenes,amancaughtinbedwithanotherman’swifeandkilledonthespotbytheincensedhusband.Lysiaspresentstheunnamedhusband’ssideofthecaseasajustifiablehomicide.

Thewifealmostneverleftthehouse;amaidservantdidtheshopping.Troublebegan,thehusbandsays,whenhiswifewalkedintheprocessionforhismother ’sfuneralandtherovingrakeEratosthenessawherthere.Thislovercouldgetatthewifetowooher,however,onlybyfindingthemaidatthemarketandpersuadinghertocarrynotessecretlyintothehouse.EventuallythehusbandwastippedoffbytheservantofyetanothermistressofEratosthenes;shewasmiffedthathewasn’tcomingtoseeheranymore.Suddenlythehusbandrememberedthatonenight,whenhehadcomehomeunexpectedlyearlyfromthecountryside,hiswifehadhadfacepainton,althoughsheshouldhavehadnoreasonforit;infact,withherbrotherdeadnotthirtydaysbefore,sheshouldstillhavebeenproperlymourning.Andlaterinthenighthehadheardtheouterdoorshutting.Alerted,thehusbandthenforcedhisslavegirl,bythreatoftortureandalifesentenceofworkinginthegrainmills,totellhimthewholestoryandtolethimknowwhenEratosthenesnextpaidasecretvisit.Thevisitsweremadeeasierbythefactthatthehusbandhadallowedthewifetosleepdownstairsinsteadofupstairs(theusualsequesteredarrangementforwomen)oncetheirfirstchildwasborn,soshewouldbeclosertothewashingfacilitiesduringthenight.FourorfivedayslaterthemaidwokehimtosaythatEratostheneswaspayingacall.Thehusbandlostnotime.“InsilenceIslippedout,wenttothisandthatneighbor,...andfoundthosewhowerehome.Gatheringasmanyaspossible...andfetchingtorchesfromthenearesttavern,wereturnedhome,wheretheouterdoorhadbeenopenedandkeptreadybythemaid.Asweforcedthedoorofthebedroom,thosewhorushedinfirstsawhimstilllyingbesidethewoman,andthosewhogottherelastsawhimstandingnakedonthebed.”Theygrabbedandboundhishands.Eratosthenesadmittedhisguiltandbeggedtobeallowedtopaydamageswithmoneyinsteadofhislife.Theenragedhusbandreplied,“ItisnotIwhokillsyoubutthelawofthecity,”and,actingonhislegalrighttoslayonthespotanadulterercaughtintheact,cuthimdown.

Fromthisstorywelearnvariousdetailsaboutthelifeofa“free”womanofAthens—tonameafew:theheavyrestrictionsonhermovements,heruseofcosmetics,andsometypicalandatypicalarrangementsofherlivingquarters.Wealsoseesomethingofaslavegirl’slifeandtreatment.Notethatwhereasthehusbandkilledthelover,hegaveimmunitytotheslavegirlinreturnforherhelp(afterroughingherupabit),andwhateverhedidtopunishhiswifewasnotthoughtworth

mentioning—althoughifhedidn’tkillheroutright,hermarriagecanhardlyhavebeenapleasantoneafterthat.

AsimilarpictureofhowAthenianwomenlived,withmanymoredetailsaboutdomesticwork,emergesfromalongconversationthatXenophonrecordsbetweenawealthyandratherself-satisfiedAtheniangentlemannamedIsomachosandhisfourteen-year-oldbride,asreportedtoSocratesyearslater.ThedescriptionbeginswhenSocratesinquireswhetherIsomachostrainedhisyoungwifehimself.Ofcourse,saysthegentleman,forbeingagirlofgoodbreeding,shehadspentherfirstfourteenyearsseeing,hearing,andsaying“aslittleaspossible.”Itwasthereforenotastonishingthatsheknewnomorethan“howbytakingwooltoproducecloaks,andshehadseenhowwoolworkingwasallottedtothemaidservants.”(Cf.figs.11.6and11.7.)Herchiefvirtuewasthatshehadbeentaughtself-controlandmodesty.

Figure11.6.Youngwomanatherloom,accostedbysuitorswhoofferherjewelryfromafancybox.FromaGreekvasefoundinItaly,earlyfifthcenturyB.C.

Isomachos’lessonstohiswifebeganwithteachingherthatmarriagehasthreepurposes.Onlythefirstoftheseissharedbytheanimals:tohaveoffspring.Thesechildrenthenfunctionasaninsurancepolicy,supportingtheparentsintheiroldage.Marriagealsohelpsmaintainashelterforboththefamilyanditsacquisitions.(NotehowsimilarthesegoalsaretotheNeolithicethicdescribedinChapter3.)Itisthewoman’sjob,heexplains,tokeeptheshelteringoodorder,sincesheistheweakerandmoretimidandneedstonursetheinfants.Theman,forhispart,goesouttoacquirethethingswithwhichtofillthestorerooms,sinceheisstrongerandmorecourageous—andlesstolerantofchildren.InallthisIsomachoslikensthewife’sjobtothatofaqueenbee.

“Andwhatsortsofjobs,”saidshe,“doesthequeenofthebeeshavethatarelikethosewhichI’msupposedtodo?”“Inthis,”Isaid:“shestaysinthehiveanddoesn’tletthebeesbeidle,buttheoneswhohave

toworkoutsideshesendsouttotheirduties,andwhateachofthembringsinshereceivesandsavesupuntilitisneededforuse.Andwhenthetimecomesforittobeused,shemeasuresouttoeachbeetheproperamount.Andshehasauthorityoverweavingthehoneycombinside,sothatitgetswovenwellandquickly,andshetakescareoftheoffspringborn,andnourishesthem.Andwhenthey’vebeenraised,andtheyounghavegrownreadytowork,shesendsthemout....”

Herwifelyduties,heexplains,areparalleltothese:

Youwillhavetoremaininsideandtosendoutthoseoftheservantswhoseworkisoutside;andyouwillneedtooverseethosewhohavetoworkinsideandtoreceivewhatisbroughtin;andwhatmustbedoledoutfromthem,thisyoumustdistribute,andwhatmustbestoredaway,thismustbecaredforandguarded,sothatwhatistolastayearisnotspentinamonth.Andwhenyouarebroughtwool,youmustdealwithitsothattherearecloaksforthosewhoneedthem.Andyoumustseetoitthatthedrygrainisproperlyedible.

(ThispicturetallieswellwiththatfromLysias’speech;butchildrenarenotdiscussed,asIsomachostellsSocrates,becausethegirlwasstilltooyoungforthem.)Hethenadmonisheshertotakecareoftheservantswhentheyfallsickandtoteachthemskills:“Otherduties,pleasantones,willfalltoyoualso,Wife,aswhen,takingaservantgirlignorantofwool-working,youmakeherknowledgeableandshedoublesinworthtoyou....”Basicallythewifeistostayathomeandwork.

Withwomenthussequestered,thedevelopmentofcommercialtextilesunderstandablywastakenupchieflybymen.Whereasthewomenintheirhomesdideverystepfrompreparingtherawwooltoweavingandsewingthecloth,thementypicallybroketheworkupbyspecialties.Thustherewerewoolcombers,flaxpreparers,spinners,weavers,tailors,andtwokindsofexpertswhoseservicesthehousewivesalsosometimesemployed—dyersandfullers—bothofwhoseworktendedtobeverysmellyandhenceunsuitableforanurbanhome.(Manydyeshadtobefermented,whileotherdyesandcertaincleaningprocessesrequireduricacidandammonia,obtainedinthosedaysfromstaleurine.InancientPompeiifullersanddyersevenseturnsoutontheirfrontsidewalkwithasignrequestingpassersbytocontributethenandtheretothesupply!)Someofthemenseemtohavebeeninbusinessalone,whereasothersemployedslavestohelpthem—inafewcasesevensizablenumbersofslaves(perhapsforty),aportionofwhommayhavebeenwomen.Theproducts,generallyclothingandblankets,werethensoldforcash.Whoboughtthemisnotclear,butapparentlymorepeoplethanjustafewbachelorswithnowomentoweaveforthem.

Atleasttwoclassesofwomen,however,sometimesdiddotextileworkforcash:thosewhowerenotproperlymarriedornotproperlyAthenian.Wehavearecordofatleastoneforeignwoman,namedAndria,whomadewoolclothtosupportherselfforawhile.Inthelistsoffreedslavesthathavecomedowntous,77womenarelisted(alongwith115men),andofthe57womenwhoseoccupationsaregiven,44wereinvolvedintextilework.Thescholarwhoanalyzedtheselists,A.W.Gomme,remarksthat“wheretheoccupationisgiven,itshouldbedescriptiveofthetradeproposedtobetaken,notjustofpastactivity.”Mostlikelytheyhadlearnedthenecessaryskillsasdomesticservantsandwouldnowusethemtostayalive.Theother13ex-slavewomenincludedmostlyshopkeepers,plus2cobblersandamusician.Gommeestimatesthat“inthemostprosperoustimesofthefifthcentury”theremayhavebeen“35–40,000femaleslavesindomesticservice”inAthens.

Inadditionwegatherthattheprostitutes,orhetairai(literally“companions”)astheywerecalled,supplementedtheirincomeintheirsparetimebymakingsmalltextilessuchasthestretchyheadbandswithwhichAthenianladiestieduptheircurls.Widows,too,weresometimesforcedtosupportthemselveswithtextilework.Homerportraysapitifulwomanofthissortinasimileforevenhandedness:

Thusanhonestwoman,ahandspinner,holdsuptheweightsandthewooloneithersideofherbalancekeepingthemeven,soastoearnamiserablewageforherchildren.

Theideathat“free”womenofgoodfamiliesshouldworkcommercially,ontheotherhand,wasviewedasverystrange,asweseefromalittletalerelatedbyXenophonaboutSocrates’customaryhelpfulnessandconcern.

OnedaySocratesseesthathisfriendAristarchosislookingverygloomyandaskshimifhecanhelp.Aristarchosexplainsthatduringarecentpoliticalupheavalinthecity,manyhadfledtothePiraeus(theportofAthens,thenasnow),andacrowdofstrandedfemalerelativeshadcometolivewithhimforprotection,“sothatnowtherearefourteenfreebornsinthehouse.”Hehasnoidea,hesays,howhecanfeedthemall,muchashewouldliketo.

Socratesbeginstoquestion,askinghowitisthatawell-knownmannamedKeramonmanagestofeedthatmanyandgetrichbesides.

“Whyofcourse,”saidhe,“becauseheistakingcareofslavesandIoffreepeople.”“Andwhichdoyouthinkarebetter—thefreepeopleatyourhouseortheslavesathis?”“Imyselfthink,”hereplied,“thefreepeopleatmyhouse.”“Thenisn’titdisgracefulthathe,becauseofhispeople,shouldbedoingsowell,whileyou,

havingmuchbetterones,shouldbeindirestraits?”“Ofcourse!Butheistakingcareofcraftspeople,whereasIamcaringforpeoplewitha

liberaleducation.”“Soaren’tcraftspeoplethosewhoknowhowtomakesomethinguseful?”“Absolutely.”“Andisn’tbarley-mealuseful?”“Very.”“Whataboutbread-loaves?”“Noless.”“Whataboutcloaksformenandwomen,andshirtsandmantlesandhalf-tunics?”“Very,”hereplied;“allthesethingsareuseful.”“Then,”said[Socrates],“don’tthepeopleatyourhouseknowhowtomakeanyofthese?”“Indeed,allofthese,Iwouldthink.”

Socratesthenenumeratesatlengthallsortsofpeoplewhomakegoodlivingsmanufacturingoneoranotherofthesecommodities,towhichAristarchosimpatientlyrepliesthattheycandothisbecausetheyhaveboughtforeignslavesandcanforcethemtowork,whereashe,poorman,issaddledwithfreepeople,andrelativesatthat.(Onecanguessthatpartofhisresistancestemsfromtheknowledgethattheonlywomenheknowswhoworkforcommerceareslaves,ex-slaves,andwhores.)

Socratesexpoundsatlengthabouttherelativebenefitstothehumanpsycheofidlenessversususefulemployment,thensuggeststhatifthegentlemanweretoorderthegentlewomentogettoworkandsupportthemselveswithintheprotectionofhishouse,theywouldsooncometolovehimaswellbecausetheywouldnolongerfeelaburdentohim.

Sufficientlyconvinced,Aristarchosvowstoborrowenoughmoneytogetstarted,sayingthathewasunwillingtoborrowmoneybefore,becausehewouldhavenowaytorepayit.Thenarratorcontinues:“Asaresult,resourceswerefound,andwoolwasbought.Thewomenatetheirnoonmealwhiletheyworked,andquitworkingonlyatsuppertime;andtheywerecheerfulinsteadofgloomy.”PresentlyAristarchosreturnstotellSocrateshowsplendidlyeverythingisworkingout.But,headds,theladiesaredispleasedatonething—namely,thathehimselfisstillidle.ThestoryendswithSocratessuggestingthatAristarchostellthemthatheisliketheapparentlyidlesheepdog,whogetsbettertreatmentthanthesheepbecausehisprotectioniswhatallowsthemalltoprosper.

Wedonothearhowthatfablewentoverwiththewomen,butweknowhowitwouldbereceivedtoday.

ElsewhereintheClassicalGreekworld(seemap,fig.9.2),thesituationwasoftenratherdifferentfromthatinAthens.Spartanwomenwerenothiddenawaybutparticipatedinciviclifemuchmorefullyrightfromchildhood,forasyoungsterstheyweregivenstrenuousphysicaltrainingalongsidetheboys.Thistraining,accordingtoPlutarch,“instilledinthemthehabitofasimplelife”thateventodaywecall“Spartanliving.”Theycultivatedsimpleanddirectspeech,too,atraitwestillname“laconic”afterLakonia,thesouthernGreekprovincethatSpartaruled.ButSpartanwomendidnotspinorweave.Theplainhomespunsfortheirclothingweremadebytheserfsorboughtinthemarketplacesincetheeliteweresupposedtooccupytheirtimeentirelywithservingthestate.

“Respectable”ladiesinIonia,bycontrast,pridedthemselvesonweavingornatefabrics,andevendidsoforprofit,aswededucefromthefollowinganecdotetoldbyPlutarchinhisMoralia:“WhenanIonianwomanwasshowinggreatprideinoneofherownweavings(whichwasverycostly),aLakonianwoman,pointingoutherfoursons(whowereverywellbred),said,‘Suchshouldbetheproductsofthefairandvirtuouswoman,andovertheseshouldbeherelationandherboasts.’”TheIonianwomen’straditionofmakingelaboratetextileswasoneofmanycustomscomingdownfromtheBronzeAgethatwerepreservedinIoniabutlostelsewhereintheAegeanarea.Anotherwastherelativefreedomofthesewomentocomeandgofromthehouse,ifthepoemsoftheirrepressibleSapphoandtheotherislandwritersareafairsample.Inonesurvivingfragment(No.114),forexample,SapphocomplainsthatshecannotweavebecauseAphrodite,thelovegoddess,hasthoroughlysmittenherwithdesireforacertainyoungpersonshehasmet.Furthermore,thenamesofseveraldifferentobjectsofherpassionoccurinherpoems.TheyoungwomenofLysias’andXenophon’saccountsseldomhadtheoccasiontomeetandfallinlovewithevenoneperson,letaloneseveral.

TheAthenians,fortheirpart,viewedboththeseGreeksubcultures—theSpartanandtheIonian—asstrange.Athenianwomenknewhowtodoelaborateweavingbutdiditchieflyintheserviceoftheirpatrongoddess,Athena.EachyeartheentirecityanditsoutlyingdistrictscelebratedAthena’sbirthdaywithhugesacrifices,processions,andgames,atafestivalcalledthePanathenaia.Themeatfromthesacrificedanimalswasdistributedtothepopulace,soitwasafestivetimeindeed.Aspartofthesecelebrations,thewomenwoveandpresentedtothegoddessanewdressforherstatue.Thedresswasintheformofapeplos,aratherheavyrectangleofwovenwoolthatwaswrappedoncearoundthebody,pinnedattheshoulders,andbeltedinthemiddle.Weseefromrepresentationsthatthedrapehungfairlystraight,soitwasprobablyaboutfourfeetbysix.ThepeploswasnolongerfashionableamongmortalAthenianladiesbythefifthcentury.Ithadbeenoutlawedabitearlier(sothestorygoes)afteragroupofirateAthenianwomenusedtheirlong,straightdress-pinstostabtodeathamessengerbearingbadnewsofabattleinwhichthewomen’smenfolkhadbeenkilled.Butitwasthetraditionaldressofthegoddess,andsoitremained.

PeoplemadespecialtripstoAthenstoseethenewestpeplos,sosplendidwasit.Itslavishornamentationdepictedthebattleofthegodsandthegiants,ahorrificcontest(describedatlengthbythepoetHesiodinhisTheogony)inwhichAthenaandherfather,Zeus,kingofthegods,weresaidtohaveledthegodstovictory.ThegarmentcelebratedAthena’spowersandgaveyearlythankstothegoddessforsavinghercity.

Suchanornatecloth,anespeciallyappropriategiftforthegoddessofweaving,tookgreattimeandskilltoproduce,butofcourse,nothingwastoogoodforthegreatpatroness.Thefreeborn

womenofAthensvieweditasaprivilegetohelpspinthecoloredyarns.Saffronyellow,longassociatedwithwomen’sritualsintheAegean(fig.4.7),andseapurpleprovidedthedominanthuesforgroundandfigure.Afullninemonthsbeforethefestival,theloomwassetup,thewarpmadeandhunguponit,andtheweavingbegun.Toweaveanelaboratetapestrylikeclothofsometwenty-foursquarefeetcoveredwithfriezesofmythologicalfigureswouldtakethatlong.Priestessesknownasergastinai,meaning“workers,”didtheactualweaving,aidedbytwohalf-growngirlscalledarrephoroi,whoseemtohavebeenchosenfromamongthearistocraticAthenianfamiliestoliveontheAcropolisandservethegoddessforayear.WhenthesacreddresswasfinallypresentedtoAthenaandthesacredPanathenaicprocessionwounditswaythroughthecitystreets,Athenianwomenobtainedoneoftheirrareexcusestoleavethehouse.

TheancientEuropeanweavingtechnology,colorassociations,andmythologyofthepeplosallconnecttherobewiththeBronzeAge,asdotheofficesofthethepriestesseswhoproducedit.AthenianwomenthuspreservedasalargelyreligioustraditionwhatthefreerIonianwomentotheeastpursuedformoresecular(andprofitable)ends.Butthelossoffancytextilesasamajorsourceofseculareconomicwealthundoubtedlywenthandinhandwiththedeclineofwomen’sstatusinAtheniansociety.Withnoindependentwayofgeneratingwealth,theylosttheirpoliticalcloutand,likeAristarchos’femalerelatives,couldatbestenvythefreedomofthewatchdogwhiletheytoiledatendlesshouseholdwork,lockedupathome(fig.11.7).

Figure11.7.Younggirlbitingknotsoutofthewoolinherthreadasshespins.FromthecenterofanearlyfifthcenturyB.C.Greekcup,showinggirlsandtheirsuitors.

Ourtwenty-thousand-yearodysseyhasshownuswomenworkingunderawidevarietyofconditions.Theirsocialstatusandeconomicproductionhavevariedtogether,reachinglowestebbwhenpeoplevaluedleastthecontributionsthatwomencouldmakewhilerearingchildren.

Whenwepickedupthestoryofwomen’sworkbackinthePalaeolithic,wesawthatwomencouldconvenientlycombinecertaincraftswiththenecessitiesofchildraising.Thefiberarts—spinning,sewing,netting,basketry,andeventuallyweaving—suitedthepurposeparticularlywellbecausethesetasksposednodangersorhardshipstotoddlers.Clothing,too,wasalreadybecomingthehumanrace’snextlanguageafterspeech—uniqueinitsabilitytoconveyimportant(ifsimple)informationcontinuouslyandrelativelypermanently.

Thentheworldchanged.Withtheadventofsettledlifeandfoodproduction,peoplebegantoacquireobjectsinquantity.Clothandclothingbecameincreasinglyintegratedintosocialcustoms,andthemakingofclothshiftedfromamerelyusefularttoanessentialofculturallife.Withtheshiftcameamountingdemandonwomen’stimeandlabortoprovidethiscommodity.

Ascommercegraduallyroseinimportance,womenwereabletokeepupforawhileinsupplyingclothtotheirincreasinglydemandingsocieties,underavarietyofeconomicsystems—somemorefavorabletowomen’sfreedomandeconomicstandingthanothers.(Noneofthissaysanythingaboutwomen’shappiness,ofcourse.Someindividualsfeellostwhennoonetellsthemwhattodoandblossomwhenintegratedintoatightlytiedpositioninsociety.Othersaretheopposite.Furthermore,womenasawholehaveseldomcomplainedsoloudlyastoday,whenwehavemorefreedomthaneverbefore—justastheloudestcomplainersineighteenth-centuryEurope,theorganizersoftheFrenchRevolution,weretherichestpeasantsaround.Happinessisadifferentandverypersonalissue.)

BythestartoftheLateBronzeAge(mid-secondmillenniumB.C.),however,thefloodofnewtechnologicalchangesrelatedtoprestigedemandsbegantooverwhelmthetraditionaltextileworkersincertainsocieties.Womenlosteconomicground,sometimesenormousground,tothosewhocouldaffordtospecializeinthenewanddifferent—tothosemenwithsomefreetimetoexperiment.Motherswerestilltoobusywithuncontrolledpregnancyandchildrentoplayaroundwithnovelideas.Onlytotheextentthatthewomen’sclothrecordedreligiousorhistoricalinformation,aswiththesacreddresswovenforAthena,didthewomenthenreapprestigefortheirwork.

Andsomattersremained,withinthevicissitudesofsocialstructureandcustoms,untilthemedicallyresearchedbirthcontrolmethodsofthelastfewdecades.Nowweseeastrongmovementinmedicallyrichsocietiestoreopenwidevarietiesofwork,knowledge,andlegalrightstowomen.Wherewomen’sworkwillgofromhere,thefuturewilltell.

1Intapestrytheweftcompletelyhidesthewarp,andeachcolorofweftisusedonlywherethatcolorisneededforthedesign.Asaresult,asingleweftthreadusuallygoesbackandforthacrossacompactarearatherthanacrosstheentirewidthofthecloth.Structuralproblemsfrequentlyarisebecauseofthis,inmakingtheclothhangtogether—seeNote2,below.2Linesparalleltothewarparedifficulttonegotiateintapestryandcausetheweaveramultitudeofstructuralproblems,whereasthoseintheotherdirection—paralleltotheweft—arequickandeasy.Kha’sstemsandpetalsareallcarefullyarrangedtolieinthe“easy”direction.3Enormousamountsofinformation,thepresenceofwhichislittlesuspectedbythecasualobserver,canbededucedfromthecontextinwhichanobjectisfound—evensosimpleacontextaswhichtombitwasin.Thisprinciplehasbeenillustratedmanytimesinthisbookandisthereasonwhythescholarlycommunityissosetagainstnonscientificdiggingoftombs(andagainstinadequatepublicationbythose

whopassasscholars).Itisnot,asdealersinantiquitieskeeptellingthepublic,becausescholarsare“selfish”andwantitalltothemselvesbutbecausetherichesofinformationaboutourhumanpast,whichshouldbethelegacyofeveryone,arehopelesslydestroyedtofeedthemonetarygreed—andneedforprestigethroughnovelty—ofafew.

12

Postscript:FindingtheInvisible

Atoughwedgemustbesoughtforatoughlog.—PubliliusSyrus,Sententiae

Pastscholarshavegenerallydismissedthehistoryofeasilyperishablecommoditieslikeclothasunreconstructable,onthegroundthattherewasnoevidence.Bytrackingdownagreatdealofevidencefromunusualsources,however,wehavereconstructedmuchaboutancienttextilesandthepeopleandsocietiesthatmadethem.

Women’sworkconsistedlargelyofmakingperishables—especiallyfoodandclothing.Soifwearetoretrievesignificantamountsofwomen’shistory,orofthehistoryofanyevanescentoccupationinparticular(andIamthinkingofsuchthingsasmusicanddanceaswellasfoodandclothing),weneedbetterevidencethanjustthatwhichfallsintoourlaps.Weneedtheskilltogleanallsurvivingevidenceandtowringoutofiteverylastdropofinformationandusefulanalysis.Ahypothesis,afterall,isnobetterthantheevidencethatsupportsit,andhypotheseswithoutevidencearemerewishfulthinking.Atallorder?Perhaps,butalsoadelightfulchallengetothosewho,likeAgathaChristie’simmortalPoirot,enjoy“exercisingthelittlegreycells”inthechase.

Letusstartbyasking:Whatarethegeneraldirectionsfromwhichtheevidenceforsuchancientobjectsandactivitiesmightcome?Theconventionalsourcesarearchaeologyandsurvivingtexts.Buttheproblemwitharchaeologicalremainsisthatwhatwewanttostudyinourcasemaynotsurvivedirectlyorinarecognizableform.Clothitself,forexample,seldommakesitthroughthemillenniaexceptintiny,hardlyrecognizableshreds.Untilrecentlyexcavatorstendedtothroweventhoseaway,assumingtheywereofnovalue.Loomweights,onthecontrary,survivedingreatquantitiesbutwerealsoassumedtoholdlittleinformation,sotheirfatewasjustasbad.Itdidn’toccurtoeitherdiggersorscholarshowmuchtheseunprepossessingblobsofclaycouldrevealaboutthedevelopmentoftheloomsneededtoweavetheclothandabouttheusersofthelooms.

Theproblemwithtexts,moreover,istwofold.Theymaynotdiscusswhatwewishtolearn—forexample,fewancienttextstalkaboutwomen’slives,partlybecauseveryfewwomenwroteordictatedtexts—andevenwhentheydotouchthesubjectwewant,theymaynottelluswhatweneedtoknow.Thustheeconomictextsthatdiscussclothingusesomanyunknowntechnicaltermsthatwelearnnexttonothingaboutclothingfromthem.Thescribesknewwhattheymeant.Whyshouldtheythinkofexplainingthedetailstous,threeorfourmillennialaterandhalfaworldaway?

Archaeology,however,hasgonethroughrevolutionsinthelastcentury.Foralongwhileitwaslittlemorethanabranchofarthistory,itstaskbeingtofillupartmuseumsandprivatecollectionswithhandsomecuriosities.(ThosewhoseacquaintancewitharchaeologycomesonlyfromfilmslikeRaidersoftheLostArkmaythinkitisstillthatway;thefilmmaybegreatentertainment,butitisterriblearchaeology.)Aroundtheturnofthecentury,however,archaeologybegantopullitselfuptothelevelofaninvestigativescience,throughtheeffortsofafewindividualswhowantedtolearnhow

ancientpeoplelived.ScholarssuchasthegreatEgyptologistSirW.M.F.Petriewererealizingthatinremovinganantiquityfromitscontextthefinder(whether“scientist”or“treasurehunter”)destroyedforeveranysocialinformationrecoverablefromthefindgroup.Thetakerthereforehadadutytohumanitytorecordeverythingaboutthatcontext,nomatterhowsmall.

ThisnewviewleapttointernationalfamethroughthenotoriousactofaFrenchspecialistintheCopticperiod(theearlycenturiesA.D.),namedÉmileAmélineau.From1894to1898heobtainedpermissiontoexcavatetheincomparabletombsoftheearliestEgyptianpharaohsatAbydos,whoflourishedaround3000B.C.Afterransackingthemoftheircontents,keepinglittlerecordofwhatwasfoundwhere,AmélineaudeliberatelyburnedorsmashedtobitsanyandeveryobjectthathechosenottotakebacktoFrance,soastomakethosehetookmorevaluable,becauseunique.Theburninglastedfordays.AhorrifiedPetrierushedinassoonasAmélineauhadleft,toglean“arichharvestofhistory...fromthesitewhichwassaidtobeexhausted,”bycarefullysiftingthroughtherubbleandputtingbacktogetherwhathecouldofthefivehundredyearsofpivotalhumanhistorythatthetreasurehuntershadwantonlyshattered.(Thiswas,afterall,thedawnofhumanwritingandcivilization.)Ifitdidnothingelse,l’affaireAmélineau(asitcametobecalled)finallygotpeople’sattention,andamoreresponsiblearchaeologybegantodevelop,characterizedbythesortofexhaustiverecordingthatPetriespecializedin.

Suchchangesinbasicapproachtooktime,however,andPetrieendedupputtingintohisowncollection(nowinthePetrieMuseumatUniversityCollegeLondon)manytypesofartifactsthatnooneelseconsideredofvalueyet.Thusitwasthatinthe1970stwowomen,anEgyptologistandatextileconservationist,foundtreasurein“atumbledheapofdirtylinens”amongthemassesoflabeleditemsstoredinthePetriecollection:theearliestcompletegarmentthathascomedowntous(seefig.5.3).Itisafineoff-whitelinenshirtoftheFirstDynasty.Itsseams,fringes,andelaboratepleatingareintactandstillshowthecreasesattheelbowsthatremainedwhenitsownerlaststrippeditoffoverhishead,fivethousandyearsago.Petriehadseenthevalueinthislinenshirtandtrustedthateventuallytextilehistorywouldcomeintoitsown.

Evenatitsblindest,whendiggersofthemid-twentiethcenturyweredutifullyrecordingfactsofnoknownusejustbecausetheywerethere,thenewmethodoftryinghardtopreserveallobjectsandinformationfoundhasproveditsworthmagnificently.In1961EmmettBennettwasabletoreconstructthefilingsystemoftheMycenaeanscribes,henceagreatdealabouttheireconomicpracticesandeventhegeographyofthekingdom,becausetheexcavatorsofthePylosarchivesdecadesbeforehadmeticulouslyrecordedtheexactthree-dimensionalfindspotofeveryas-yet-undecipheredtabletscatteredthroughthefill.1WereliedonsomeofthisinformationinreconstructingtheMycenaeantextileindustryinChapter9.

Butasecondrevolutionwascoming,too,onethatradicallyincreasedtheamountofinformationrecoverablefromwhatwasdugup.AfterWorldWarIIawiderangeofmilitarytechnologyandscientificknowledgethathadaccruedduringthegreatstrugglegraduallybecameavailableforotheruses,includingtheinterpretationofarchaeologicaldata.Radiocarbondating,infraredphotographyforseeingthroughunremovabledirt,isotope“fingerprinting”fortracingsourcesofrawmaterialslikestoneandore,thin-layerchromatographyforanalyzingdyes,andahundredothermethodswereandstillarebeingworkedout.Thuswehaveappealedoverandoverinthisbooktoarchaeologicalinformationthathasbeenfurtherinterpretedthroughthenaturalsciences,fromchemicalanalysisoftheLascauxstringfragmentstopalaeobiologicalreconstructionoftheerawhensheepbecamewoolly.Amongtheinnovationshavebeenanumberofimprovedmeansforfindingsitesandartifacts.Thusmagnetometersandotherdevicesforfindingmetals,stonewalls,andotheranomalies

havehelpedwitharchaeologicalprospecting,whilenewtechniquesofflotationandsievinghaveallowedexcavatorstofindthetinyseeds,leaves,bonefragments,andsoforththattellusworldsaboutancientenvironments.Welearnwhatancientclimateswerelike,thatancientgrainsupplieswereplaguedbymiceandweeds,andthathemp,afavoritefiberplant,wasinuseinEuropeinthefifthmillenniumB.C.,fourthousandyearsbeforethenarcoticsubvariety(marijuana)wasbroughtinfromsouthernAsia.Improvedmethodsofmicroscopicanalysis,specialphotography,spectrometry,andothernondestructivetechniqueshaveaddedtoourknowledge.Forexample,carefulmicroscopicprobingofanIronAgewoolenvestfoundinthesaltminesatHallstatt,Austria,showedthattheancientownerhadbeenpesteredbylice;thegarment’sseamswerefullofliceeggs.Textilesandotherreadilyperishableobjectsare,asaresultofallthis,mucheasiertostudynowthantheyweretwentyyearsago,rightwithinthedisciplineofarchaeologyanditsscientifichelpers.

Butweneedallthehelpwecanget.Whatelseisoutthere?Inthisbookwehaveoftenappealedtolanguageitselfvialinguisticscience,inadditiontolooking

atsuchtextsashavecomeourway.Forexample,wehaveusedsuchrevealingetymologiesastunic,shirt,andtorettothrowlightonthehistoryofclothingandtheprocessesofpreparingfibers.(WeevenaddedthattheEnglishwordrobecomesfromrobbecauseclothingwasoneofthemostfrequentformsofplunderintheMiddleAges,asinmanyanothertimeandplace.)ThediscussioninChapter9ofthestagesofMycenaeantextilemanufacture,too,wasbasedonacarefullinguisticanalysisofthenamesoffemaleprofessionsintheLinearBtablets,workedoutindetailelsewhere.WealsocombinedarchaeologicalwithlinguisticargumentstointerpretthelayeringofvocabularyfoundinGreek,inwhichonlythemostprimitiveaspectsofweavingshowIndo-Europeannames,theresthavingbeenborrowedlater.Sincethetechnologyforwhichtheyborrowedtheseterms—weavingonthegreatwarp-weightedloom—isknownfromtheloomweightstohavedevelopedincentralandsouthernEuropeintheNeolithic,theprehistoricGreeksmusthavelearnedthecraftfairlylate,astheyweremovingintoGreecefromfarthereast.

Anothertoolwehaveusedinaparticularlynovelwayisthecomparativemethodofreconstruction.Thismethodwasgraduallyworkedoutinthenineteenthcenturybylinguistsinterestedindeterminingthehistoricalrelationshipsbetweenlanguages.Theybegantorealizethatmanylanguageswerechangedlaterformsofacommonancestorlanguage(likeFrench,Spanish,andItalian,allofwhicharesimplylaterformsofLatin,eachhavingchangedgraduallyinitsownwayduringmanycenturies)andthattheparentcouldbereconstructedtoafairextentbymeticulouscomparisonofthestructures—especiallythesoundstructures—ofthedaughterlanguages.Themethodworksbestwhenthestructuresusedarebotharbitraryculturalconventions(aslanguageis)andsohabitualthatpeopledon’tthinkaboutthemmuch.Whenwetalk,weareworryingprincipallyaboutframingoursentenceswellenoughtogetourmessagethroughtotheotherperson,notwhetherourtongueishittingthisorthatlittlespotinthemouth.Whatgymnasticsthetonguehastogothroughtoproducetheneededwordsisitsproblem,asitwere;thetongueisonautomatic.Thesoundsoflanguagearethusexcellentfodderforthecomparativemethod.Butwehavethesamesortofdichotomyintheculturalconventionsofclothing.Ontheconsciouslevelweworryaboutfashionandmomentarysocialmessages,butwetakeforgrantedandscarcely,ifever,thinkaboutthebasicnotionsofwhatconstitutesdresswithinourculture,including(dependingontheculture)whatisappropriateforcertainsocialclasses,sexes,etc.These“automatic”aspectsofclothingyieldtocomparativereconstructionbackintoprehistory.Veryconservativeformsofdecoration(seeChapter6)turnouttobepartlyreconstructableinthiswayalso,andancientmusicanddancemay,too.Oneofthecheckswehaveonsuchworkcomesincollectingthemostarchaicvocabularyconnectedwith

thesefieldsandcomparingitsreconstructiontothereconstructionsofthecostumes,decoration,dances,etc.2

Othersourcesofevidenceincludemythology—adifficultfieldnotwidelyunderstoodasapotentialhelpmateforarchaeologicalproblemssince,havingbeenroundlyabusedbysome,ithasbeenrejectedbymost.3Thenthereisethnology.Itsparticularvirtueistosuggestpossiblesolutionstoarchaeologicalproblemsbyshowingparallelbehaviorinotherhumancultures.Thatis,ethnographicstudiescanhelpdeterminetherangeofpossibilityandlikelihoodforwhatpeopledid,especiallyiftheresearcherswilltakethetimeandcouragetogetafirsthandknowledgeofwhatevertheyaretryingtostudy.Besides,itcouldevenbefun!

Foracenturyormore,potteryhasbeenthemainstayofarchaeologicalchronologies.Itiscentraltothefield.Butfewarchaeologistshaveevermadeapot—everkneadedtheclay(letalonefounditanddugitout),builtupthevessel,driedit,decoratedit,firedit...andwatcheditcomeoutofthekilninshatteredpiecesthefirsttimebecauseasnovicestheyhadn’tgottenalltheairoutoftheclayduringthekneading.Onelearnsjustwhattheancientsfacedbytryingtodowhattheydid,andovernightone’stheoriesbecomeagreatdealmorerealistic.Thesame,ofcourse,istrueofspinning,weaving,cooking,woodworking,andanyothercraft.

AvigailSheffertellsofworryingwhetherthesoft,crumbly,doughnut-shapedweightsshewasdiggingupbythedozensatIronAgesitesinIsraelcouldreallyfunctionasloomweights,aseveryoneassumed.Shethoughttheywouldbreakastheyswungaroundontheloom.Sosheandhercolleaguesmadeupastackofunbakedclaydoughnuts,strungupamakeshiftwarp-weightedloomwithwoolhand-spunforthembysomelocalBedouinwomen,andbegantoweave.Shereports:“Theweavingwasveryeasyandquick,takinglessthananhourtoproduceapieceofmaterialonemetrelong.Nodamageoccurredtotheweightsevenwhentheloomhadtobemovedfromplacetoplace.”Shelearnedalotbytryingitout—evenmorethanshehadsetouttolearn—suchashowquicklyonecouldweaveonsuchaloom.

Pottery“experts”foralongtimecouldgetawaywithknowinglittleabouthowpotterywasmade,becausetherewassomuchelsetostudyamongthewealthofpotsherds.(Todaysomescholarsarealsolearningtomakepots.)Butwiththestudyofperishableobjects,wedowelltostartbylearningthecraftfirsthandandtokeepexperimentingateveryturnaswegoalong.Weneedallthepracticalhelpwecangetbecauseifwetakeawrongturnsomewhereinthelogicofourtheories,wedon’thavepilesofotherevidencelyingaroundtowarnusofourmistake.Ihavefoundthattheconsiderabletimeittakestoreplicateancientpracticesisalwaysamplyrewarded,aswhenIrewovetheHallstattplaid(figs.0.1and0.2).Theoriesarekeptonasounderfootingandnewinformationgatheredabouttheproblemsandlimitationspeoplefacedinthosedays.Andthereisthepleasureofdoingsomethingdifferent,somethingsooldthatitisnewagain.4

Yetanotherwaytogetevidence—andmostdifficultofall—istodevelopentirelynewsourcesbylookingcarefullyatthenatureoftheproblemtobestudied.Forexample,archaeologistshavelongbeenperplexedbyevidencethatnewgroupsofpeoplehaveinfiltratedoroverrunanarea.Howtotellwhetherwholefamilieshavearrivedorjustbandsofmen—traders,warriors,orthelike?Theproblemdiminishes,however,oncewehavediscoveredwhatwomenweredoingthatmenweren’tandthenaskwhattracestheseactivitiesmayhaveleft.Wehaveseenthatwomenspentmostoftheirtimeraisingyoungchildrenandpreparingthedailyfoodandhouseholdclothandclothing.Wecanfollowtheevidenceforthosetofindthewomen.

Onethingthatwomentypicallyimparttotheirchildrenisthefirstelementsoflanguage,including

thevocabularyofhighestfrequency,andwehaveseensomeofthevalueinanalyzingthelinguisticinheritance.Second,spinningandweavingwerealmostalwayswomen’swork(exceptinafewcasesofurbanspecialization;seeChapter11).Inthiscasewecantracethewomenbytrackingtheirtools.Thejobismadeeasierbecausethetextiletoolsweremostlyveryhumble—afewsticks,clayspindlewhorls,andperhapsclayweights,withnointrinsicvaluefortrade.SowhenwefindAvigailSheffer ’scrumblyclaydoughnutweights,wellknowninEuropeandwesternAnatolia,suddenlyturningupinIsraelintheIronAge,faroutsidethehomelandofthewarp-weightedloom,wehaveeveryrighttosuspectthatagroupofwomenhadmovedin,alongwiththeirfamilies,fromratherfartothenorthwest.OnemayevensuspectaconnectionwiththebiblicalPhilistines,whosepottery(aswesaidinChapter10)isrelatedsomehowtothatoftheMycenaeanGreeksandwhomtheEgyptiansshowarrivingatthegatesofEgyptaround1200B.C.,withhusbands,wives,children,andbaggagepiledonoxcartsandinboats,lookingforahome.FoughtoffandturnedbackbytheEgyptians(whowrotetheattackers’name,consonantsonly,asP-l-s-t),theysettledaroundGazaandgavetheirnametothewholearea—Palestine.

Ontheotherhand(asanapparentcounterexamplethatservestoprovetherule),wehavenorighttoassumemigrationofwomenwhenwefindfancylittleSyrianspindlescarvedoflocalivoryturningupoccasionallyinMycenaeansettlementsinGreeceintheLateBronzeAge.Themselveshandsome,theseobjectsmusthavesoldforagoodprice—awonderfultrinketforamerchantorsailortotakehometohissweetheart.

Oncewehavelocatedgoodsourcesofevidence,weneedtosharpenourabilitytomakethemostofwhatisthere.

Thefirststep,inmyexperience,istotrickoneselfintofocusingoneverypartofthedata.Drawit,countit,mapit,chartit,andifnecessary(orpossible)re-createit.

Forexample—apersonalone—IinspectedphotographsoftheVenusofLespugueadozentimes,butitwasnotuntilImademyowntracing(fig.2.1)thatInoticedthemarksshowingthatthestringsofherstringskirtwerefrayingoutatthebottom,tellingmethatthesculptorknewofstringmadefromtwistedfiberstwentythousandyearsago.Theactofdrawingforcedmetopayminuteattentiontoeverytinydetailofthestatuetteforthefirsttime.Similarly,itwasnotuntilIdecidedtocolorbyhandmyphotocopiesofalltheknownMycenaeanfrescoesshowingclothingthatIbegantoappreciatehowfrequentlyaparticularborderpatternoccurredonthefrescoesaswellasontheclothesandhoweasyitwouldbetoweaveit.That,inturn,promptedmetotrytoweaveit,andduringtherelativelyslow,step-by-stepprocessofdoingsoIrealizedthatIwasmakingjustthesortofbandthatIhadseen—butnotthoughtabout—inblack-and-whitephotosofruralwomenofthiscenturystartingtheirclothonawarp-weightedloominthetraditionalway.Exceptforcolor,thedesignswerethesamebetweenthemodernNorwegiansandtheancientMycenaeans.

Mappingandchartinghelp,too.EvenafterIhadworkedfortenyearscollectingthedescriptionsofeveryfragmentofprehistoricclothandtextiletoolsthatIcouldfindinthearchaeologicalliteratureofEuropeandtheNearEast,Ihadnoideathatthesedataseparatedintothreemainzonesofdevelopment—untilindesperationIsatdowntomaptheevidence.Tomyastonishment,thedistributionoffiberuseandloomtypesexactlycorrelatedwiththetypesofpatternweavingforwhichIhaddata(seeChapter11).

Theacquisitionoffactsinatoughsubjectseldomgoesinastraightline—thatis,itseldomgoeswhereyouthinkyouwanttogowithit.IoftenhavedataIdon’tknowhowtouse,ontheonehand,andontheotherhand,IamalwaysmissinglotsofdataI’dliketohave.Facedwithapileofopaqueevidence,onecanusefullyask,“WhatarealltheindividualthingsIcandeducehere?”Thuswe

deducedfromthebarebonesofalawsuitagainstaNewKingdomEgyptianwoman(accusedofusinganotherwoman’slinenstohelppayfortwoslaves;seeChapter11)thatlinencouldbeusedasasortofcurrency,thatwomencouldthemselvesmakesuchcommercialdealsasbuyingslaves,andthatwomenweredirectlyresponsibleinacourtoflaw.Wecouldalsohavelearnedaboutthepriceofslavesandtheworkingsofthelegalsystemhadwewished.Oncethedetailsaresystematicallychippedloosefromthematrix,itisofteneasiertofigureoutwheretheycanbeusefullyfiled—theseundertextilestudies,thoseunderwomen’srights,andsoforth.

Ontheotherhand,theproblemofmissingdatamayrespondtothequery“IfIcan’tgetatitbythestraightpath,howelsecanIgetatit?”Thistakesusbacktothequestionofcreativeuseofsources,alreadydiscussed.Forexample,whenIbeganworkingontextiles,IwantedtoknowaboutthosespecificallyfromGreece.Buttextilesdon’tsurviveinGreece.EventuallyitbecameapparentthatonecoulddeduceinformationaboutGreekclothfromthetextiletoolsleftthere,fromthevocabulary,andfrommappingthedevelopmentofclothandotherrelatedartifactsinneighboringareas.

Finally,weneedthebestpossiblemethodsofanalysisforourhard-wonevidence.Methodsofworkingfromtheinternalstructureofthedataandthosebasedonlogicaldeductionarewellknown.Thus,forexample,alloverdesignscanbeclassednotjustrandomlybymotifbutexhaustivelyaccordingtosymmetrytypes.Studiesalsoshowthatoursenseofsymmetryoperatesonafarlessconsciouslevelthanourawarenessofmotifsanduseofcolor.SowhenweseethattheearlyMinoansuseonlySymmetryTypeAbutpresentlyaddtoittheuseofSymmetryTypeB,whichhappenstobetheMycenaeans’favoritekind,wecandeducethatamuchmoreintimatecontactthancasualtradehasstartedtooccurbetweenthetwocultures.Infact,theuseofthenewsymmetrytypebeginsjustaboutwhenwegetevidencefortheMycenaeans’takingoverpartofCrete,andthedecorativechangecanbeusedtohelpdatethattake-over.

Thepursuitoftheperishable,however,requirescarefulattentiontoavarietyofinvisiblefactorsaswell,factorsthatmostpeopleforgettoconsiderbecauseinsomesensethey“aren’t”:Thefactorsaren’tsaid,oraren’tconscious,oraren’tseen.Itistheirabsencethatistheproblem,preciselybecausetheydon’tobtrudeonourattention.

Forexample,onedifficultyinworkingwithtextsisthatancientscribesdidn’tthinktotellusmuchofwhat.wemostneedtoknow.Theyalreadyknewallaboutit.(Wemodernsarenowiser.WhenIfirstwenttoGreece,noonethoughttoexplaintomethatinthatcountrywhenyounodyourheaddown,itmeans“yes,”butwhenyounodyourheadup,itmeans“no.”IgotonseveralwrongbusesbeforeIbegantosuspectthatGreekheadnoddingwasevenaproblemtome.)AmongourtextilediscussionsinChapter11weinvestigatedthedressthattheAthenianwomenmadeforAthena’sfestival.ButworkingouttheproblemhasbeengreatlyhamperedbythefactthatAthenianwritersneverbothertomentionwhichofAthena’sstatuesontheAcropolis,thebigorthesmallone,wastobeclothedinthenewpeplos.Wearestrandedtodeduceitasbestwecan.

Ontheotherhand,silentassumptionscomequiteasoftenfromourselves.(IhadassumedIknewwhatheadnoddingmeant,justasmyGreekfriendshadassumedthatIknewwhatheadnoddingmeant.)InmakingtheirdeductionsaboutAthena’sdress,severalscholarsassumedthat,sinceittookninemonthstomake,thedressmusthavebeenverybigandthereforemusthaveadornedthehugestatue.Theassumptionthatlargesizeistheonlyreasonablecauseforalongmanufacturingtimeisunwarranted,however,asweseewhenweexplorethetechnologythoroughly.Statisticsofvarioussortsaboutweavingshowthatexactlythatkindoftimewouldhavebeenneededtomakeastorytellingclothbigenoughforthesmallstatue.Furthermore,wearetoldofthesettingupofasingleweighted

warpninemonthsbeforethefestival.AGreekwarp-weightedloomwasnotequippedtomakeaclothmuchlargerthanthatneededforthesmallstatue.

Findingone’sownunwarrantedassumptionsisoneofthemostdifficultthingstowrestlewith,preciselybecausetheyaresohardtorecognize.Tryingsimplytostateallone’sassumptionsexplicitlyisthefirstmajorstep.Thus,intheexampleofAthena’sdress,ithelpstosay,“Iamassumingthatthelongtimeneededtomaketheclothisduetoitssize.Isthattheonlypossiblecauseforlengthytimeinweaving?”Putthatway,onecanbegintoseesomeotherpossibilities:AsmallPersiancarpetmaytakeyearstoweavebecausethemethodisslow.

Anothertypeof“missingdata”canbefoundbysystematiccomparison.IhadbeenworkingforyearswiththeEgyptianmaterialonspinningbeforeIrealizedthatnowherewasthereapictureofadistaffinuse,andnowhereamongthethousandsoftextileartifactsasurvivingdistaff.Sohowweretheydraft-spinningafiberthatistypicallylongerthanone’sarm?(Adistaffholdstheunspunfibersandactsbasicallyasanarmextenderwhenthefibersareverylong,sothatalittlegroupoffiberscanbepulledor“drafted”mostofthewaypastthenextgroup,andsoforth,tomakeacontinuouslylong,thinthread.)Theanswer,Igraduallydiscovered,wasthattheywerenotdraft-spinning(unwarrantedassumptiondiscovered).Insteadofpullingthefiberspasteachother,theEgyptianswereseparatingthementirelyandsplicingthemendtoend(seeChapter8).Allthephasesoftheworkwererepresentedinthetombpaintings,butIwasnotreadytounderstandthedetailsofwhatIsawuntilIhadbeenforcedtodiscardmywrongassumptions.ThisoccurredwhenInoticedthatacrucialelementformytheorywasmissing,astheresultofcarefulcomparisontowell-knownexamplesofhowpeoplespininmostotherpartsoftheworld.

Theprincipleispowerful:thehardestthingtonoticeiswhatisn’tthere—yetitmaybeeverybitasimportantaswhatisthere,andittakesthemostcarefulofmethodstoferretitout.SherlockHolmes,masterofmethodicaldeduction,solvesthemysteryofthemissingracehorse,in“TheAdventureofSilverBlaze,”preciselywhenherealizesthatthedogdidn’tbarkthenightthewickeddeedwasdone,hencethevillainmusthavebeenverywellknowntothedog.

Finally,noneofthesemethodswillbeofuseunlesstheresearcheriswillingtolearnwhatthesubjecthastosayaboutitselfinsteadoftryingtomakethetopiccomeoutinsomepredeterminedway.

OneofthemostremarkablescholarsIhavestudiedwithwasProfessorAlbrechtGoetzeofYaleUniversity.BeforeImethim,IhadheardthatwhenhiscomprehensivebookonthearchaeologyofancientAnatoliawasupdatedandrepublishedsometwentyyearsafteritwasfirstwrittentherevisionsconsistedmostlyofaddingreferencestonewlyexcavatedmaterialthatfurtherdemonstratedtheconclusionshehaddrawnthefirsttime.Iwantedtofindouthowascholarcouldbecomesosensitivetothedataasthat.AtfirstIfeltveryfrustratedinthisbecausehedidn’ttalkmuchaboutmethod.ButgraduallyIbegantorealizethatthekeywasonthewallofhisoffice,inalittlehand-letteredsigntowhichhewouldoftenrefer,laughinguproariously.Itsaid,inGerman,“WhatdoIcareaboutmygarbagefromyesterday?”Eachnewfactdiscoveredmadethepicturenecessarilylookalittledifferent,andhewasquitehappytoletgoofold,outmodedviews—thegarbage—andmoveontoanewvisionwithajoyfullaughofdiscovery.Heneverlethisegogetinthewayoflearning,byhangingontoanideasimplybecauseitwashis.

Wewomendonotneedtoconjureahistoryforourselves.Factsaboutwomen,theirwork,andtheirplaceinsocietyinearlytimeshavesurvivedinconsiderablequantity,ifweknowhowtolookforthem.Farfrombeingdullandinneedoffancifulpainttomakeitmoreinteresting,thistruthissometimes(asthesayinggoes)strangerthanfiction,afascinatingtaleinitself.

1Asithappened,thebasketsofclaytablets,filedbysubject,hadfallenofftheirwoodenshelvesonebyoneasthepalace,andtheshelves,burned.Eachbasketfulwasthusscatteredinacharacteristicfanacrosstheaccruingrubbleasthedestructionprogressed,backonthatterribledayaround1200B.C.

Theexcavationstookplacein1939andtheearly1950s,mostlybeforethedeciphermentofLinearB,whichwasworkedoutlargelybetween1952and1956.Untilthetabletswerereadable,anduntilBennettrealizedthatdifferentscribescouldberecognizedbytheirhandwritingandthateachscribetypicallyhandledonlyoneorafewtypesofaccounts,noonehadanyinklinghowusefultheexactfindspotswouldturnouttobe.Recordingthemallwasjust“goodexcavationmethod.”Whatgreatertriumphcanoneaskofit?2Awordofwarning:Thisisnotaneasytaskthatonecanwhipoffinafewdaysorweeks.Linguisticreconstructionofsoundsandofthewordsthatrideonthem,althoughverysimpleinprinciple,isextremelycomplexinpracticebecausetherearesomanyintricatelyinterlockingdetailstoconsider.Similarly,todotheseothertypesofcomparativereconstructionwellrequiresenormousamountsoftime,patience,andaccuracy.3Butforatleastonepairofarchaeologistswhograspedthesubjectatitscore,andwroteaboutitsplendidly,seeHenriandMrs.H.A.Frankfort,“MythandReality,”inBeforePhilosophy,ed.H.andH.A.Frankfort,JohnA.Wilson,andThorkildJacobsen(Harmondsworth,1949),11–36.Morerecently,seealsoPaulBarber,Vampires,Burial,andDeath:FolkloreandReality(NewHaven,1988).Mythology,too,issusceptibleinparttothecomparativemethodofreconstruction.See,e.g.,C.ScottLittleton,TheNewComparativeMythology,2d.ed.(Berkeley/LosAngeles/London,1973).4Anothertypeofperishablecommoditywheretheexperimentalapproachhasbeeninvaluableisintheveryimportantindustryofmakingsaltfrombrine.BeatriceHopkinson,whohasdonemuchofthework,hasfoundthatmanyofthemostintractablequestionsabouttheartifactsreceivedanswersassoonasshebegantryingtomakesaltintheancientway.

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IllustrationandCreditList

Drawingsbyauthorunlessotherwisespecified;sourcesfurtherdiscussedinSourcesArtifactsfromHallstattsaltminesondisplayinNaturalHistoryMuseum,Vienna.PhotobyauthorReplicaofHallstatttwill,wovenbyauthorChartofarchaeologicalerasWoodcut:JohannWeichardValvasor,DieehredesshertzogthumsCrain(LaybachandNürnberg,1689),321DiagramoftwistGreekvasepaintingofwomanspinning;BritishMuseumDiagramofplainweaveDiagramofshedandheddlesonloomVenusofLespugue;Muséedel’Homme,ParisTreeofUraliclanguagesTriplecordfromLascauxCave,France;afterGloryMapofareainwhichstringskirtsareattestedinPalaeolithicandlatertimesFourStoneAgefigurineswithstringskirts,fromGagarino,Šipintsi,Vinča,andCrnokalačkaBaraStringskirtfromBronzeAgeburial,Egtved,Denmark.PhotographcourtesyoftheNationalMuseum,CopenhagenBurialofwomanwithstringskirt,Ølby,Denmark.After1880etchingreprintedinP.V.Glob,TheMoundPeople(Ithaca,N.Y.,1974),44,fig.15Fourstringskirtsfromethniccostumes:Mordvin,Walachian,Macedonian,AlbanianSashfromDrenok,YugoslavMacedonia.CollectionofP.HempsteadTreeofIndo-EuropeanlanguagesMapofNeolithicandotherearlysitesNeolithicreliefofpregnantwoman,ÇatalHüyük.AfterMellaartNeolithicfigurineofwomangivingbirth,ÇatalHüyükNeolithicfigurineofrecliningwoman,HalSaflieni,MaltaWoodenmodelofEgyptianweavingshop,tombofMeketre.EgyptianMuseum,Cairo.PhotographybytheEgyptianExpedition,1919–1920;MetropolitanMuseumofArtGreekvase,ca.560B.C.,showingwomenweavingonawarp-weightedloom.Atticlekythos,attributedtotheAmasisPainter.CourtesyoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt;FletcherFund,1931:no.31.11.10ReconstructionofNeolithichouse,Tiszajenő,Hungary.AfterTringhamHallstatt-eraurnwithweavingscene,fromSopron.DrawingbyA.Eibner-Persy;courtesyofNaturalHistoryMuseum,Vienna

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Hungarianvillagegirls.Afteranonymoustravelphototakenca.1950ReweavingofNeolithiclinen“brocade”fromIrgenhausen.PhotographcourtesyoftheSwissNationalMuseum,Zurich(5752.P)Cretanorchardandvineyard.Photobyauthor,1962Diagramoffiber-wettingbowlVillageofMykonos.Drawingfromphotobyauthor,1962Minoanheart-spiralsfromtombofWahkaIIatQau,andkiltintombofMenkheperrasenebatThebes.AfterPetrieandVercoutterClayfigurineofMinoanwoman,Petsofá,Crete.AfterMyresFrescoofMinoanwoman,HagiaTriada.F.Halbherr,“Restidell’EtàMicenea:ScopertiadHagiaTriada...,”MonumentiAntichi13(1903),pl.10FrescoofMinoanwomengatheringsaffron.Xesti3,Akrotiri,TheraPaintedclaysarcophagusfromTanagra,GreeceNettedbagorhatfromNaḥalḤemar,Israel.DrawingcourtesyofTamarSchick,“NaḥalḤemarCave—Cordage,BasketryandFabrics,”’AtiqotXVIII(1988),fig.12TypesoftunicsFirstDynastyEgyptianshirtfromTarkhan(UC28614B').PhotographcourtesyofthePetrieMuseum,UniversityCollegeLondonTypesofwomen’suncutoverwrapsBronzeAgeclayfigurinefromCîrna,Romania,andrecentBulgarianfolkcostumeofsimilardesignManwearingkiltandshoeswithturned-uptoes,onbronzestandfromEpiskopi-Kourion,Cyprus;Mycenaeanclayvesselinshapeofshoe,fromVoula,Attica(NationalMuseum,Athens)Turned-up-toedshoesfromtheBalkans.Fromtheauthor ’scollectionMinoanfrescoofwomanwearing“sacredknot,”fromKnossosEgyptianlinenchestpaintedtorepresentpavilion,tombofKhaMinoanstatuetteofyoungwomanholdingsnakes,KnossosNineteenth-centuryRussianembroideryofBerehinia.AfterStasovCuneiformletterfromKültepe.AfterStevensMapofancientNearEasterntraderoutes.FiguresadaptedfromSumerianmosaicsfromUrandMariMesopotamianwomanwithlargeheaddress,fromIshtartempleatMariNeo-Hittitewomanspinning,attendedbyscribe,onstelefromMaraşMosaicofwomenspinning,fromMariScenesofspinningandweavingfromMesopotamiancylinderseals(fromSusa,ChogaMish,andunknownsites)GoldheaddressofSumerianqueenofUrMapofEgyptandPalestineTemperacopy(byNormandeGarisDavies)ofEgyptianwallpaintingofaweavingshop,TwelfthDynastytombofKhnemhotep,BeniHasan.PhotographcourtesyoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt;RogersFund,1933:no.33.8.16

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ThreeEgyptianspindlesScenesoftextileworkandacrobatics,fromthetombsofBaqtandKhety,BeniHasan.PercyNewberry,BeniHasanII(London,1894),pl.4,13SketchofEgyptiangirlapplyingfacepaint,frompapyrusinTurinMuseumStatuesofSitSnefru(MetropolitanMuseum)andofaSumerianwomanfoundatTellAsmarStatuettesofEgyptianservingwomencarryingburdensandgrindinggrain.MetropolitanMuseumandArchaeologicalMuseum,FlorenceBronzeAgeburialofawomanwithasilverspindle,TombL,AlacaHöyük,Turkey.AfterKoşayMapofGreece,theAegean,andwesternAnatoliaLinearBpersonneltabletAb555.AfterBennettScenesofspinningandweavingfromAtticGreekvaseofabout560B.C.,attributedtotheAmasisPainter.DrawingcourtesyoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt;FletcherFund,1931:no.31.11.10Womenmakingawarp,fromEtruscanorVillanovanbronzependant.AfterGoviFriezesfromaGreekstoryclothfoundatKertch,Crimea(nowintheHermitage,St.Petersburg)VenusdeMilowitharmsrestoredinpositionforspinning.DrawingbyStevenEscandonPerfumeflaskfromCorinthshowingcontestofAthenaandArachne.GladysDavidsonWeinbergandSaulS.Weinberg,“ArachneofLydiaatCorinth,”TheAegeanandtheNearEast:StudiesPresentedtoHettyGoldman(NewYork,1956),262–67,fig.1(courtesyofG.Weinberg)GreekloomweightwithowlspinningwoolVily(rusalki)fromSlavicfolkartAamuvisitorstoEgyptwearing“coatsofmanycolors”;tombofKhnemhotep,BeniHasan.PercyE.Newberry,BeniHasanI(London,1893),pl.31Tableofpharaohsofthemid-EighteenthDynastyThebantownhouseofThutnofer.CourtesyoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt:NormandeGarisDavies,“TheTownhouseinAncientEgypt,”MetropolitanMuseumStudies1.2(1928–29),233–34,fig.1Weavingshopwithverticallooms,tombofNeferronpet,Thebes.AfterDaviesTapestrycoverlet,tombofKha,Thebes.AfterSchiaparelliEgyptianNineBowsandCaptivesdesignintapestry.AfterDaressyYoungwomanatherloom,accostedbysuitors,onGreekvase.Q.Quagliati,“Pisticci:tombelucaneconceramichegreche”NotiziedegliScavidiAntichità1(1904),199,fig.4Younggirlspinning,onGreekvase.HugoBlümner,“Denkmäler-NachlesezurTechnologie,”ArchäologischeZeitung35(1877),pl.6

Sources

Alltranslationsweredonebytheauthorunlessotherwisespecified.AlllinenumbersforGreektextsaregivenaccordingtotheOxfordeditions.

INTRODUCTIONTheplaidfragmentfromHallstattwaspublishedbyH.-J.HundtasNo.74(p.52)in

“VorgeschichtlicheGewebeausdemHallstätterSalzberg,”Jahrbuchdesrömisch-germanischenZentralmuseumsMainz14(1967),38–67.

Thetechnicaldetailsoftheactualremainsofancientclothandtextiletoolsmentionedthroughoutthisbookarediscussed,withfullreferences,inE.J.W.Barber,PrehistoricTextiles:TheDevelopmentofClothinEuropeandtheNearEastwithSpecialReferencetotheAegean(Princeton,1991),hereafterreferredtoas“Barber1991.”

CHAPTER1:ATRADITIONWITHAREASON

ThequotationscomefromJudithBrown,“NoteontheDivisionofLaborbySex,”inAmericanAnthropologist72(1970),1075–76;GeorgeFoster,“SociologyofPottery,”inManinAdaptation:TheBiosocialBackground,ed.YehudiA.Cohen(Chicago,1968),323;EliseBoulding,TheUndersideofHistory(Boulder,Colo.,1976),147.

ThestoryofHargreavesiscollectedwithothersuchbyBetteHochberginherbookletSpinSpanSpun:FactandFolkloreforSpinners(SantaCruz,Calif.,1979),46and62.

CHAPTER2:THESTRINGREVOLUTIONConcerningthespreadoftheGravettiancultureandtheradiocarbondatesforit,seeGrahame

ClarkandStuartPiggott,PrehistoricSocieties(NewYork,1965),71,andGrahameClark,WorldPrehistoryinNewPerspective,3ded.(Cambridge,1977),96–97.

ThedoubleintermentisdescribedbyRenéVerneauinLesGrottesdeGrimaldi(Monaco,1906),vol.2,29,andillustratedinpl.II.

ForUralicwords,seeBjörnCollinder,Fenno-UgricVocabulary(Hamburg,1977).Quotation(translatedfromFrench)fromA.Glory,“DébrisdecordepaléolithiqueàlaGrotte

deLascaux,”MémoiresdelaSociétépréhistoriquefrançaise5(1959),137–38;drawinginterpretedfromfig.2.

ThequotationaboutcamelpullerscomesfromGöstaMontell,“SpinningToolsandMethodsinAsia,”inViviSylwan,WoollenTextilesoftheLou-lanPeople(Stockholm,1941),114.

ForasummaryofearlyNewWorldtextileremains,seeMaryElizabethKing,“ThePrehistoricTextileIndustryofMesoamerica,”inJuniusB.BirdPre-ColumbianTextileConference,ed.A.P.Rowe,E.P.BensonandA.L.Schaffer(Washington,D.C.,1979),265–78.

The“clothed”figurinesfromGagarinoandKostienki,respectively,wereoriginallypublished

byL.M.Tarasov,“PaleoliticheskajaStojankaGagarino,”MaterialyiIssledovanijapoArkheologiiSSSR131(1965),132–38andfigs.14–16,andbyP.P.Efimenko,KostenkiI(MoscowandLeningrad,1958),figs.140–42,pis.14–17and20.ThedrawingoftheVenusofGagarinoisbasedonTarasov,fig.16.ThedrawingsoffigurinesfromŠipintsi,Vinča,andCrnokalačkaBaraarebasedonphotosbytheauthorandonMarijaGimbutas,GoddessesandGodsofOldEurope(Berkeley,1982),46,photo13;49,fig.8;52,fig.21.

DetailsofthestringskirtfromEgtvedaretakenfromElisabethMunksgaard,Oldtidsdragter(Copenhagen,1974),71.

Foraratherstronglydrawnpictureoftheoriesofearlymatingstrategies,seePierrevandenBerghe,HumanFamilySystems:AnEvolutionaryView(NewYork,1979).IampersonallygratefultoTerrenceDeaconforpointingouttomehowimportantthisproblemmayhavebeenfortheevolutionoflanguageitself.

TheseductionscenefromtheIliadoccursinBook14,lines153–351;thequotationsarelines181,214–17,and220–21.IldikóLehtinendiscussesMordvinandSlavicapronsinNaistenKorut:Keski-VenäjälläjaLänsi-Sipiriassa(Helsinki,1979);quotationfromtheEnglishsynopsis,p.208.

AthoroughdiscussionofRomanianfolkcostumes,includingpicturesofthedetailsmentionedhere,canbefoundinElenaSecosanandPaulPetrescu,PortulPopulardeSărbătoaredinRomânia(Bucharest,1984).IllustrationsofsuchapronsalsooccurinMaxTilke,KostümschnitteundGewandformen(Tübingen,1945),pl.43;thedrawingisbasedononeofthese.

SlaviclozengesymbolsarediscussedatlengthbyA.K.Ambroz,“OntheSymbolismofRussianPeasantEmbroideryofArchaicType,”SovietAnthropologyandArchaeology6.2(1967),22–36.EarlyphallickeysarementionedinStepievropejskojchastiSSSRvskifo-sarmatskojevremja,ed.A.I.Meljukova(Moscow,1989),136.

TheMacedoniancostumewithstringskirtscamefromthevillageofDrenok;IamgratefultoPeggyHempsteadforbringingittoshowmefromhercollection.

AndromaqiGjergjiillustratesAlbanianstringskirtsinVeshjetShqiptarenëShekuj(Tiranë,1988),163andamongtheunnumberedcolorplates;thedrawingisbasedononeofthese.

AdiscussionoftheBronzeAgetextilefragmentsthatmightrepresentmagicalbeltscanbefoundinBarber1991,184.Alltheancientstring,textiles,andclothedfigurinesfromEuropethatarementionedinthischapterreceivetechnicaldiscussion(andoftenillustration)inthatpublication.

AbriefdescriptionofthenettedgirdlesfromtheArgolidoccursinthePeloponnesianFolkloreFoundationCatalogue(Nafplion,1981),20–21,whencethequotation.

CHAPTER3:COURTYARDSISTERHOODStatisticsonearlypopulationsandgrowtharediscussedbyPaulandAnneEhrlichin

Population,Resources,Environment,2ded.(SanFrancisco,1972),5–12.TheearlysettlementofAinMallaha(Eynan)isdiscussed,withillustrations,byJamesMellaart

inTheNeolithicoftheNearEast(NewYork,1975),31–38.Thisbookcomprisesathoroughcompilationofallthedatawehave(orhadin1975)onthedevelopmentoftheNeolithicinthatarea.MuchshorterbutalmostequallybroadisJamesMellaart’sEarliestCivilizationsoftheNearEast(NewYork/London,1965),withcopiousillustrations.MorespecificinformationonthepeculiarvillageofSuberdeisgivenbyDexterPerkins,Jr.,andPatriciaDaly,“AHunters’Village

inNeolithicTurkey,”ScientificAmerican219(November1968),96–106.JarmowasinitiallypublishedbyRobertJ.BraidwoodandB.HoweinPrehistoricInvestigationsinIraqiKurdistan(Chicago,1960),anditstextileimpressionsbyJ.M.Adovasio:“TheTextileandBasketryImpressionsfromJarmo,”Paleorient3(1975–77),223–30,and“Appendix:NotesontheTextileandBasketryImpressionsfromJarmo”inLindaS.Braidwoodetal.,PrehistoricArchaeologyalongtheZagrosFlanks(Chicago,1983),425–26.ForÇatalHüyükandHacilarindetail,seerespectivelyJamesMellaart’sbooksÇatalHüyük,aNeolithicTowninAnatolia(London/NewYork,1967)andExcavationsatHacilar(Edinburgh,1970).

InformationaboutbirthspacingsisfoundinAlbertJ.AmmermanandL.L.Cavalli-Sforza,TheNeolithicTransitionandtheGeneticsofPopulationsinEurope(Princeton,1984),63–67.

TheearlystonesculpturesfromMaltaarecollectedandshownbyJ.D.EvansinThePrehistoricAntiquitiesoftheMalteseIslands(London,1971),thefamousrecumbentonesfromHalSaflienibeingonpl.36,No.6–11.

QuotationsfromHomer ’sOdyssey:Laistrygonianwoman—Book10,lines112–13;Calypso—Book5,lines61–62.

Thechiefworkonthewarp-weightedloomisMartaHoffmann’scarefullyresearchedbook,TheWarp-WeightedLoom(Oslo,1964/74).

RuthTringhamdiscussesandgivesanartist’sreconstructionoftheNeolithichouseatTiszajenőinherbookHunters,Farmers,andFishersofEasternEurope,6000–3000B.C.(London,1971),84–87andfig.14(uponwhichthedrawingisbased).

TheoriginalanalysisofthecrossingweftsisfoundinH.C.BroholmandMargretheHald,“DanskeBronzealdersDragter,”NordiskeFortidsminder2.5/6(Copenhagen,1935),215–347;seeespecially242,fig.31.ReprintedanddiscussedinBarber1991,178.

ForageneralaccountofhowtheSwisspiledwellers’cultureisnowreconstructed,seeHansjürgenMuller-Beck,“PrehistoricSwissLakeDwellers,”ScientificAmerican205(December1961),138–47.AcompleteanalysisofallthetextilesandbasketrywasdonebyEmilVogt,GeflechteundGewebederSteinzeit(Basel,1937).

TheNeolithictextilesfoundinEastGermanywerefinallypublishedaswellaspossiblebyKarlSchlabow,“BeitragezurErforschungderjungsteinzeitlichenundbronzezeitlichenGewebetechnik...,”JahresschriftfürmitteldeutscheVorgeschichte43(1959),101–20.

Athorough(ifcontroversial)analysisofthesymbolsontheNeolithicartofsoutheasternEuropehasbeendonebyMarijaGimbutas,TheGoddessesandGodsofOldEurope(Berkeley,1982).B.A.RybakovhasdrawnsomeverysimilarconclusionsbyothermethodsinJazychestvodrevnikhSlavjan(Moscow,1981).

ManydetailsofHopisocietycanbefoundinFredEggan’sclassicbookSocialOrganizationoftheWesternPueblos(Chicago,1950).

ThepeculiarevidenceforbonesdeformedbytoomuchgraingrindingisgivenbyTheyaMolleson,“SeedPreparationintheMesolithic:TheOsteologicalEvidence,”Antiquity63(1989),356–62.

Thenotionofa“secondaryproductsrevolution”wasfirstproposedatlengthbyAndrewSherratt,“PloughandPastoralism:AspectsoftheSecondaryProductsRevolution,”inPatternofthePast:StudiesinHonourofDavidClarke,ed.I.Hodder,G.Isaac,andN.Hammond(Cambridge,England,1981),261–305.

ConcerningÇayönüTepesiandearlyNeolithicmetalworking,seeHaletÇambelandRobertJ.Braidwood,“AnEarlyFarmingVillageinTurkey,”ScientificAmerican222(March1970),50–56.

CHAPTER4:ISLANDFEVERForanup-to-dateandveryreadableaccountofAegeanarchaeology(includingthesiteof

Myrtos),seePeterWarren,TheAegeanCivilizations,2ded.(NewYork,1989).DetailsoftheexcavationofMyrtosappearinPeterWarren,Myrtos:AnEarlyBronzeAge

SettlementinCrete(Oxford,1972),thetubs,loomweights,etc.onpp.26–27,52–54,64–65,75,153,207,209,243,262–63.

ThedataforreconstructingtheMinoantextilepatternsarecompiledinBarber1991,311–57;thezigzagbeltisdescribedonp.197,andtheancienttechnologyofdyeingonpp.223–43.

ThedrawingsofMinoanheartspiralsarebasedonW.M.F.Petrie,Antaeopolis:TheTombsofQau(London,1930),pl.1,andJeanVercoutter,L’Égypteetlemondeégéenpréhellénique(Paris,1956),pl.26,No.188.ThatoftheclayfigurinefromPetsofáisbasedonJohnL.Myres,“ExcavationsatPalaikastro.II.13:TheSanctuary-SiteofPetsofá,”AnnualoftheBritishSchoolatAthens9(1902–1903),pl.8.

Fragmentsofthefrescoofthesaffrongathererswerefirstpublished(incolor)bytheexcavator,SpiridonMarinatos,inExcavationsatTheraVII(Athens,1976).Moreofthefrescoplusinterpretativedata(suchasmedicinalusetoday)canbefoundinNannoMarinatos,ArtandReligioninThera(Athens,1984),especially61–72.

Fordiscussionofyellowasawomen’scolorseeE.J.W.Barber,“ThePeplosofAthena,”inGoddessandPolis:ThePanathenaicFestivalinAncientAthens,ed.J.Neils(Princeton,1992),116–17.ForAristophanes’jokes,seemostparticularlyhisplayTheThesmophoriazousai.

AlengthydiscussionofthematrilinealvestigesfoundinGreekmythohistorycanbefoundinKennethAtchityandE.J.W.Barber,“GreekPrincesandAegeanPrincesses”inCriticalEssaysonHomer,ed.K.Atchity(Boston,1987),15–36.

AmajorworkontheinterpretationofthearchaicCretanlawcodefoundatGortynaisRonaldF.Willetts,TheLawCodeofGortyn(Berlin,1967).

AclassicdescriptionofHopisocietyisfoundinFredEggan,SocialOrganizationoftheWesternPueblos(Chicago,1950).

SomeoftheTanagrasarcophagiareillustratedbyT.Spyropoulos,“TerracottaSarcophagi,”Archaeology25(1972),206–09.

CHAPTER5:MORETHANHEARTSONOURSLEEVESThenetcapandotherearlytextilefindsatNaḥalḤemarintheJudeanDesertwerepublishedby

TamarSchick,“PerishableRemainsfromtheNaḥalḤemarCave,”JournaloftheIsraelPrehistoricSociety19(1986),84–86and95*–97*.MoreofthefindsaretobefoundintheexhibitcatalogbyOferBar-Yosef,ACaveintheDesert:NaḥalḤemar(Jerusalem,1985).

MostoftheNeolithicstatuettesfromcentralEurope,alongwiththesymbolismoftheirdecoration,havebeentreatedatlengthbyMarijaGimbutas,TheGoddessesandGodsofOldEurope(Berkeley,1982).

ThefrozentombsofPazyryk(includingthebootsandthetattoos)arenicelydescribedand

illustratedbyM.I.Artamonov,“FrozenTombsoftheScythians,”ScientificAmerican212.5(May1965),100–09.FulltreatmentofthesiteanditsrichfindscanbefoundinS.I.Rudenko,FrozenTombsofSiberia,tr.M.W.Thompson(Berkeley,1970).

PerhapsthemostcompletepicturebookofSumerianart,includinganumberofstatuesofwomen(andpresentlymen)wearingwrappedtunics,isAndréParrot’smagnificentvolumeSumer:TheDawnofArt(NewYork,1961),thebest-knownstatuetteofthistypebeingonefromTellAsmar,shownonpp.101and107.

TheearliestcompletegarmentknownfromEgyptwasretrievedandpublishedbySheilaLandiandRosalindHall,“TheDiscoveryandConservationofanAncientEgyptianLinenTunic,”StudiesinConservation24(1979),141–51.

TheearlyGreekfuneraryurncontainingashaggylinentunicanditsbeltwasdescribedbyMervynPopham,EviTouloupa,andL.H.Sackett,“TheHeroofLefkandi,”Antiquity56(1982),169–74.

N.I.VeselovskijoriginallypublishedthediscoveryoftheKubanchieftainandhisclothinginthe1898reportoftheImperialRussianArchaeologicalCommission(29–39).Hisphotographoftheplaidclothhasbeenreprinted,togetherwithapartialtranslationandsynopsisofVeselovskij’sreport,inBarber1991,168–69.ThecomparativereconstructionofcostumesofthiseraisdiscussedinBarber1991,295,note6,andinE.J.W.Barber,“TheProto-Indo-EuropeanNotionofClothandClothing,”JournalofIndo-EuropeanStudies3(1975),294–320.

PerhapsthebestsourcecurrentlyforRussianregionalfolkdressisthephotobookRusskijNarodnyjKostjum,meaning“RussianFolkCostume”(Leningrad,1984),publishedbytheStateEthnographicMuseuminSt.Petersburgfromthecostumesinitscollection.

TheIronAgeplaidskirtfromHuldremose,Denmark,isillustratedinElisabethMunksgaard’spictorialhistoryofancientScandinaviandress,Oldtidsdragter(Copenhagen,1974),figs.97–98.

TheBronzeAgestatuettesfromCîrna,Romania,arepublishedinV.Dumitrescu,NecropoladeIncineraţiedinEpocaBronzuluidelaCîrna(Bucharest,1961);thedrawingisofstatueNo.3.

FortheancientChinesehistorianSsu-maCh’ien’saccountoftheHsiung-Nuandothernomads,seesection110ofhisbookShihChi.ThequotationsgivenarefromBurtonWatson’stranslation,RecordsoftheGrandHistorianofChina(NewYork,1961),vol.II,159,170.

CHAPTER6:ELEMENTSOFTHECODE

RomancodingofclothesbyrankisexplainedinsomedetailintheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalLiterature,ed.SirPaulHarvey(Oxford,England,1969edition),110–11.

ThequotationsfromMaryKahlenbergcomefromherbookTextileTraditionsofIndonesia(LosAngeles,1977),28.

ThepassageinEuripides’IoninwhichIonbuildsthepavilionoccursinlines1133–65,althoughthewholeplayrevolvesaroundtextilesandiswellworthreadingfortheinsightsitgives.

DiscussionofHelen,Penelope,andthewholequestionofGreekstoryclothsandfuneralcloths,alongwithreproductionsofpartsoftheBlackSeaones,canbefoundinBarber1991,358–82andfigs.7.11–13and16.15.

FullerdiscussionofAthena’sdressisfoundinBarber1991,380–82,andinE.J.W.Barber,“ThePeplosofAthena,”intheexhibitioncatalogGoddessandPolis:ThePanathenaicFestivalinAncientAthens,ed.J.Neils(Princeton,1992),102–17.

NationalGeographicpublishedanewsetofcolorphotographsoftheentireBayeuxTapestryontheninehundredthanniversaryoftheBattleofHastings(August1966),206–51.

GeorgeMelvilleBollingpresentshiscaseforAndromache’srosemagicin“PoikilosandThrona,”AmericanJournalofPhilology79(1958),275–82.

MarijaGimbutas’streatmentofNeolithiceggandbirdmotifs(alongwithsnakes,frogs,andfish)occursinherbookGoddessesandGodsofOldEurope(Berkeley,1982).

Aprehistoricbird-shapedladleandmuchotherrelatedSlavicfolkartareillustratedinTamaraTalbotRice,AConciseHistoryofRussianArt(NewYork,1963),No.61,etc.

MaryKellyhascollectedmaterialonBerehinia,herfestivals,andtheassociatedtextilesin“EmbroideryfortheGoddess,”ThreadsMagazine(June-July1987),26–29,andinherbookGoddessEmbroideriesofEasternEurope(Winona,Minn.,1989).Furthermaterial,alsowithcopiousillustration,canbefoundinA.K.Ambroz,“OntheSymbolismofRussianPeasantEmbroideryofArchaicType,”SovietAnthropologyandArchaeology6.2(1967),22–36.ThedrawingisbasedonmaterialfromV.V.Stasov,Russkijnarodnyjornament(St.Petersburg,1872),part1.

Tutankhamon’stunicisreproducedwithdiscussioninBarber1991,fig.5.10.ThefirstquotationonBataktextilescomesfromHarleyHarrisBartlett,TheLaborsofthe

DatoeandOtherEssaysontheBataksofAsahan(NorthSumatra)(AnnArbor,1973),138,note7;theothersarefrompp.22–23ofMattiebelleGittinger ’sarticle“SelectedBatakTextiles:TechniqueandFunction,”TextileMuseumJournal4.2(1975),13–26.

CHAPTER7:CLOTHFORTHECARAVANSTheOldAssyriancorrespondencebetweenwomenofAshurandtheirhusbandsinAnatoliais

largelypublishedandanalyzedbyKlaasR.Veenhof,AspectsofOldAssyrianTradeanditsTerminology(Leiden,1972).TheopeningquotationisfromBIN6,7,translatedonp.113;theremainingquotationscomerespectivelyfrompp.114(“Kuluma...”),104(“let...,”“if...”),110(“but...,”“in...”),115(“About...,”“Lamassi...”).Materialconcerningthepackingofdonkeysisonpp.70,26–27;Akkadianclothsareonp.98;Lamassi’slettersonpp.113–15.ThecuneiformtranscriptionisbasedonFerrisJ.Stephens,OldAssyrianLettersandBusinessDocuments:BabylonianInscriptionsintheCollectionofJamesB.Nies,YaleUniversity,VI(NewHaven,1944),pl.2,No.7.

Concerningmilk,seeAndrewSherratt,“PloughandPastoralism:AspectsoftheSecondaryProductsRevolution”inPatternofthePast:StudiesinHonourofDavidClarke,ed.I.Hodder,G.Isaac,andN.Hammond(Cambridge,England1981),261–305;alsoMargaretEhrenberg,WomeninPrehistory(London,1989),101–02formilkers.

Thewomen’sworkroomsatGordionwerepublishedbyKeithdeVries,“TheGreeksandPhrygiansintheEarlyIronAge,”inFromAthenstoGordion:thePapersofaMemorialSymposiumforRodneyS.Young,ed.KeithdeVries(Philadelphia,1980),33–49.

ÇatalHüyükisdescribedinfullbyJamesMellaart,ÇatalHüyük,aNeolithicTowninAnatolia(London/NewYork,1967).

Thematerialonwomen’sdowriesinMesopotamiaisculledfromStephanieDalley,“OldBabylonianDowries,”Iraq42(1980),53–74,thequotationsbeingfrompp.61and(inthenote)57.

ThearchivesofQueenIltaniofKaranaandtherulersofMariareextensivelydiscussedby

StephanieDalleyinMariandKarana(London,1984),anextremelyreadableandgraphicre-creationoftheworldofnineteenth-century-B.C.Mesopotamia.Thedirectquotationsarefrompp.40(“I...”),103(“some...,”“which...”),82(“The...”),70(“begs”),109(“the...”),102(“Now...”),43(“The...”),and53(“Send...”)respectively.Thehistoricalbackgroundisonpp.37–40,thepalaceon26,Iltani’sworkerson53and103,blindworkerson72,slavesingersandchildren’srationson99,givingawayslaveson70and102,women’sjobson72–74,93,104,109–10,Iltani’ssisterson103,thedisputeon72,andthecarpeton52.Zimri-Lim’slettertoShibtuisquotedfromB.F.Batto,StudiesonWomenatMari(Baltimore,1974),27.MenwhodyedandfinishedclotharediscussedbyH.Waetzoldt,DieNeo-SumerischeTextilindustrie(Rome,1972),153–54,whilefeltmakingistreatedbyP.Steinkeller,“MattressesandFeltinEarlyMesopotamia,”OriensAntiquus19(1980),79–100,andMesopotamianrugtechniquesbyBarber1991,170–71.

Cylindersealswithrepresentationsofspinningandweaving(fromSusa,ChogaMish,andunknownsites)arediscussedandillustratedwithreferencesinBarber1991,56–57,84.

TheinformationontheworkersofthetwokingsofLagashwascollatedandanalyzedbyM.Lambert,“Recherchessurlavieouvrière:LesateliersdetissagedeLagash,”ArchivOrientalni29(1961),422–43.

ThequotationsfromSirLeonardWoolleyweretakenfromUrExcavations,2(London,1934),238–40.

CHAPTER8:LANDOFLINENHerodotusrelateshismemoirsofEgyptinBook2ofhisHistories,includingsheepinsection

37andwoolin81.FortheEgyptianwayofdonningakilt,seeWilliamKellySimpson,“AProtocolofDress:The

RoyalandPrivateFoldoftheKilt,”JournalofEgyptianArchaeology74(1988),203–04.MiriamLichtheimhaspublishedhighlyreadabletranslationsofmanyinterestingtextsinher

paperbackbookAncientEgyptianLiterature,Vol.1,TheOldandMiddleKingdoms(Berkeley,1975).Quotationsweretakenasfollows:thetaleofthelittleservantgirl,pp.221–22;thelamentoftheweavingrooms,153;thesatiresofthetrades,188–89.

TheOldTestamentstoryofthefugitivesundertheflaxisquotedfromJoshua2:6,whilethetwistingofflaxismentionedrepeatedlyinExodus35–39.

TwotombsfromBeniHasan,thoseofBaqtandKhety,picturetheprocessesofspinningandweavingratherextensively.TheywerepublishedbyPercyE.Newberry,BeniHasanII(London,1894),pl.4and13.Forallsuchscenesandfortheextantpatternedtextiles,seeBarber1991.

ThequotationfromGraceCrowfootcomesfromherverylucidpamphletMethodsofHandSpinninginEgyptandtheSudan.BankfieldMuseumNotes,series2,No.12(Halifax,1931),p.30.

Theworkmen’svillageatAmarnaispublishedbyT.E.PeetandSirLeonardWoolley,Telel-Amarna,theCityofAkhenaten(London,1923);furtherdiscussionoftheweavingremainsoccursinBarber1991,88–89.

Informationonwomen’sprofessionswasgleanedfromthetitleslistedanddiscussedbyWilliamA.Ward,EssaysonFeminineTitlesoftheMiddleKingdomandRelatedSubjects(Beirut,1986),3–23.Thequotationaboutthefemalegardenerandwinnowercomesfromp.23.Furtherdataontextile-relatedprofessionsintheMiddleKingdomappearinWilliamC.Hayes,APapyrusoftheLateMiddleKingdom(Brooklyn,1955),especially105–08.

TheceilingofHepzefa’stombandotherdataconcerningtombswithAegeantextilemotifsontheceilingsarecollected,discussed,andillustratedinBarber1991,330–57.

TheleathercanopywaspublishedbyEmilBrugsch,LeTentefunérairedelaPrincesseIsimkheb(Cairo,1889).

Wah’stomblinens,whichareattheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYork,aredescribedbyWilliamC.HayesinTheScepterofEgyptI(NewYork,1953),304.Thequotationaboutthecasketcomesfromp.246,andthatconcerningSitSnefrufromp.215.

ThebeadeddressoftheFifthDynastyfromQauisillustratedanddiscussed,alongwiththeleather-netdresses,byRosalindHall,“Fishing-NetDressesinthePetrieMuseum,”GottingerMiszellen42(1981),37–43.ThelateronesfromKermaaredescribedbyGeorgeReisner,ExcavationsatKermaIV(Cambridge,Mass.,1923),103–04,300,303.

CHAPTER9:THEGOLDENSPINDLETheAlacatombswerepublishedbyHamitZ.KoşayinLesFouillesd’AlacaHöyük,1937–1939

(Ankara,1951).Thesilverspindleismentionedonp.168asanobjectofunknownuse;thetombdrawingisbasedonpl.191.DataandillustrationsoftheotherAnatolianspindlesarecollectedinBarber1991,60–62.

ThepassagefromIonofEuripidesislines1417–22.ThequotationfromtheIliadaboutHelenweavingcomesfromBook3,lines125–27;about

Chryseis,fromBook1,lines366–69and29–31.ThequotationsfromtheOdysseyareasfollows:theTaphianpirates,15.427–29;Eurykleiaandtheservants,22.422–23;thePhaiakiansgivingOdysseusclothes,13.10and13.67;HelengivingTelemachusarobe,15.105and15.126–28.

HeinrichSchliemann’saccountsofhisexcavationofTroycanbefoundinTroyandItsRemains(London,1875;reprinted,NewYork,1968),andIlios:TheCityandCountryoftheTrojans(London,1880).Theclayboxcontainingbeadsisdiscussedandpicturedinthelatterbookonpp.360–61.ThesubsequentdiscoveryofgoldbeadsinthefillaroundaloomwaspublishedbyCarlBlegen,JohnCaskey,MarionRawson,andJeromeSperling,Troy:GeneralIntroduction:TheFirstandSecondSettlementsI(Princeton,1950),350–51.TheseandfurtherfindsofancientbeadworkarecollectedinBarber1991,171–73.

ForthereexcavationofTroy,seeCarlBlegen,JohnCaskey,MarionRawson,andJeromeSperling,TroyI(Princeton,1950);fortheloomandbeads,seevol.Ipp.350–51andfig.461.

TheanalysisoftheLinearBarchivesandoftheeconomicrealityrepresentedisanongoingprocessinvolvingmanyscholars.Themostcomprehensiveandreadabletreatmentisthatdonebythedecipherersofthescript,MichaelVentrisandJohnChadwick,DocumentsinMycenaeanGreek,2ded.(Cambridge,England,1973).Muchofthesynopsisgivenherecanbegleanedfromthatsource.SeealsoJohnT.Killen,“TheKnossoso-piTablets,”Attiememoriedel1.ocongressointernazionalediMicenologia(Rome,1968),636–43.ThedrawingofPylostabletAb555isbasedonEmmettL.BennettJr.,ThePylosTablets(Princeton,1955),57.

Detailsonfleeceweights,flocksizes,andothertechnicalaspectsoftheMycenaean(andmedievalEnglish)woolindustryweretakenfromJohnT.Killen,“TheWoolIndustryofCreteintheLateBronzeAge,”AnnualoftheBritishSchoolatAthens59(1964),1–15;JohnT.Killen,“MinoanWoolgathering:AReplyII,”Kadmos8(1969),23–38;andJ.P.Olivier,“LaSérieDndeCnossos,”StudiaMiceneiedEgeo-Anatolici2(1967),71–93.Workonthestatusofapprenticesin

particularispublishedbyKillenin“TwoNotesontheKnossosAkTablets,”Minos12(1972),423–40.

ConsiderableinformationontextileproductioninnorthwesternEuropeintheMiddleAgesoccursinEdouardPerroy,LetravaildanslesrégionsdunordduXIeaudébutduXIVesiècle(Paris,1963).ThequotationconcerningtheMaltesetextileindustrycamefromH.Bowen-Jones,J.C.Dewdney,andW.B.Fischer,eds.,Malta,BackgroundforDevelopment(Durham,England,1961),124.

TheevidencefortheevolutionofsheepfleeceisdiscussedfullyinMichaelRyder ’stomeSheepandMan(London,1983).AmuchbrieferaccountofitandoftheroleofshearscanbefoundinBarber1991,20–30,alongwithananalysisoftheassociatedarchaicvocabularyon260ff.

TheEtruscanpendantwaspublishedbyChristianaMorigiGovi,“IlTintinnabulodella‘Tombadegliori’dell’arsenalemilitarediBologna,”ArcheologiaClassica23(1971),211–35;thedrawingisbasedonpl.53–54.MartaHoffmann’sbookTheWarp-WeightedLoom(Oslo,1974)containsherdescriptionsandpicturesofthewarp-weightedloominuseaswellasofthewarpfoundinthebogatTegle,Norway(p.169,fig.81)andtheLappishwomanweavingaheadingbandforherwarp-weightedloom(p.66,fig.26).

E.C.ClarkconsiderstheproblemofTurkishrugweaversin“TheEmergenceofTextileManufacturingEntrepreneursinTurkey,1804–1968,”Ph.D.thesis,PrincetonUniversity,1969,54.ThedevelopmentoftextilesinCreteisdiscussedatlengthinBarber1991,311–57,and(IronAge)371–72.

Concerninggravemounds:Patroklos’funeralisdescribedinBook23oftheIliad,andBeowulf’smoundinlines3156ff.ofBeowulf.(See,forexampleBeowulf,tr.M.Alexander.[Harmondsworth,1973],151.)AbriefaccountofGordionappearsinSetonLloyd,EarlyHighlandPeoplesofAnatolia(LondonandNewYork,1967),124–35.

ThestoryclothsfromKertcharediscussedandillustrated(withRussianreferences)inBarber1991,206–09.

CHAPTER10:BEHINDTHEMYTHS

OvidtellsthestoryofPhilomelaandProkneinhislongpoem,Metamorphoses,Book6,lines424–674,andthatofArachne’scontestwithAthenainBook6,lines1–145.

Realgarandthemineralcalled“dragon’sblood”arediscussedbyH.Quiring,“VorphonizischerKönigspurpurunduqnû-Stein,”ForschungundFortschritte21–23(1945–47),98–99.

Forthearchaeologyandfolkloreofnettles,seeMargretheHald,“TheNettleasaCulturePlant,”Folk-Liv6(1942),28–49.PerhapsthemostfamoustaleinvolvingnettlesisthatofHansChristianAndersoncalled“TheWildSwans.”ButHaldalsomentionsLithuanianandHungariantales.

AnentirebookhasbeenwrittenonthesubjectofTheSpinningAphroditebyElmerG.Suhr(NewYork,1969).ThequotationconcerningthemagicaleffectofspinningcomesfromGraceM.Crowfoot,MethodsofHandSpinninginEgyptandtheSudan.BankfieldMuseumNotes,series2,No.12(Halifax,1931),11,andisattributedtoC.G.andB.Z.Seligman.

AriadneandthecultinvolvingcouvadearementionedbyPlutarchinsection20ofhisLifeofTheseus.

TheshortquotationsfromHesiodcomefromWorksandDays,lines60–65,thelongeronefromTheTheogony,lines573–76.

ForafullerdiscussionofthenatureofAthena,seeKennethAtchityandE.J.W.Barber,“GreekPrincesandAegeanPrincesses,”CriticalEssaysonHomer,ed.KennethAtchity(Boston,1987),15–36.ForGreekweavingvocabulary,seeBarber1991.

ThequotationconcerningMokoshistakenfromMarijaGimbutas,TheSlavs(London/NewYork,1971),168.ThegeographicaldifferencesinthevilyarediscussedbyLindaJ.Ivanits,RussianFolkBelief(Armonk/London,1989),75–76.

ManyoftheearlyrepresentationsofwomendancingattheRusaliifestivalsarereproducedbyB.A.Rybakov,“TheRusaliiandtheGodSimargl-Pereplut,”SovietAnthropologyandArchaeology6.4(1968),34–59.

ThetranslatedsectionsfromthestoryoftheFrogPrincessaretakenfromthefirstofthethreeversionscollectedinthemid-nineteenthcenturybyAleksandrAfanasiev,publishedbyhiminNarodnyjeRusskijeSkazki(“RussianFolkTales”)asNo.267.ThisisalsotheversionfoundintheabridgedtranslationbyN.GutermaninRussianFairyTales(NewYork,1973).Thethirdandlongestversion(No.269)isclosetotheoneusedbytheRussianartistI.A.Bilibininhisbeautifulillustratededitionofthetale.

Forscholarshipaboutthe“coatofmanycolors,”seeRabbiJ.H.Hertz,ThePentateuchandtheHaftorahs(London,1976),142.Forthetombpaintings,seePercyE.Newberry,BeniHasanI(London,1893),pl.28,30–31.

ThequotationsfromExoduscomefrom35:25–26and36:8,thatconcerningGoliath’sspearcomesfrom1Samuel17:7,andthepassagefromRevelationcomesfrom16:16.

ThutmoseIII’saccountofthecaptivesandotherbootyfromthebattleofMegiddoispartlytranslatedinJamesH.Breasted,AncientRecordsofEgyptII(Chicago,1906),187–88.

CHAPTER11:PLAINANDFANCY,NEWORTRIEDANDTRUEThestoryoftheEastIndianprintsiscollectedwithothersuchbyBetteHochberginherbooklet

SpinSpanSpun:FactandFolkloreforSpinners(SantaCruz,Calif.,1979),46and62.Thutnofer ’stownhouseispicturedanddiscussedbyNormandeGarisDavies,“TheTownhouse

inAncientEgypt,”MetropolitanMuseumStudies1.2(1929),233–55.Neferronpet’stitlesarefoundinAlanGardinerandA.E.P.Weigall,ATopographicalCatalogueofthePrivateTombsofThebes(London,1913),28,TombNo.133,whileDaviespublisheddrawingsoftheweavingsceneinSevenPrivateTombsatKurnah(London,1948),pl.35(onwhichtheauthor ’sdrawingisbased).WhatcanbegleanedaboutNeferhotep’sweavingsceneisbroughttogetherbyHenryLingRoth,AncientEgyptianandGreekLooms.BankfieldMuseumNotes,series2,No.2(Halifax,1913;2ded.1951),15–16,withillustration.

AllthepiecesoffancyEgyptianclothfromtheEighteenthDynastyarediscussedatlengthbothbyBarber1991,153–62andbyElizabethRiefstahl,PatternedTextilesinPharaonicEgypt(Brooklyn,1944).Bothworkscontainextensivebibliographies.TheAmarnaweaver ’swasteandtheGurobspindlearealsodiscussedinBarber1991,49,note6,and64–66,withreferences.ThedrawingoftheNineBowsandCaptivestapestryfragmentswasbasedonthephotographinG.Daressy,FouillesdelaValléedesRois(Cairo,1902),pl.LVII,no.24987.ThedrawingofKha’sbedspreadwasbasedonE.Schiaparelli,LaTombaintattadell’ArchitettoCha(Turin,1927),131

fig.114.HowardCarterdescribeshisdiscoveryofTutankhamon’stombinvividdetailinhisbookwith

A.C.Mace,TheDiscoveryoftheTombofTutankhamen(NewYork:Dover,1970),areprintofTheTombofTut’Ankh’Amen...(London,1923),vol.1.Thequotationscomefrompp.95–96ofthereprint.

AbriefaccountoftheMitanniprincessesoccursinJohnA.Wilson,TheCultureofAncientEgypt(Chicago,1951),202,230.TheaccusationsagainstPanebarepublishedbyJaroslavĈerný,“PapyrusSalt124(BritishMuseum10055),”JournalofEgyptianArchaeology15(1929),243–58;thequotationisfromp.246.OtherinformationaboutslavesandworkerswasdrawnfromJ.J.Janssen,CommodityPricesfromtheRamessidPeriod(Leiden,1975),andaboutDeirel-MedinahinparticularfromJaroslavĈerný,ACommunityofWorkmenatThebesintheRamessidePeriod(Cairo,1973).

ThetrialofErenofrewaspublishedbyAlanGardineras“ALawsuitArisingfromthePurchaseofTwoSlaves,”JournalofEgyptianArchaeology21(1935),140–46.

Apollonia’sloomisdiscussedbyDianeLeeCarroll,LoomsandTextilesoftheCopts(Seattle,1988),42–44.

ThequotationfromLysias’speech“OntheSlayingofEratosthenes”comesfromsections23–26(Oxforded.).Xenophon’sstoryaboutSocratesandIsomachosoccursinhisEconomics,Book7;thequotationsarefromsections5–6,32–34,35–36,and41,respectively.ThestoryofAristarchosandhisfemalerelativesistoldinhisMemorabilia,Book2;thequotationsarefromsections2,3–5,and12.

ThematerialforstudyingprofessionaltextileworkinAthensistobefoundinWesleyThompson,“Weaving:AMan’sWork,”ClassicalWorld75(1982),217–22,andinA.W.Gomme,ThePopulationofAthensintheFifthandFourthCenturiesB.C.(Oxford,England,1933);thequotationsarefrompp.42and21.

TheHomericquotationaboutthewoolworkercomesfromtheIliad,12.433–35.Plutarchtalksabout“theSpartanlife”atlengthinhisLifeofLykourgos;thequotationisfrom

section14.ThequotationfromMoraliacomesfromsection241d.ConcerningthepeplosofAthena,seeJohnM.Mansfield,“TheRobeofAthenaandthe

PanathenaicPeplos”(Ph.D.thesis,UniversityofCalifornia,1985);Barber1991,361–82;andE.J.W.Barber,“ThePeplosofAthena,”inGoddessandPolis:ThePanathenaicFestivalinAncientAthens,ed.JeniferNeils(Princeton,1992),103–18.Forthefestivalmoregenerally,seeErikaSimon,FestivalsofAttica(Madison,Wis.,1983).

CHAPTER12:POSTSCRIPT:FINDINGTHEINVISIBLEThestoryofPetrieandAmélineauistoldmorefullybyMichaelHoffmaninEgyptbeforethe

Pharaohs(NewYork,1979),268–69.ThequotationisfromW.M.F.Petrie,TheRoyalTombsoftheEarliestDynasties(London,1901),PartII2.

TheFirstDynastyEgyptianshirtwaspublishedbySheilaLandiandRosalindHall,“TheDiscoveryandConservationofanAncientEgyptianLinenTunic,”StudiesinConservation24(1979),141–51.

EmmettBennettJr.’sworkonthefilingsystemsatPylosappearedas“TheFind-SpotsofthePylosTablets”inMycenaeanStudies:Proceedingsofthe3rdInternationalColloquium...,ed.E.

L.BennettJr.(Madison,Wis.,1964),241–52.TheHallstattclothwithliceinitwaspublishedasNo.34(p.141)byH.-J.Hundtin

“VorgeschichtlicheGewebeausdemHallstätterSalzberg,”Jahrbuchdesrömisch-germanischenZentralmuseumsMainz7(1960),126–50.

ForlinguisticanalysesofGreek(includingMycenaean)textileterms,seeBarber1991,260–84.TheloomweightexperimentwasdescribedbyAvigailShefferin“TheUseofPerforatedClay

BallsontheWarp-weightedLoom,”TelAviv8(1981),81–83.Thequotationisfromp.82.ThebasicbookonapplyingsymmetryanalysistoculturalmaterialisDorothyK.Washburnand

DonaldW.Crowe,SymmetriesofCulture(Seattle,1988).TheapplicationtoCretanmotifsappearsbrieflyinE.Barber,“ReconstructingtheAncientAegean/EgyptianTextileTrade,”TextilesinTrade:ProceedingsoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica,BiennialSymposium(Washington,D.C.,1990),104–11.

Index

Pagenumberslistedcorrespondtotheprinteditionofthisbook.Youcanuseyourdevice’ssearchfunctiontolocateparticulartermsinthetext.d=definition,i=illustration,m=map,t=table/chart

Aamu,253iAbraham,252Abydos,187m,288Acemhöyük,168,168mAchaians,153,211,215Achilles,124,228acid:aspreservative,56,86,90acquisitiveness,54,72,275Acropolis,154,242,282,297AdamandEve,252Adana,187m,202,203iAegean,73m,102–3,105,108,110,113–17,122,124–25,152,162,199,209m,214,216–18,227–28,237,241–44,281–82Aeschylus,233Afghanistan,150,154Africa,54,76,102,131,141,165,198,238Agamemnon,215AinMallaha,73,73mAinu,239Akhenaton,195,260t,266–67Akkad,168mAkkadian,132,173AlacaHöyük,207–9,208i,209m,211,214Albania,55m,62i,65,155,239Albanian(language),66–67,67ialkali:aspreservative,90Alkinoos,120–21,124Alkmene,240Alps,18,100Altai,131Amarna,187m,195,266–67Amélineau,E.,288AmenhotepII,259,260t,263AmenhotepIII,260t,264,266,270Americas,27,41,53,66–67,95–96,121,125,127,142,148,154,186,199,228Amish,125Amon(Amun),190–91,261,271analogy,94,161–63,235,238–39,251Anatolia(n),67i,95,136,166–75,168m,180,184,209m,211,224,254,294,299Andria,278Andromache,155,212ankh,157,269Aphrodite,60–61,236–40,237i,281Apollo,153,240Apollonia,273apprentice,181,224Aqba-Hammu,175,179Arachne,240–41,241iArete,120–21Argos(Argolid),65,209m,214,216Ariadne,124,239Aristarchos,278–80,283

Aristophanes,116Armageddon,187m,255–56,259Armenia(n),67i,167,168marrephoroi,282Ashur,168m,169–70,173–74,178Asia,27,41,53,131,150,161,228,290Assyria,164,168m,173,175Assyrians,26t,168–71,184Asyut,199Atchity,K.,119Athena,101,116,119–20,151,157,229,239–44,241i,244i,281–82,285,297–98Athens,116,119,149,154,209m,212–13,221,229,232,239,241–44,273–83,297Atropos,235Attica,144iAustria,18,21,290

Babylon,168m,175,180Babylonia(ns),26t,168m,171,173Bacchus,240Balkans,32i,56,61,93–94,103,117,130–31,137,139,141–42,144–45,243,254Ball,J.,252Baltic,66,67i,73m,167Banat,61,140Baqt,196iBarber,E.,119Barber,P.,292Batak,160–61BayeuxTapestry,155,229beads,43,91,96,130,183,202,204i,210,212–14Bedouin,80,293BeniHasan,187m,191i,196i,253iBennett,E.,289Beowulf,228Berehinia,157,159iBible,42,130,184,190,192,245,252–56,294birds,48,156,159i,232–33,240,244i,244,248i,248,251BlackSea,154,230black,62,102,111,128,138,150,198,203,230i,252,264bodypaint,78i,93,131,148bogfinds,86–87,140,223Boiling,G.,155bonesdeformedbywork,96,204iborders,23,70,92–93,110,113–14,167,223–26,266i,269,295Bowen-Jones,H.,218breaking(braking),85d,90breastfeeding,29–30,59,181,275bride,59,124,152,162,226,233,240,247,249–51,275Britain,21,99,102,136,139,228Broholm,H.,86Brontë,C,33BronzeAge,24,26t,27d,56–58,63–64,68–69,84,86,95,99,101–28,132,137,141–42,144,159,161,166–229,252–72,281,

283,285Brown,J.,29–30,33,206Brünhilde,229Bulgaria,61,141,142iburialmounds,228–29Byzantium,248

Cairo,187m,195Calypso,87Cambodia,154carding,22,36dCarnarvon,Lord,268

Carpathians,73m,100carrying,45,48,54,76,139Carter,H.,268–69ÇatalHüyük,73m,77,78–79i,80,167Caucasus,67,73m,98–100,137–38,256ÇayönüTepesi,98Celtic,67i,137Celts,19i,21,137,139changedlaterform,65,67–68,138,245,255,291childbearing,29,44i,59,62,65–66,69,72,76–77,78–79i,150,151,155–56,160–61,216,235–36,238–39,242,245,247,273–

75,277,281,285,294China,27,128,132,143Chinese,38,53,165Christians,151,245,248Christie,A.,286chronology,25,26(chart),211Chryseis,215–16Cîrna,73m,141,142iCleopatra,201clothbeam,81,82iclothing:archaic,125–26,139;asbooty,137,255,290;asgift,154,175,179–80,180,209,226,233,270,282–83;associalsignal,

60–62,69,126,128,132,146–53,291;basicnotionsof,127,133,138,141,145,291;earliest,43,54,128–31,129i,134,135i,137,198,288;modernsimilartoancient,61,87,88–89i,127,138–42,142i,144–45,155;typesof:apron,61,62i,113,139–41,140i,144,155;belt(sash,girdle),55,60–61,63,64i,65,68,78,83,110,113,129,132–34,137,140,142–43,159–60,162,183–84,208,224,240,243,282;blouse,58,140;bodice,110,114,141;chemise,61,125,137d,139–42,162,229,235,248;cloak,86,134,139,142,155,211,226,229,275,277,279;coatofmanycolors,252–53,253i;coatwithoutseam,255;headdress,19i,21,116,129i,130,150,155,171,172i,182i,204;jacket,144;jumper,134,140i,141,201–2,203i;kilt,21,110,134,139,141,144i,144,150,186,201,224;loincloth,110,141,144,224;overwrap,68,137–42,140i,162;shirt,134,135i,136,139–40,l42d,144,234,249,279,288–89;shoes,56,144–45,144i,224,269;skirt,110,114,128,133–34,139–41,140i,157,202,261;sleeve,133–37,135i,141,183,248i,248,250–51,269;stringskirt,44i,44–45,54–70,55m,56–58i,62i,64i,83,128,140,150,155,240,295;trousers,142–44;runic,68,86,118,125,132–39,134i,142,157–58,162,202,203–4i,226–27,229,252–53,264,269–70,279;vest,68,290

Collinder,B.,47colorfast,114,131,198,210Columbus,66–67combing,22,36d,63,85,171,172,218–20,224,277communalwork,18,23,85–89,95,107,222–23comparativereconstruction,47–51,138,291–92,298compatibilitywithchildcare,29–30,33,54,75,95,98–99,165–66,206,257,283,294Copenhagen:NationalMuseum,57iCorinth,209m,214,233,240,241iCorsica,239cosmetics,200–201,201i,220,274–75cotton,31,33–35,61,133,161,258courting,88,117,276i,284icouvade,239creation,160–61,236–38,251Crete,101–25,158i,209m,210,224–25,239,297Crimea,229,230iCrnokalačkaBara,55m,56iCroatian,67i,89,117,148Crowfoot,G.,194Cyprus,114,144,187m

Daedalus,124Dalley,S.,172,176,178Danaë,240dancing,87,88i,89,111,112i,117,124,156,205,247–51,248i,286,292Danube,73m,90–91,93,141,236,242darning,40d,41Deianeira,233Deirel-Medinah,271Delphi,153

Denmark,18,25,30–31,56–58,70,86,140,160Dickens,C,33distaff,37d,184,238,248,273,298ddivorce,120,171–72domestication,25,47–48,53,72–77,96–97,101,132,164dowry,171–72draftspinning,35–36,247,298ddragon’sblood,233–34Drenok,55m,64idyes,22,91,98,103,107,109,113–15,127,132,161,176,198,202,210,220,223,225,230,262–64,266–67,277,289

edging:seebordereggs,48–49,84,94–95,156–7,251,290Egtved,55m,57i,58,70Egypt,23,26t,27,80i,81,83,102,104,106,109–10,114,128,132,134–36,144,150,152,168m,185–207,187m,217,252–56,

259–73,288,294,298;Coptic,255,288;MiddleKingdom,26t,80i,110i,186,188,191i,193i,196i,198–206,203–4i,252,253i,260;NewKingdom,26t,152i,190,193i,199–200,201i,206,259–73,294,296;OldKingdom,26t,134,186,198–99,202,204i,288

English,46,67i,68,132,137,213,241,245,290entertainment,18,86–89,118,123,178,196i,206Epictetus,147Episkopi-Kourion,144iEratosthenes,273–74Erechtheum,242Erenofre,271ergastinai,154,282Etruscans,221–22,222iEuphrates,168m,172,175,179Eurasia,47,138,143Euripides,153,210,234Europa,240Eurykleia,224

Faiyum,187m,267fateasspunthread,235–36,242Fates,235–36,242,245–46fertility(female),59,63,77,94–95,149,155–57,161–62,241,247–48fiber-wettingbowl,104,106i,191i,192,254Finland,69,87,128,222Finnish,46,47i,61,247fish,49,102,131,157,248i,248,251fixative,114,220flags,114,148flax,31,34,53,80,83,85,90,102,106,132,137,184,189–92,206,218,234–35,246–47,259,277foodpreparation,24,30,49–50,54,83–84,95–97,102,107,178,184,188,195,205,208,221,249,271,273,277,279,285,294Foster,G.,31France,21,43–45,51,165,218,220,245,258,271,285,288Frankfort,HenriandH.A.,292French,39,46,67,67i,137,213,239,245,291FrogPrincess,249–51frogs,157,249–51

Gagarino,55,55m,56i,60garment:seeclothingGaskill,E.,33German,67i,68,213Germanic,67i,227,229,236Germany,21,56,93,156,160,234Gezer,187m,254Giants,120,154,282Gimbutas,M.,155Giselle,156Gittinger,M.,161

Glory,A.,51–53Goetze,A.,299Goliath,254–55Gomme,A.,278Gordion,166,209m,229Gorgon,210Gortyna,120grainpreparation,25,73,96–97,122,165–66,177–78,188,204i,205–6,215,271–72,274,279,290Gravettian,26t,43–44,54,55m,56,61,69Greece,23,26t,27,31,65,94,104,107,114–15,125,137,185,208–31,209m,273–83,291,295–98Greek(language),65–68,67i,102,120,213,215,215i,227–28,235,241,243,290–91Greeks,38i,82i,87,116–21,132,134,136,149,153–57,185,207–44,241i,251,273–83,284i,291,297–98Grimmbrothers,246grinders,25,96,107,122,166,171–72,178,188,190,204i,205–6,215,271–72,274Gurob,187m,193i,267gut/sinew,44,50

Hacilar,73m,77hackling,85d,91Hades,240HagiaTriada,112i,124,209mHald,M.,86Halley’sComet,155Hallstatt,19–20i,23,26t,73m,87,88i,290,293Hammurabi,175,179Hargreaves,J.,38Hatshepsut,150,254,260tHawaii(an),102,141,155,228Hayes,W.,200,202headingband,70,92,222–23Hebrew,132,184,192,253,255Hecuba,212,227heddlebar,40d,41i,197heddle,17–18,22,40d,41,41i,243HelenofTroy,119,153,207,210–12,226,229hemp,34,53,61,85,106,132–33,290Hephaistos,240Hepzefa,199Hera,60–61,68,244Herakles,233.Hermione,119Herodotus,185–86,189,194,273Hesiod,239,282Hestia/Vesta,68Hittite(s),67i,177,224,227Hmong,154Hoffer,E.,257Hoffmann,M.,87,221–22Holmes,S.,299Homer,60,87,101,116–25,139,153–55,166,209–12,214–17,219,224,226–27,229,235,242–44,257,278Hopi,60,95–96Hopkinson,B.,293Horoztepe,209,209mhorticulture,76,85,95–96,101–3,116–17,122Hungarian(language),46,47iHungary,21,81,83–84,84i,86–88,88–89i,91,93–94,130–31,235–36hunter-gatherers,42,48,54,76Hydra,233

Ikhenaten:seeAkhenatonIliad:seeHomerIltani,175–80India,27,66–67,81,113,141,258

Indie,67i,227Indo-European,46–47,66,67i,68,113,132,137–38,142,150,224,227,229,242–44,291Indonesia,151IndustrialRevolution,30,33,38,45inheritance,66,95,120,176,263,290innovation,25,27,32,42,70–71,80,98–101,104,127,142,145,164–66,257–63,285Ion,153,210Ionia,281,283Iran,99,167,168mIranian(language),66,67iIraq,41,77–78,83,96Irgenhausen,73m,90–91,92iIris,153IronAge,24,26t,27d,109,131,137,140,149,151–52,166,197,214,219,225,229,242,245,254,257,273,290,293–94Isimkheb,200Isomachos,275–77Israel,72,129–30,254,293–94Italian(language),67,67i,245,291Italy,43,222,264,276Itys,232–33

Jacob,252Jacobsen,T.,292Japan,106,141,148,228,239Jarmo,73m,77–80Jason,233Jericho,130Jesus,151,245,255Joseph,252–53,253iJoshua,130JudeanDesert,130Jutland,86

Kafir,150Kahlenberg,M.,151Kanesh,168–70,168m,174Karana,168m,175–76,179,227Karata§,209,209mKastorandPolydeuces,119Keller,G.,232kemp,91,103,219Kephalovrisso,55m,65Kerma,187m,202kermes,113Kertch,230ikeys,62–63,251Kha,162i,264,265iKhety,196iKhnemhotep,191i,253ikillpattern,97–98,106Kipling,R.,233Klotho,235Knidos,209m,217Knossos,123,151i,158i,209m,216,224–25,239Kostienki,55m,55Kovacs,M.,235–36Kuban,137,162Kültepe,168,168m!Kung,54,76Kybele,77

Labyrinth,239Lachesis,235

Lachish,187m,254Lagash,168m,180Laistrygonia,77lakedwellings,26t,85,90–93Lakonia,281Lamassi,170–75language:change,66–67,138,245;divergence,67,138,291;originsof,59–60,147Lapps/Lappish,46,47i,223Lascaux,43,51–53,55m,289Latin,36,67i,68,119,132,137,213,245,253,291laundry,117–18,123,133,196i,198–99,206,247Leda,240legalrights,120–21,171–73,175,206,272–73,275,296Lemnos,209m,217Lespugue,44,44i,54,55m,61,295Levant,81,259Libya,102LinearA,227–28LinearB,215i,215–17,221,224–25,227–28,289–90linen,34d,61,90,103–4,107,122,129i,129–30,132–37,155,184–86,,189–202,205–6,210,212,214,218,226,232,234–35,,

234–35,253–54,256,260,262–64,266–67,270–72;asmoney,200,206,272,288–89,296linguisticreconstruction,46–48,66,68,138,290,291Lithuania,69Littleton,C.S.,292loanwords,47–48,132,134,137,221,243,245,291London:BritishMuseum,181,271;PetrieMuseum,135i,136,288loomweights,81,83,91,93,107,166,223,244,244i,254–55,287,291,293–94loom,17–18,22–23,39d,41i,122,166,172–73,190,195,216,256,266,273,287,296;band-,81,221–23,222i,243;

developmentof,78–84;horizontalground-,80i,80–81,83,180i,186,191i,196i,196–97,259–60,263,272;onroof,107,195;power-,31,33,38;spreadoftypes,81,83;verticaltapestry-,41,186,260–64,261–62i,270,272;warp-weighted-,41,81,82i,83–84,84i,87,88i,92–93,213,216i,221–23,241i,243,255,259,276,282,291,293–95,298

lozenge,62i,62–63,65,78,155,161–62,251Lugalanda,180–81Lysias,119,273–74,277,281

Macedonia(n),55m,56i,62i,63,64i,65,67i,155madder,113–14magic,65–66,78,94,130,149,155–63,189,234–35,238,249–52maletextileworkers,176,254,257,259–61,261–62i,270,277Malta,73m,77,78i,102,218maps,55m,73m,168m,187m,209m,295–96Maraş,168m,177iMari,168m,172i,175–76,178–79,179i,227maritalstatus,59–60,128,147marriage,51,59,117,120–21,151–52,,171–72,226,246–51,273,275;symbolof,60–62,69,140,147,155Masai,165massproduction,225matriliny,95,119–20Medea,233–34Mediterranean,27,43,73m,79,101,103–4,106,137,144,162,165,168m,203i,209m,218,255Megiddo,187m,255Melos,167,209m,236,237iMenelaos,119,153,226Menkheperraseneb,110menstruation,59,115,150,162Merzifon,209,209mMesolithic,24–26d,47–48,69Mesopotamia,23,27,37,73m,81,83,96–97,128,133–34,165,170–84,180i,182i,188–89,202,203i,209,217–18,221,225,

228,259,270,273metal,21,25,27,30,48,56–58,98–99,132,167–73,206–9,259,272,290Midas,229MiddleAges,22,38,62,148–49,153,210–11,218,226,247–48,290Miletos,209m,217

milk,59,97–98,102,164–65,216Minoan(s),26t,101–26,150–51,157–58,166,210–11,215,221,225,227–28,297;dress,110–13,110–12i,114,115i,125,125i,

141,144,151i,158i,224;textilepatterns,109,110–12i,113,224Minos,239Minotaur,239Mitanni,270Mithraism,160modesty,55,58–59,128,275Moirai,235–36,238Mokosh(Mokusha),247money,94,170,172,200;244,258–59,280,296Mongolia,53Moralia,281mordant,114Mordvin(language),46,47iMordvins,55m,60–61,62i,65Moses,253murex,113–14,210Murten,73m,90–91Mycenae,137,209m,214–15,227–28,255Mycenaeans,26t,119,134,136,144,214–27,255,289–90,294–95,297Mykonos,108i,209mMyrtos,104–9,113,166,209m

NaḥalḤemar,73m,129,129iNausikaa,117–18,120needle,43,50Neferronpet,261–62,262iNeolithic,24–26d,27,37,41,47,53–54,56,65,71–101,103,128–32,156,166–67,229,243,258,275,291Neptune,242Nessos,233–34net,43,45,49–50,53–54,69,85,91,129i,129–30,202,283;knot-less,65Netherlands,65,159–60,218nettle,53,133,234–35NewYork:MetropolitanMuseumofArt,200Nibelungenlied,229Nile,187m;seealsoEgyptNineBowsandCaptives,264,266iNorns,236Norway,87,221–23,295numbermagic,65,159–60,162

obesity,59,76–77,79iOdysseus,116–24,224,226,242–43Odyssey:seeHomerØlby,55m,58ioralhistory,116,229orchardcrops,96,102,105i,122,241Orion,153outriders,84,96,102,122overseer,178–81,190–91,191i,196i,205,221,224,271Ovid,233,240

Palaeolithic,24–26d,42–72,74,76,83–84,103,128,166,283Palestine,187m,190,252,253i,254–55,270,294Panathenaia,281–82Pandora,239–40Paneb,270–72Parcae,236,245Paris:Louvre,236;Muséedel’Homme,45Patriarchs,252Patroklos,228pavilions,152–53,152i,199–200

Péloponnèse,209m,218Penelope,153–54,227,229,243permanentsettlement,54,71–73,76–77,95,143,283Persians,157,185–86,298perspective,197,259–60Petrie,W.M.F.,134,136,287Petsofá,111i,209mPhaiakians,116–24,226pharaohs:successionlistof,260tPheretima,273Phidias,157Philadelphia:UniversityMuseum,181Philistines,255,294Philomela,232–33Phoenicia,187m,210Phrygia,209m,229piecework,216–18plaid,18,19–20i,21–22,138–40plainweave,39d,40ipleating,135i,136,139,198,288Pleiades,153Plutarch,280–81plying,22,39d,51i,52,56,194Poirot,H.,286Pompeii,277Poland,156population,72,76,85,99,101–2,278Poseidon,120,124,240–42PotniaTheron,157pottery,32,54,72,94–95,111,130,225,255,292–94Priam,211–12Prokne,232–33prostitutes,278,280protection,102,155,157,159i,162,241–42,246,248,280Pu-abi,181PuebloIndians,96,121purple,113–14,119,150,153–54,184,210–11,231,234,254,282Pushu-ken,170,173–74Pylos,209m,215i,217,219,221,225,227,289

Qau,110,187mqueens,150,175–78,181–83,209–12,,227–28,230,245–47,270,276

RaidersoftheLostArk,287RamesesII,254,261RamesesVI,268red,62–65,78,91,94,109,113–14,128,130,138,142–43,150,159,162,173,182,184,194,198,205,230i,254,264,266–67replica,18–24,19–20i,91,92i,293,295reproductionstrategy,59retting,54,69d,85d,190,234–35,246Robenhausen,90Romania(ns),61–62,62i,65,67i,139,142i,155Romans,25,68,113,132,137,149–50,160,162,210,214,227,233,236–38,242,245rope-making,34,53,189,194,196i,260,261iroses,155,162,246Roswinkel,65,159Rumpelstiltskin,246Rusalii,248rusalki,156–57,247–49,248i,251Russia,46,54,56i,61–62,128,140–41,156,159i,232,249–51Russian(language),46,67i,213

sacredknot,151,151isaffron,113–15,115i,150,154,162,282salt,18–19,21,241,290,293Sappho,281Scandinavia,81,141,223,234Schaffis,90Schliemann,H.,211–13,227Scots,19,21,138–39,141selectivebreeding,74–75,97,219,290Semitic,68,132,134,136,202Serbia(n),55m,56i,61–62,67i,89,117,140–41,155sewing,30,43,50,85,133,155,167,183,199,218,225–26,245,269,277,283shearingsheep,22,31,218–19,247shedbar,41ished,40d,41i,107,222–23Sheffer,A.,293–94Shibtu,176Shub-ad,181,183Siegfried,229silk,34,103,132,143,194,210singing,85,87,89,124,176,178,190,205Šipintsi,55m,56iSitSnefru,201,203islaves,166,171,173–74,176–78,184,191,206,215–17,224,226–27,255–56,258,261,262i,270–72,274–75,277–80,296Slavic(language),66–67,67i,157,247Slavs,65,94,134,156,159i,162,247–49,251SleepingBeauty,207,245–46snakes,49,157,158i,210,251Socrates,221,275–77,278–80Sopron,73m,88iSpain,21,43,99Spanish,46,67,67i,245,291Sparta,119,153,209m,210,228,280–81spindlewhorls,37d,91,104,107,166,192,193i,194,208,214,251,294spindles,36d,37–38,91,122,166,172–73,179–80i,184,192,193i,194–95,207–12,208i,214,226–27,231,238,245–46,250–

51,267,273;drop-,37,38i,191i,196ispinningjenny,31,33,38spinningwheel,38,247spinning:atneed,69;fate,235–36,242;handmethodsof,34–39,35i,38i,80i,177i,180i,191i,196i,220i,238;originsof,43,45;

positionfor,237i,238;rateof,31,38,87–88,180–81;reverse-,159;whiledoingotherthings,31,32i,88i,177i;wordfor,238spirals,109,110i,113,125splicing,35,191–92,191i,254,298dsprang,65,87startingband:seeheadingbandsteppes,27,137–38,142–43Stingermissile,154StoneAge,24–27;seealsoPalaeolithic,Mesolithic,NeolithicStonehenge,102storycloths,153–55,211,229,230i,232,240,282,298string:earliestpreserved,51i,51–53subconsciouscognition,138,291,297Suberde,73m,73–74Sudan,37,187m,202Sumatra,151,160Sumerian(s),26t,132–33,137,150,166,172i,180–83,182i,202SwanLake,156Switzerland,26t,85,90–93symmetry,296–97Syria,72–73,96,136,158,168m,169,180,187m,202,256,268–69,295Syrus,P.,286Szentendre,236

tailoring,141,277Tanagra,125,125i,209m

tapestryweave,104,180,184,263–65,265i,266i,269–70Taphos,209m,217Tarkhan,134,135i,187mTelemachos,226TellAsmar,203iTellBeitMirsim,187m,254tension,39,81,83,223,260Tereus,232–33textiles:associalsignals,147–53,265(seealsoclothing);forkeepingrecords,149,153–55,229,231,282,285;whywomen’swork,

29Thebes(Egypt),110,152i,187m,191,195,207,259,261–62i,265i,267,270Thebes(Greece),209m,215Theogony,282Thera,114–15,115i,124,150,154,209mTheseus,239Thessaly,94,209mThrace,232ThreeSpinsters,246ThutmoseIII,150,254–55,259,260t,263,270ThutmoseIV,259,260t,263–64,270Thutnofer,259–61,261itime,89–90,93–94,161,235,258–59,285Tiryns,227TiszaRiver,73m,83,93Tiszajenő,73m,84itradecolony,154,168–70,168i,173–74,230itrade,96,99,102,104,109,167–71,168i,175,229,258–59,284,294,297Trindhøj,86TrojanWar,26t,60,116,119,153,211–12trousseau,18,117Troy,60,116,153,155,209m,211–14,227–28;seealsoHelenofTroyTurkey,41,72–73,77–79,83,98,102,131,136,144,167–68,177,202,207–9,209m,211–13,229Turkish,213Tutankhamon,157,260t,267–70twill,18,19–20i,21d,22,104,138–39twist,34,35i,36–37,44,50,52,54,192,194,295Tyre,187m,210

Ukraine,54,55m,56i,56,61,94,139,156–57,159i,247–48Ur,168m,181–83,182iUralic,46–51,47i,61,67,69Urals,46,61Urukagina,180

ValleyoftheKings,267Veenhof,K.,174VenusdeMilo,133,236–38,237iVenusfigure,44i,44–45,54–55,56i,59–61,76,295Vienna:NaturalHistoryMuseum,19i,21Villanovans,222vily:seewilliesVinča,55m,56iVlachs,61,65vocationalschool,85,194,196iVogt,E.,91Volga,61,242

Wagner,R.,236Wah,200WahkaII,110Walachia(ns),55m,61,62iWales,252Waqartum,171,173–75Ward,W.,206

warp,17–18,20i,23,39d,40,41i,70,80i,81,82i,92,104,122,195–97,210,222–23,260–66,282,298;circular,160–61;cutendsof,266–67

warping,17,22–23,80i,180i,194–96,196i,221–23,222i,262iWarren,P.,107,109,113weaver’smark,197–98,263weaving,39d,41i,80i,180i;earliest,70,78;innovationinstructureof,104,263weft,17–18,20i,23–24,39d,40,41i,70,87,91,136,160–61,197,223,263–65;circular,255;crossing,24,86–87;supplementary,

91,92i,229,263;twining,57,167weft-facedweave,104,263wethers,98,216white,61,103,108i,109,111,113–14,128,132–33,137–38,156,162,194,198,202,205,206,223,230i,232,248,251–52,256,

262–64,272WilliamofNormandy,154–55,229willies(vily),156,247–49,248i,251Wilson,J.,292woad,113women:criteriaforworkof,29;inbusinessforself,164,169–75,225,273,278–81,283;migrationof,254,294–95;occupationsof,

24,81,122,164,166,170–71,178,180–84,188,190,199,204–6,215,218–26,272–73,278,280,285–86,290;rightsof,120–21,171–72,206,225,272–73,280–85,296

wool,17,19i,22,31,34,56–58,65,86,97–98,101,103–4,106–7,119,127,132–33,137–41,155,159,162,164,171–73,176–78,184,189,193,210,214,216–24,244,247,252–55,259,266–67,273,275,277–78,280,282,284i,290,293

Woolley,L.,181–83workparty,86,117–18workshops,80i,180,190–94,191i,196–97,196i,217,262iworsted,17,36dWu-ling,143

Xenophon,275,278,281

yellow,109,113–16,138,153,162,198,264,282Yugoslavia,62–63i,65,131;seealsoBalkans,Croatia,Macedonia,Serbia

Zeus,60–61,68,240,282Zimri-Lim,175–76,,178–80zostra,65–66,68,155Zurich:SwissNationalMuseum,91,92i

“TheabidingfascinationofherbookisthewayMs.Barberweavesthestrandsofmythologyandliterature,archaeology,ethnology,anddocumentedhistoryintoarichtapestry....Adelighttoread.”

—JohnNobleWilford,NewYorkTimesBookReview

“Herscholarshipisactive,wide,anddeep....ElizabethBarberisasknowingandperceptiveasanyarchaeologist-authorinsight....Hertopiciswonderfullyfresh.”

—PhilipMorrison,ScientificAmerican

“Afascinatinghistoryof...[acraft]thatprecededandmadepossiblecivilizationitself”—NewYorkTimesBookReview

OTHERBOOKSBYELIZABETHWAYLANDBARBER

ArchaeologicalDeciphermentPrehistoricTextiles

ElizabethWaylandBarberteachesatOccidentalCollegeinCalifornia.SheistheauthorofPrehistoricTextiles,anauthoritativestudyofthetechnicaldevelopmentofthecraft.Herlatestbook,TheMummiesofÜrümchi,isalsopublishedbyNorton.

Copyright©1994byElizabethWaylandBarberAllrightsreserved

FirstpublishedasaNortonpaperback1995

BookdesignbyJAMDesign.

TheLibraryofCongresshascatalogedtheprintededitionasfollows:Barber,E.J.W.,1940–

Women’swork:thefirst20,000years:women,cloth,andsocietyinearlytimes/ElizabethWaylandBarber.p.cm.

Includesbibliographicalreferences(p.)andindex.1.Textilefabrics,Prehistoric.2.Women,Prehistoric.

3.Textilefabrics,Ancient.4.Women—History.I.Title.GN799.T43B371994

305.4′3′09—dc2093-47924

ISBN978-0-393-31348-2ISBN978-0-393-28558-1(e-book)

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