Dictionary of-environment-ecology

DICTIONARY OFENVIRONMENT

& ECOLOGY

FIFTH EDITION

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DICTIONARY OFENVIRONMENT

& ECOLOGY

FIFTH EDITION

P.H. Collin

A BLOOMSBURY REFERENCE BOOK


Originally published by Peter Collin Publishing

First published 1985Second edition published 1992Third edition published 1995Fourth edition published 2001Fifth edition published 2004

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB

Copyright © P.H. Collin 1985, 1992, 1995, 2001This edition copyright © Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 2004

All rights reserved. No part of this publication maybe reproduced in any form or by any means without the

prior written permission of the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0222-0

Text production and proofreadingKaty McAdam, Joel Adams, Charlotte Regan,

Sarah Lusznat, Heather Bateman, Emma Harris

All papers used by Bloomsbury Publishing are natural, recyclableproducts made from wood grown in well-managed forests. The paper usedin this book is 100% recycled and contains 20 - 25% post-consumer waste

material which was de-inked using chlorine free methods. Themanufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of the

country of origin.

Text processing and computer typesetting by BloomsburyPrinted and bound in Italy by Legoprint


Contents

IntroductionPrefaceThe DictionarySupplements

Nitrogen Cycle, Carbon CycleBeaufort scaleRichter scaleOutline Criteria for Threatened SpeciesCritically Endangered SpeciesNatural DisastersManmade Disasters

IntroductionFew things in the universe are constant over thousands or millions ofyears, not the orbit of the Earth around the sun, the height of erodingmountains, the distribution of boreal forests, or the abundance of aparticular species. As we shift our attention from the stellar and global tothe regional and local, then the more likely it is that we will encounterthings that change over even short spans of time.

Dictionaries contribute to communication by providing definitions whichdeliver consistency of meaning. But consistency is not the same asconstancy. With the passage of time, new dictionaries, or new editions ofold ones, are necessary, because new subject areas develop, new terms areintroduced or the meanings of words change. Examples of all of thesedevelopments are to be found in the following pages, as is to be expectedin such dynamic fields of study as environment and ecology. Indocumenting change, dictionaries not only record developments inlanguage and human endeavour, but also reflect the reality of the naturalworld.

As this dictionary goes to press it is perhaps global climatic change andthe high rate of extinction of species which are the best exemplars of this.Change can be a challenge to those with an interest in ecology or theenvironment, as that interest rightly engenders a commitment to seek toconserve what we know and value. It can also create tensions betweencompeting interests within the same field, as conflict between theprotection of bird life and the perceived need for offshore wind farms hasillustrated. But the entities we are aware of are more than features in theirown right, they are also the products of fundamental processes whichseem remarkably constant over time. These processes, such as glaciation,erosion, mutation, evolution, competition and decay have created thelandscapes, communities, plants and animals we observe and study. Asecologists and environmentalists it is primarily these processes which westudy, and it is perhaps these which we should value and conserve asmuch as their temporary products. This shift in emphasis may be one ofthe future developments in thinking in ecology and environment and achange to be recorded in later editions of this dictionary.

Dr John HarveySecretary, Eurosite

PrefaceThis dictionary provides the user with a wide range of vocabulary fromacross the fields of environment and ecology, and also includes generalterms frequently used in scientific documents and reports, as well as somemore informal terms seen in the media. Words and phrases cover manyaspects from contaminated land and landfill sites to climate change andbiofuels.

The dictionary is designed for anyone who needs to check the meaning ofan environmental or ecological term, but especially for those for whomEnglish is an additional language. Each entry is explained in clearstraightforward English and examples are given to show how the wordsare used in normal contexts. Quotations from reports and publicationsgive recent uses of some words. In some cases, additonal informationabout a word is added in a Note, or a wider context is offered in aComment. Irregular plurals and verb forms, and other helpful usage pointsare included.

Thanks are due to Dr John Harvey, Professor Graham Jellis, JudithCheney, Steven Griffiths and Susan Jellis for valuable comments andadvice on the text for this fifth edition.

Aabateabate verb to become less strong or in-tense � The wind has abated.abatement

abatement noun a reduction in strengthor intensity � water pollution abatementabiotic

abiotic adjective not relating to a livingorganismabiotic factor

abiotic factor noun something which in-fluences the environment but which is notproduced by living organisms, e.g. wind,temperature or rainfall. Compare bioticfactorabiotic stress

abiotic stress noun stress caused by thephysical and chemical aspects of an organ-ism’s environmentabiotic stress resistance

abiotic stress resistance noun resist-ance in organisms to stress arising fromnon-biological causes such as drought orsalinityablation

ablation noun 1. the removal of the toplayer of something 2. the removal of snowor ice from the surface of a glacier by melt-ing or by the action of the windabortabort verb 1. to stop a process or the de-velopment of something before it is fin-ished, or to stop developing � The flowersabort and drop off in hot, dry conditions,with no fruit developing. 2. to give birth be-fore the usual end of a pregnancy(technical) Also called miscarryabrasionabrasion noun the wearing away by fric-tion of a material, especially the erosion ofrock by the action of particles suspended inwater, ice or windabscissionabscission noun the shedding of a leafor fruit due to the formation of a layer ofcells between the leaf or fruit and the rest ofthe plant (NOTE: It occurs naturally in au-tumn, e.g. leaf fall, or at any time of the yearin response to stress.)absolute

absolute adjective 1. very great � abso-lute confidence in the results 2. complete ortotal � No absolute correlation with cli-mate change has yet been established. 3.measured relative to a standard � noun anunchanging principleabsorbabsorb verb to take something in � Warmair absorbs moisture more easily than coldair. � Salt absorbs moisture from the air.absorbentabsorbent adjective able to absorb

absorptionabsorption noun the process of taking inwater, dissolved minerals and other nutri-ents across cell membranesabsorptive capacityabsorptive capacity noun the abilityof a substance or part of an organism to takeup something such as moisture or nutrientsabstractabstract noun a short summary of a doc-ument � It’s quicker to search through theabstracts than the full text. � verb 1. to re-move water from a river or other source forindustrial, horticultural or agricultural use2. to take something such as gas, oil, min-eral resources or gravel from the groundabstractionabstraction noun 1. the removal of waterfrom a river or other source for industrial,horticultural or agricultural use 2. the re-moval of something such as gas, oil, miner-al resources or gravel from the groundabstraction licenceabstraction licence noun a licenceissued by a regulatory body to allowabstraction, e.g. of water from a river, lakeor aquifer for domestic or commercial usesuch as irrigationabundanceabundance noun 1. a large amount ornumber of something � The area supportsan abundance of wildlife. 2. a measure ofquantity applied to plants or animals, oftenbased on density or frequencyabundantabundant adjective occurring or availa-ble in large quantities � a region of abun-dant rainfall � The ocean has an abundantsupply of krill.abyssabyss noun a very deep part of the seaabyssalabyssal adjective referring to the deepestpart of the seaabyssobenthicabyssobenthic adjective referring to anorganism living on the floor of the deepestpart of a sea or lakeabyssopelagicabyssopelagic adjective referring to anorganism living in the deepest part of a seaor lake, at depths greater than 3000macaricideacaricide noun a substance used to killmites and ticks. Also called acaridicideacaridacarid noun a small animal which feedson plants or other animals by piercing theouter skin and sucking juices, e.g. a mite ortickAcaridaAcarida noun the order of animals includ-ing mites and ticks. Also called Acarinaacaridicideacaridicide noun same as acaricideAcarinaAcarina noun same as Acarida

EcolEnv.fm Page 1 Thursday, April 15, 2004 6:35 PM

acceptable daily intake 2acceptable daily intakeacceptable daily intake noun thequantity of a substance such as a nutrient,vitamin, additive or pollutant which a per-son or animal can safely consume dailyover their lifetime. Abbr ADIacceptable limitsacceptable limits plural noun the upperand lower limits within which something isgenerally regarded as suitable by a largenumber of people or by legislation � Thenoise from the road falls within acceptablelimits. � The acceptable limits for suchchemicals in food and animal feed arestrictly regulated.accessaccess noun 1. a place of entry, or theright of entry, to somewhere 2. the right ofthe public to go onto uncultivated privateland for recreation. � Countryside andRights of Way Actaccess orderaccess order noun a court order whichgives the public the right to go on privatelandaccess roadaccess road noun a road that allowsonly the properties on it to be reached andis not for general trafficacclimatisationacclimatisation, acclimatization, ac-climation noun the process of adapting to adifferent environment (NOTE: This processis known as acclimatisation if the changesoccur naturally and acclimation if they areproduced in laboratory conditions.)acclimatiseacclimatise, acclimatize verb 1. to makean organism become used to a different en-vironment, usually a change in climate 2. tobecome used to a different sort of environ-mentaccretionaccretion noun 1. the growth of inorgan-ic objects by the attachment of material totheir surface 2. the growth of a substancearound an object � an accretion of calciumround the joint 3. an accumulation of sedi-mentsaccumulateaccumulate verb 1. to collect and in-crease � Cold air flows downwards and ac-cumulates over low ground. � Sedimentand debris accumulate at the bottom of alake. 2. to gather several things togetherover a period of time � We have graduallyaccumulated a large collection of plantspecimens.accumulationaccumulation noun 1. the process of be-coming greater in size or quantity over aperiod of time � the risk of accumulation oftoxins in the food chain 2. something thathas accumulatedaceracer noun a maple or sycamore tree. Ge-nus: Acer.acheneachene noun a dry single-seeded fruitthat does not split open (NOTE: Achenes are

produced by plants such as dandelions andsunflowers.)acidacid noun a chemical compound contain-ing hydrogen which dissolves in water andforms hydrogen ions, or reacts with an al-kali to form a salt and water, and turns lit-mus paper redacid aerosolacid aerosol noun an acidic liquid orsolid particles that are small enough to bepropelled through the airacid depositionacid deposition noun � acid rainacid falloutacid fallout noun an acid which forms inthe atmosphere and falls as particles, with-out any wateracid grasslandacid grassland noun a type of vegeta-tion that is typical especially on soils thatdrain freely and are low in mineral nutri-ents, and may also occur on post-industrialsites. The range of plant species found issmall. � calcareous grasslandacidicacidic adjective referring to acids � hasacidic propertiesacidic rockacidic rock noun a rock which contains ahigh percentage of silicaacidificationacidification noun the process of be-coming acid or of making a substance moreacid � Acidification of the soil leads to thedestruction of some living organisms.acidifyacidify verb to make a substance more ac-id, or to become more acid � Acid rainacidifies the soils and waters where it falls.� The sulfur released from wetlands as sul-fate causes lakes to acidify.acidifying compoundacidifying compound noun a com-pound that contributes to acidification, e.g.sulfur oxides, sulfates, nitrogen oxides, ni-trates and ammonium compoundsacidityacidity noun the proportion of acid in asubstance � The alkaline solution may helpto reduce acidity.acid mine drainageacid mine drainage noun water con-taining acids, which drains from mineworkings or from heaps of mine refuse andenters water coursesacid mine wateracid mine water noun water in mineworkings which contains acid from rocksacid-neutralising capacityacid-neutralising capacity noun theability of water to neutralise acids, meas-ured by the amount of bicarbonate it con-tains. Abbr ANCacid precipitationacid precipitation noun same as acidrainacid-proofacid-proof adjective able to resist theharmful effects of an acidacid pulseacid pulse noun a sudden increase inacidity in rainwater or river wateracid rainacid rain noun precipitation such as rainor snow which contains a higher level of


3 acute toxicityacid than normal. Also called acid deposi-tion, acid precipitation

COMMENT: Acid rain is mainly caused bysulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and otherpollutants being released into the atmos-phere when fossil fuels such as oil or coalcontaining sulfur are burnt. Carbon com-bines with sulfur trioxide from sulfur-richfuel to form particles of an acid substance.The effects of acid rain are primarily felt bywildlife. The water in lakes becomes veryclear as fish and microscopic animal lifeare killed. It is believed that it is acid rainthat kills trees, especially conifers, makingthem gradually lose their leaves and die.Acid rain can damage surfaces such asstone buildings when it falls on them.

acid sootacid soot noun acid carbon particleswhich fall from smoke from chimneysacornacorn noun the fruit of an oak treeacousticianacoustician noun a person who special-ises in the study of soundacousticsacoustics noun the study of sound, espe-cially noise levels in buildingsACPACP abbr Advisory Committee on Pesti-cidesacquired characteracquired character noun a characteris-tic that develops in response to the environ-mentacquisacquis noun in the European Union, a setof laws that potential member states have toadopt � an environmental acquisacreacre noun a unit of measurement of landarea, equal to 4840 square yards or 0.4047hectaresACREACRE abbr Advisory Committee on Re-leases to the Environmentacreageacreage noun the area of a piece of landmeasured in acresacridacrid adjective having a strong bitter smellor taste � acrid fumesactinideactinide noun one of the radioactive ele-ments which are in the same category asuranium in the periodic table and haveatomic numbers from 89 to 104actiniumactinium noun a natural radioactive ele-ment, produced by the decay of uranium-235 (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ac; theatomic number is 89 and the atomic weightis 226.)actinomyceteactinomycete noun a bacterium shapedlike a rod or filament. Order: Actinomyc-etales. (NOTE: Some actinomycetes causediseases while others are sources of antibi-otics.)actionaction noun 1. something done or to bedone � Appropriate action should be takento avoid contamination. 2. the effect thatsomething has � worn away by the actionof rain � the action of the drug on the nerv-

ous system � to take action against some-thing or to stop something to work to pre-vent something happening � The govern-ment is taking action to stop the spread ofpollution.action planaction plan noun a detailed statement ofhow something that needs to be done willbe carried out � an action plan for conserv-ing speciesactivateactivate verb to start a process or to makesomething start workingactivated sludgeactivated sludge noun solid sewagecontaining active microorganisms and air,mixed with untreated sewage to speed upthe purification processactivationactivation noun the act of making some-thing start to workactivatoractivator noun a substance which acti-vates a process � a compost activatoractiveactive adjective 1. doing something, usu-ally energetically, or being alert � Kiwisare only active after dark. 2. in action or inuse 3. (of a volcano) likely to erupt fromtime to timeactive ingredientactive ingredient noun the main effec-tive ingredient of something such as anagrochemical, as opposed to the base sub-stance. Abbr AIactive organic matteractive organic matter noun organicmatter in the process of being broken downby bacteria. Abbr AOMactive packagingactive packaging noun food packagingthat interacts chemically or biologicallywith its contents so that shelf-life is longeror the product is modified during storageactivityactivity noun 1. the actions that humansand other living things undertake � re-search activities � The hillside showedsigns of human activity. � We saw no activ-ity around the nest in several hours. 2. theeffect that something has � Biopesticidesare being evaluated for their biological ac-tivity in a range of environments. 3. an ac-tion or movement � volcanic activityact onact on, act upon verb (of force) to pro-duce an effect on somethingacute exposureacute exposure noun exposure to a pol-lutant or radioactive substance for a shortperiodacute health effectacute health effect noun a health prob-lem which lasts a short time, following ex-posure to a pollutant or radioactive sub-stanceacute toxicityacute toxicity noun the concentration ofa toxic substance which is high enough tomake people seriously ill or can causedeath


adapt 4adapt

adapt verb 1. to change to suit new condi-tions � People adapt to the reducedamounts of oxygen available at high alti-tudes. 2. to change or modify something forspecial use � The engine has been adaptedto use the new fuel. 3. to experience a herit-able change in structure or function thatmakes an organism better able to surviveand reproduce, as part of the process of ev-olutionadaptation

adaptation, adaption noun 1. the act ofchanging, or of modifying something forspecial use 2. a heritable change in an or-ganism so that it is better able to surviveand reproduce in an environment, as part ofthe process of evolutionadaptive radiation

adaptive radiation noun the develop-ment of different species from a single an-cestor in such a way that the different formshave adapted to suit different environmen-tal conditionsADAS

ADAS noun a commercial research-basedorganisation that offers technical advice onagricultural, food and environmental mat-ters to rural industries. Former name Agri-cultural Development and AdvisoryServiceadditive

additive noun 1. a chemical which is add-ed to food to improve its appearance or tokeep it fresh � The tin of beans contains anumber of additives. � These animal food-stuffs are free from all additives. 2. a chem-ical which is added to something to im-prove it � A new fuel additive made fromplants could help reduce energy costs.

COMMENT: Colour additives are added tofood to improve its appearance. Some arenatural organic substances like saffron,carrot juice or caramel, but others are syn-thetic. Other substances added to food toprevent decay or to keep the food in theright form are emulsifiers, which bind dif-ferent foods together as mixtures, and sta-bilisers, which can keep a sauce semi-liq-uid and prevent it from separating into sol-ids and liquids. The European Unionallows some additives to be added to foodand these are given E numbers.

ADI

ADI abbr acceptable daily intakeadiabatic

adiabatic adjective referring to a changein temperature in a mass of air as a result ofcompression or expansion caused by an in-crease or decrease in atmospheric pressurewithout loss or gain of heat to or from itssurroundingsadjust

adjust verb to change something to bemore suitable or so that it works better �We will have to adjust the next trial to takeaccount of recent results.

adjustmentadjustment noun 1. a change to improvethe setting or position of something � Thebrightness needs adjustment. 2. a processof physical change in response to externalenvironmental changesadjuvantadjuvant noun something added to im-prove the effectiveness of something else,e.g. a substance added to a pesticide tomake it stick to waxy leavesadsorbadsorb verb (of a solid) to bond with a gasor vapour which touches its surfaceadsorbentadsorbent adjective capable of adsorp-tionadsorberadsorber noun a device which removesvolatile organic compounds from gas byadsorbing them to a carbon filteradsorptionadsorption noun the bonding of a solidwith a gas or vapour which touches its sur-faceadultadult adjective having reached maturity �takes two years to reach the adult stage �noun an organism that has reached maturityadvanced gas-cooled reactoradvanced gas-cooled reactor nouna type of nuclear reactor, in which carbondioxide is used as the coolant and is passedinto water tanks to create the steam whichwill drive the turbines. Abbr AGRadvectionadvection noun a movement of air in ahorizontal direction � advection fog fogwhich forms when warmer moist air movesover a colder surface (land or sea) � com-pare convectionadventitiousadventitious adjective 1. on the outsideor in an unusual place 2. referring to a rootwhich develops from a node on a plant stemand not from another rootadverseadverse adjective 1. bad or poor � Ad-verse weather conditions delayed planting.2. harmful or unfavourable � adverse ef-fects 3. moving in the opposite direction �adverse windsadverse health effectadverse health effect noun a harmfuleffect on a person’s health as a result ofcoming into contact with pollutants or al-lergensadvisoryadvisory adjective giving advice and in-formationadvisory boardadvisory board, advisory committeenoun a group of specialists who can giveadviceAdvisory Committee on PesticidesAdvisory Committee on Pesticidesnoun a statutory body set up under the UKFood and Environment Protection Act 1985to advise on all matters relating to the con-trol of pesticides. Abbr ACPAdvisory Committee on Releases to the EnvironmentAdvisory Committee on Releasesto the Environment noun an independ-ent advisory committee giving statutory ad-


5 agencyvice to UK Government Ministers on therisks to human health and the environmentfrom the release and marketing of geneti-cally modified organisms (GMOs). It alsoadvises on the release of some non-GMspecies of plants and animals that are notnative to Great Britain. Abbr ACREAEAE abbr assimilation efficiencyAEAAEA noun � UKAEAAEBCAEBC abbr Agriculture, Environment andBiotechnology CommissionAECAEC abbr Atomic Energy Commissionaeonaeon noun � geological aeonAEPSAEPS abbr Arctic Environmental Protec-tion Strategyaerateaerate verb to allow air to enter a sub-stance, especially soil or water � Wormsplay a useful role in aerating the soil.aerationaeration noun the process of putting airinto a substance � aeration of the soil

COMMENT: The process of aeration of soilis mainly brought about by the movementof water into and out of the soil. Rainwaterdrives out the air and then, as the waterdrains away or is used by plants, fresh airis drawn into the soil to fill the spaces. Theaeration process is also assisted bychanges in temperature, good drainage,cultivation and open soil structure. Sandysoils are usually well aerated; clay soilsare poorly aerated.

aeratoraerator noun a device to put a gas, espe-cially carbon dioxide or air, into a liquid. �de-aeratoraerialaerial adjective referring to the air � Someorchids have aerial roots.aerobeaerobe noun a living thing, particularly amicroorganism, that needs oxygen for me-tabolism. Compare anaerobeaerobicaerobic adjective needing oxygen for itsexistence or for a biochemical reaction tooccur. Compare anaerobicaerobic digesteraerobic digester noun a digester whichoperates in the presence of oxygenaerobic digestionaerobic digestion noun the processingof waste, especially organic waste such asmanure, in the presence of oxygenaerobiosisaerobiosis noun a biological activitywhich occurs in the presence of oxygenaerogeneratoraerogenerator noun a windmill withfast-moving sails used to generate mechan-ical power or electricityaerolisationaerolisation, aerolization noun thetransmission of a substance in the form of avapour or fine particles in the airaerosolaerosol noun 1. a quantity of tiny parti-cles of liquid suspended in a gas underpressure, sprayed from a container 2. a canof liquid with a propellant gas under pres-

sure, which is used to spray the liquid in theform of tiny drops 3. a quantity of tiny par-ticles of liquid or powder which stay sus-pended in the atmosphereaesthetic argumentaesthetic argument noun reasoningfor conservation based on the view that thebeauty of scenery or nature should be pre-servedaesthetic injury levelaesthetic injury level noun the level atwhich the amenity benefits of pest controlbecome acceptable. Abbr AILaestivationaestivation noun 1. dormancy in someanimals such as lungfish during the sum-mer or periods of drought. Compare hiber-nation 2. the arrangement of sepals andpetals in a flower budaetiological agentaetiological agent noun an agentwhich causes a diseaseaetiologyaetiology noun the causes of a disease, orthe study of those causesaffectaffect verb to have an influence on or tochange something. Compare effectaffluentaffluent adjective referring to waterwhich is flowing freely � noun a streamwhich flows into a riverafforestafforest verb to plant an area with treesafforestationafforestation noun 1. the growing oftrees as a crop � There is likely to be an in-crease in afforestation of upland areas ifthe scheme is introduced. 2. the planting oftrees on land previously used for other pur-posesaflatoxinaflatoxin noun a toxin produced by spe-cies of the fungus Aspergillus, especiallyAspergillus flavus, which grows on seedsand nuts and affects stored grainafrormosiaafrormosia noun a hardwood tree fromWest Africa, now becoming scarce. Latinname: Pericopisis elata.afterburnerafterburner noun a device which reducespollution by burning out organic gasesaftercareaftercare noun 1. arrangements for pre-venting future pollution from an environ-mentally sensitive activity that has ceased2. the continuing management of the soil orvegetation of an area that has been restoredor replanted � vegetation managementpractices during aftercare � an aftercareagreement to restore a disturbed siteaftershockaftershock noun a weaker shock whichfollows the main shock of an earthquake.Compare foreshockagencyagency noun 1. an organisation or com-pany that acts as a representative for a per-son or business 2. a government organisa-tion with a specific role 3. the act of causingsomething to happen � The disease devel-


Agenda 21 6ops through the agency of bacteria presentin the bloodstream.Agenda 21Agenda 21 noun a global environmentalprogramme and statement of principlesconcerning sustainable development for the21st century, agreed in 1992 at the EarthSummit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazilagentagent noun 1. a chemical substance whichcauses a change � an anti-icing agent 2. asubstance or organism which causes a dis-ease or condition � They identified the dis-ease agent.agglomerateagglomerate noun a rock made up offragments of lava fused together by heataggravateaggravate verb to make something worse� The effects of acid rain on the soil havebeen aggravated by chemical runoff.aggregateaggregate noun 1. crushed stones used tomake concrete or road surfaces 2. a mass ofsoil and rock particles stuck together �verb to make up a whole or total � Ice crys-tals aggregate to form snowflakes.aggregationaggregation noun a dispersal pattern ofplants or animals, where the individuals re-main quite close togetherAGRAGR abbr advanced gas-cooled reactorAgreement on the conservation of small cetaceans of the Baltic and North SeasAgreement on the conservation ofsmall cetaceans of the Baltic andNorth Seas noun an agreement made be-tween European countries in 1991. AbbrASCOBANSagri-agri- prefix referring to agriculture or tothe cultivation or management of land. �agro-agribusinessagribusiness noun a large-scale farm-ing business run along the lines of a con-ventional company, often involving theprocessing, packaging and sale of farmproductsagriculturalagricultural adjective referring to farm-ingagricultural burningagricultural burning noun the burningof agricultural waste as part of farmingpractice, e.g. stubble burningagriculturalistagriculturalist noun a person trained inapplying the principles of science to farm-ingagricultural wasteagricultural waste noun waste matterproduced on a farm, e.g. plastic containersfor pesticidesAgricultural Waste Stakeholders’ ForumAgricultural Waste Stakeholders’Forum noun a group that includes repre-sentatives of government, farming organi-sations, waste companies and farm suppli-ers with the aim of identifying and dealingwith issues of waste management in agri-culture

agricultureagriculture noun the cultivation of land,including horticulture, fruit growing, cropand seed growing, dairy farming and live-stock breedingAgriculture, Environment and Biotechnology CommissionAgriculture, Environment and Bio-technology Commission noun theUK Government advisory body on biotech-nology issues affecting agriculture and theenvironmentagri-environmental indicatoragri-environmental indicator nounan indicator designed to provide informa-tion on the complex interactions betweenagriculture and environmentagri-environment schemeagri-environment scheme noun a fi-nancial incentive given to farmers to adoptenvironmentally beneficial land manage-ment practices, e.g. the Countryside Stew-ardship Schemeagro-agro- prefix referring to agriculture or tothe cultivation or management of land. �agri-agrobiodiversityagrobiodiversity noun the aspects ofbiodiversity that affect agriculture and foodproduction, including within-species, spe-cies and ecosystem diversityagrochemical industryagrochemical industry noun thebranch of industry which produces pesti-cides and fertilisers used on farmsagrochemicalsagrochemicals plural noun pesticidesand fertilisers developed for agriculturaluseagroclimatologyagroclimatology noun the study of cli-mate and its effect on agricultureagroecologyagroecology noun the ecology of a crop-producing areaagroecosystemagroecosystem noun a community oforganisms in a crop-producing areaagroforestryagroforestry noun the growing of farmcrops and trees together as a farming unitagroindustryagroindustry noun an industry dealingwith the supply, processing and distributionof farm productsAIAI abbr 1. active ingredient 2. artificial in-seminationaidaid noun 1. something which helps some-one do something � The computer is agreat aid to rapid processing of largeamounts of information. � Crop sprayersare useful aids in combating insect-bornedisease. 2. help such as food, medicines,equipment or people offered to somewherethat has experienced difficult conditions ora disaster � sent food aid to the famine zone� verb to help or give support to someoneor something � They were aided in their re-search by the detailed records kept by ob-servers. � Changing to lead-free petrol hasaided the fight against air pollution.


7 alkyl benzenesulfonateAILAIL abbr aesthetic injury levelaimaim noun a goal or objective � verb to in-tend or to try to do somethingairair noun a mixture of gases forming theEarth’s atmosphere, which cannot be seenair basinair basin noun an area of land which hasuniform climate and geographical featuresair bladderair bladder noun an air-filled sac thathelps the fronds of a seaweed to float in thewaterairborneairborne adjective carried in the air � air-borne particles � airborne sporesairborne leadairborne lead noun particles of lead car-ried in the air, causing pollutionair gasair gas noun a mixture of carbon monox-ide and nitrogen made by passing air overhot coke and used as a fuel. Also calledproducer gasair monitoringair monitoring noun the taking of regu-lar samples of air to check pollution levelsair pollutantair pollutant noun a substance such asgas or smoke that contaminates the air in aspecific place or the Earth’s atmosphere.Also called atmospheric pollutantair pollutionair pollution noun the contamination ofthe air by substances such as gas or smoke.Also called atmospheric pollutionair qualityair quality noun the state of the air in aspecific place in terms of the degree of pol-lution measuredAir Quality Framework DirectiveAir Quality Framework Directivenoun a European Commission directivethat provides a framework for setting limitsfor a range of pollutants, for assessing theirconcentrations and for managing air qualityso that it remains within the set limitsair quality indexair quality index noun a numerical scalethat indicates how polluted the air is in aspecific placeair quality monitoring stationair quality monitoring station nouna facility that measures the concentration ofpollutants in the air of a specific placeair quality standardsair quality standards plural noun legallimits on specific pollutants in the airair strippingair stripping noun a technique for re-moving pollutants from water in which wa-ter is split into minute particlesAlAl symbol aluminiumalbedoalbedo noun a measurement of the abilityof a surface to reflect light, shown as theproportion of solar energy which strikes theEarth and is reflected back by a particularsurfacealderalder noun a hardwood tree in the birchfamily. Genus: Alnus. (NOTE: The wood isresistant to decay in wet conditions.)

aldrinaldrin noun an organochlorine insecticidethat is banned in the European Unionalgaalga noun a tiny single-celled or multicel-lular organism living in water or in moistconditions, which contains chlorophyll buthas no stems, roots or leaves (NOTE: Theplural is algae.)

COMMENT: Algae were formerly regardedas plants because they contain chloro-phyll, but are now classified separately.Seaweeds are forms of algae. Algae growrapidly in water which is rich in phosphatesand/or nitrates. When these levels in-creases, for example when fertiliser runoffenters the water, the algae multiply to formhuge floating mats called blooms, blockingout the light and inhibiting the growth ofother organisms. When the algae die, theycombine with all the oxygen in the water sothat other organisms suffocate.

algaecidealgaecide noun same as algicidealgalalgal adjective referring to algae � Algalpopulations increase rapidly when phos-phates are present.algal bloomalgal bloom noun a mass of algae whichdevelops rapidly in a lake as a result of eu-trophicationalgal controlalgal control noun the prevention of thegrowth of algaealgicidealgicide noun a substance used to kill al-gaealgoculturealgoculture noun the growing of algaecommercially or for scientific purposesalienalien adjective same as exotic � A fifth ofthe area of the national park is under alienconifers. � Alien species, introduced bysettlers as domestic animals, have broughtabout the extinction of some endemic spe-cies. � noun same as exoticalkalialkali noun a substance which reacts withan acid to form a salt and water. It may beeither a soluble base or a solution of a basethat has a pH value of more than 7. (NOTE:The plural is alkalis; an alternative US plu-ral is alkalies.)alkalinealkaline adjective containing more alkalithan acid and having a pH value of morethan 7alkalinityalkalinity noun the amount of alkali insomething such as soil, water or a body �The alkalinity of the soil makes it unsuita-ble for growing rhododendronsalkaloidalkaloid adjective similar to an alkali �noun one of many poisonous substancesfound in plants which use them as a defenceagainst herbivores (NOTE: Many alkaloidssuch as atropine, morphine or quinine arealso useful as medicines.)alkyl benzenesulfonatealkyl benzenesulfonate, alkyl benze-nesulphonate noun a surface-acting agent


Allee effect 8used in detergents, which is not biodegrad-able and creates large amounts of foam insewers and riversAllee effectAllee effect noun an effect of populationdensity on population growth, by whichthere is a fall in reproductive rate at verylow population densities and a positive re-lationship between population density andthe reproduction and survival of individualsalleleallele noun one of two or more alternativeforms of a gene, situated in the same area(locus) on paired chromosomes and con-trolling the inheritance of the same charac-teristicallelopathyallelopathy noun the release by one plantof a chemical substance that restricts thegermination or growth of another plantAllen’s ruleAllen’s rule noun a rule that shows thatwarm-blooded animals from cold regionshave smaller ears and legs than animalsfrom warmer regions, reducing the ratio ofbody volume to body surfaceallergenallergen noun a substance which produc-es a hypersensitive reaction in someone.Allergens are usually proteins, and includefoods, the hair of animals and pollen fromflowers, as well as dust.allergenicallergenic adjective producing an allergy� the allergenic properties of fungal sporesallergicallergic adjective affected by an allergy �allergic to penicillinallergyallergy noun a sensitivity to substancessuch as pollen or dust, which cause a phys-ical reaction � She has an allergy to house-hold dust. � He has a penicillin allergy.alleviatealleviate verb to reduce or lessen theharmful effect of somethingalleviationalleviation noun a reduction or lesseningof the harmful effect of somethingalley croppingalley cropping noun the planting ofcrops such as maize or sorghum betweentrees (NOTE: The trees help to prevent soilerosion, especially on slopes, and maybenefit soil fertility if the leaves are used asmulch or they are legumes.)Alliance of Small Island StatesAlliance of Small Island Statesnoun a group of states made up of islands orlow-lying areas in the Pacific, Caribbeanand Indian Oceans that negotiate within theUnited Nations to show how vulnerablethey are to climate change. Abbr AOSISallo-allo- prefix differentallochthonousallochthonous adjective relating to flo-ra, fauna, material or inhabitants that havemoved from elsewhere to the region inwhich they are found. Compare autoch-thonous

allogenic successionallogenic succession noun the estab-lishment of different communities in a par-ticular area as a result of external environ-mental factors such as climatic changeallopatricallopatric adjective referring to plants ofthe same species which grow in differentparts of the world and so do not cross-breedallopatric speciationallopatric speciation noun the devel-opment of new species which are geo-graphically isolated from each otheralluvialalluvial adjective referring to alluviumalluvial depositalluvial deposit noun a deposit of siltformed on the bed of a river or lake and car-ried and laid down elsewhere, often onflood plains. Also called alluvial soilalluvial fanalluvial fan noun a fan-shaped deposit ofsediment built up by a river where the slopeof the bed becomes less steepalluvial flatalluvial flat noun a flat area along a riverwhere silt is deposited when the riverfloods. Also called alluvial plainalluvial miningalluvial mining noun the extraction ofminerals from alluvial deposits, e.g. pan-ning for goldalluvial plainalluvial plain noun same as alluvial flatalluvial soilalluvial soil noun same as alluvial de-positalluvial terracealluvial terrace noun a flat plain leftwhen a river cuts deeply into the bottom ofa valley. Also called river terracealluviumalluvium noun the silt deposited by a riv-er or a lakealpha diversityalpha diversity noun the number of spe-cies occurring in a small areaalpinealpine adjective referring to the Europeanmountains known as the Alps, or to otherhigh mountains � noun a plant that growson mountains between the tree line and thesnow linealternatealternate adjective referring to flowers,buds, or leaves that are arranged singly atdifferent heights on either side of a stem,rather than being in pairs or groupsalternativealternative adjective 1. different � an al-ternative means of achieving the same re-sult 2. not traditional or conventional �searching for alternative sources of energyalternative energyalternative energy noun the energyproduced by tidal, wind, or solar power, orby burning biomass rather than by fossil fu-els or nuclear poweralternative fuelalternative fuel noun a fuel which ispromoted as a cleaner alternative to petrol,e.g. methanolalternative technologyalternative technology noun the useof traditional techniques and equipmentand materials that are available locally for


9 anabatic windagriculture, manufacturing and other proc-essesalternatoralternator noun a device for producingalternating current electricity that can bedriven by a motor, or by water or wind pow-eraltimeteraltimeter noun a pressure or radio instru-ment for measuring vertical distance or al-titudealtitudealtitude noun the height of an objectabove sea-levelaltitudinal zonationaltitudinal zonation noun changes inthe structure of plant or animal communi-ties in zones according to altitudealtocumulusaltocumulus noun a layer of small whitecumulus clouds at moderate altitude above3000m, usually resulting in fair weather.Compare stratocumulusaltostratusaltostratus noun a high thin uniformcloud above 3000m, usually seen as a frontis approachingaltruismaltruism noun the behaviour of an animalthat reduces its chances of survival or ofproducing offspring, but increases thosechances for another closely related individ-ual of the same speciesaluminiumaluminium noun a metallic element ex-tracted from the ore bauxite (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Al; the atomic numberis 13 and the atomic weight is 26.98.)AmAm symbol americiumAMAPAMAP abbr Arctic Monitoring and As-sessment Programmeamberamber noun a yellow translucent sub-stance that is the fossilised resin of coni-fers. It sometimes contains fossilised in-sects.ambientambient adjective referring to back-ground conditionsambient airambient air noun the air around a build-ing or other pointambient climateambient climate noun the atmosphericconditions surrounding a specific geo-graphical pointambient conditionsambient conditions plural noun the at-mospheric conditions such as humidity,temperature or air pressure in which some-thing exists � The ambient conditions areideal for the development of fungi.ambient environmentambient environment noun the envi-ronment which surrounds an ecosystemambient quality standardsambient quality standards pluralnoun the levels of acceptable clean airwhich a regulatory body tries to enforceambient temperatureambient temperature noun the tem-perature of the air surrounding somethingameliorationamelioration noun an improvement orthe process of improving something �

There has been some amelioration in pollu-tion levels.amenityamenity noun something which makessurroundings more pleasant, e.g. a park,swimming pool or sports centreamenity societyamenity society noun a group of peoplewho are concerned about the protection andimprovement of their local surroundingsamenity valueamenity value noun the degree to whichsomething makes its surroundings morepleasant � A particular hedgerow has his-toric, archaeological, wildlife, landscapeor amenity value.amensalismamensalism noun symbiosis betweentwo different species that is harmful to onebut not the otheramensualismamensualism noun a situation where aspecies is adversely affected by anotheramericiumamericium noun an artificial radioactiveelement (NOTE: The chemical symbol isAm; the atomic number is 95 and the atom-ic weight is 243.)amino acidamino acid noun a chemical compoundwhich is a component of proteinsammoniaammonia noun a gas with an unpleasantsmell that is easily soluble in water. Formu-la: NH3.ammonificationammonification noun the treatment orsoaking of something with ammoniaammoniumammonium noun an ion formed fromammoniaamorphousamorphous adjective with no regularshapeamountamount noun a quantity of something �Global warming and climate changecaused by increasing amounts of green-house gases will have wide-ranging conse-quences.AmphibiaAmphibia plural noun a class of egg-lay-ing animals which live partly in water andpartly on land and whose larvae live in wa-ter (NOTE: Amphibia include frogs, toadsand newts.)amphibianamphibian noun 1. an animal which livesboth in water and on land, e.g. a frog, toador newt 2. a vehicle which can travel bothon water and on land � adjective referringto an organism which lives both in waterand on landamphibiousamphibious adjective 1. referring to ananimal which lives both in water and onland 2. referring to a vehicle which cantravel both on water and on landanabatic windanabatic wind noun a stream of windcurrents which are caused by solar heatingof the land and rise up south-facing moun-tainsides. Compare katabatic wind


anabolism 10anabolismanabolism noun the process of buildingup complex chemical substances on the ba-sis of simpler onesanadromousanadromous adjective referring to aspecies of fish such as salmon which hatch-es in fresh water and becomes adult in saltwater. Compare catadromousanadromyanadromy noun a form of migration offish such as salmon which hatch in freshwater, migrate to the sea and then return tofresh water to spawn. Compare catadromyanaerobeanaerobe noun a microorganism whichlives without oxygen, e.g. the tetanus bacil-lus or blue-green algae. Compare aerobeanaerobicanaerobic adjective not needing oxygenfor existence. Compare aerobicanaerobic decompositionanaerobic decomposition noun thebreakdown of organic material by microor-ganisms without the presence of oxygenanaerobic digesteranaerobic digester noun a digesterwhich operates without oxygen � Anaero-bic digesters can be used to convert cattlemanure into gas.

COMMENT: Anaerobic digesters for pig,cattle and poultry waste feed the wasteinto a tank where it breaks down biologi-cally without the presence of oxygen togive off large amounts of methane. Thisgas is then used to generate electricity.The remaining slurry can be applied direct-ly to the land.

anaerobiosisanaerobiosis noun a biological activitywhich occurs without the presence of oxy-genanalyseanalyse verb 1. to examine something indetail � We’ll need to analyse the effect ofthe new reporting procedures. 2. to separatea substance into its parts � The laboratoryis analysing the soil samples. � When thewater sample was analysed it was found tocontain traces of bacteria.analysisanalysis noun 1. the process of examin-ing something in detail 2. the process ofbreaking down a substance into its parts inorder to study them closely � Samples ofmaterial were removed for analysis. � dataanalysisanalystanalyst noun 1. a person who examinessamples of substances to find out what theyare made of 2. a person who carries out astudy of a problem � a health and safetyanalystanalyteanalyte noun the chemical for which testsare made on a sampleANCANC abbr acid-neutralising capacityancient forestancient forest noun a forest which hasexisted for many years, containing very oldtrees and of great biological interest

ancient treeancient tree noun a tree, generally in aplace where it is not surrounded by othertrees, that is of great age and biological in-terestancient woodlandancient woodland noun a wooded areawhich has been covered with trees for manyhundreds of yearsanemographanemograph noun an instrument whichmaintains a continuous recording of winddirection and speed on a graphanemometeranemometer noun an instrument, usual-ly attached to a building, which provideswind-speed informationaneroid barometeraneroid barometer noun a device thatshows the changes in atmospheric pressureangiospermangiosperm noun a plant in which thesex organs are carried within flowers andseeds are enclosed in a fruit. Comparegymnospermanimalanimal noun an organism which can feelsensations and move voluntarily � adjec-tive referring to organisms which can feelsensations and move voluntarilyanimal ecologyanimal ecology noun the study of therelationship between animals and their en-vironmentanimal inspectoranimal inspector noun an officialwhose job is to inspect animals to see ifthey have notifiable diseases and are beingkept in acceptable conditionsanimal kingdomanimal kingdom noun the category ofall organisms classed as animalsanionanion noun an ion with a negative electricchargeAnnex I partiesAnnex I parties plural noun industrial-ised countries which, as parties to theFramework Convention on ClimateChange, agreed to reduce their greenhouse-gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year2000annoyance scaleannoyance scale noun a system ofclassifying the amount of nuisance, harm oroffence caused by somethingannoyance sound levelannoyance sound level noun thepoint at which a noise begins to cause a nui-sance or become offensiveannualannual adjective happening or done oncea year � noun a plant whose life cycle ofgermination, flowering and fruiting takesplace within the period of a year. � bienni-al, perennialannual ringannual ring noun a ring of new woodformed each year in the trunk of a treewhich can easily be seen when the tree iscut down. � dendrochronology. Alsocalled growth ring, tree ring (NOTE: As atree grows, the wood formed in the springhas more open cells than that formed in lat-


11 aphicideer summer. The difference in texture formsthe visible rings. In tropical countries, treesgrow all the year round and so do not formrings.)

COMMENT: As a tree grows, the woodformed in the spring has more open cellsthan that formed in later summer. The dif-ference in texture forms the visible rings. Intropical countries, trees grow all the yearround and so do not form rings.

anomalyanomaly noun something which differsfrom the expected order or range � Anyanomalies in the results will be detectedduring checking.anoxiaanoxia noun a complete lack of oxygen �The investigation established that the causeof death was anoxia.anoxicanoxic adjective referring to water whichlacks oxygenanoxybiosisanoxybiosis noun a biological activityoccurring where there is a lack of oxygenAntarcticAntarctic noun the area of land aroundthe South Pole, largely covered with snowand ice � adjective referring to the Antarc-ticAntarcticaAntarctica noun the continent at theSouth Pole

‘About 90 per cent of the world’s fresh water isheld in Antarctica and, if it all melted, sea levelscould rise as much as 60 metres’ [Times]

Antarctic CircleAntarctic Circle noun the parallel run-ning round the Earth at latitude 66°32’S, tothe south of which lies the Antarctic regionAntarctic TreatyAntarctic Treaty noun a treaty signed byall countries with territorial claims to theAntarctic continent, by which military useof the continent and dumping of nuclearwaste are prohibitedantheranther noun the part of the stamen of aflower that produces pollenanthocyaninanthocyanin noun a water-soluble plantpigment responsible for blue, violet and redcoloursanthraciteanthracite noun a type of shiny hardblack coal which burns well and does notproduce much smokeanthropogenicanthropogenic adjective caused by orresulting from human activitiesanti-anti- prefix against or opposingantibacterialantibacterial adjective preventing or re-ducing the growth of bacteriaanticlineanticline noun (in rock formations) a foldwhere the newest layers of rock are on thesurface. Compare synclineanticondensation paintanticondensation paint noun a paintwhich prevents the formation of condensa-tionanticycloneanticyclone noun an area of high atmos-pheric pressure, usually associated with

fine dry weather in summer and fog in win-ter (NOTE: Winds circulate round an anticy-clone clockwise in the northern hemi-sphere and anticlockwise in the southernhemisphere.)anticyclonicanticyclonic adjective 1. referring toanticyclones 2. referring to the opposite di-rection to the rotation of the Earthanticyclonicallyanticyclonically adverb in the oppositedirection to the rotation of the Earthantidoteantidote noun a substance which controlsthe effects of a poison � There is no satis-factory antidote to cyanide.antifoamantifoam, anti-foaming agent noun achemical substance added to a detergent orto sewage to prevent foam from formingantifouling paintantifouling paint noun a pesticidepainted onto the bottom of a ship to preventorganisms growing on the hull. � TBT(NOTE: It may be toxic enough to pollute seawater.)antifungalantifungal adjective referring to a sub-stance which kills or controls fungiantigenantigen noun a substance in the bodywhich makes the body produce antibodiesto attack it, e.g. a virus or germantigenicantigenic adjective referring to antigensantigenic stabilityantigenic stability noun the conditionof an individual who has been infected by adisease, and then remains immune to fur-ther infection in later life. This is the case inmost childhood diseases.antiknock additiveantiknock additive noun a substancewhich is added to petrol to improve engineperformance, e.g. tetraethyl leadantioxidantantioxidant noun a substance which pre-vents oxidation, used to prevent materialssuch as rubber from deteriorating and add-ed to processed food to prevent oil goingbad (NOTE: In the EU, antioxidant food addi-tives have numbers E300–321.)antipodesantipodes plural noun two points on op-posite sides of the Earthanti-pollutionanti-pollution adjective intended to re-duce or stop environmental pollutionanti-pollution legislationanti-pollution legislation noun a setof laws designed to control pollutionanti-predator netanti-predator net noun a net designedto prevent predators from entering an areaAOMAOM abbr active organic matterAONBAONB abbr Area of Outstanding NaturalBeautyAOSISAOSIS abbr Alliance of Small IslandStatesaphicideaphicide noun a pesticide designed to killaphids on plants


aphid 12aphidaphid noun an insect that sucks sap fromplants and can multiply very rapidly, e.g. agreenfly (NOTE: Aphids are pests of somegarden plants such as roses and maytransmit virus diseases in crops such aspotatoes and sugarbeet.)AphisAphis noun the genus of insects whichcomprises aphidsaphotic zoneaphotic zone noun a region in a sea orlake below about 1500m, so deep that sun-light cannot penetrate it. Compare euphot-ic zoneapical meristemapical meristem noun the actively di-viding tissue at the tip of a shoot or root thatproduces the new tissue for growthapomictapomict noun an organism that reproduc-es asexuallyapomicticapomictic adjective reproducing asexu-allyapomixisapomixis noun a form of asexual repro-duction in which embryos are formed fromunfertilised ovaaposematicaposematic adjective referring to mark-ings on an animal which are very conspicu-ous and serve to discourage potential pred-atorsapparatusapparatus noun equipment used in a lab-oratory or elsewhere for experiments or sci-entific study � a self-contained apparatuswhich provides a efficient and convenientmethod for conducting safety tests (NOTE:no plural: a piece of apparatus; some newapparatus)applicationapplication noun 1. a formal request �an application for research funds 2. the actof putting a substance on a surface � Thecrop received two applications of fungi-cide. 3. the act or instance of using an exist-ing ability � the application of knowledgeand skills 4. a particular use � This newtechnology has many applications. 5. apiece of computer software that fulfils aparticular jobapplyapply verb 1. to make a formal request forsomething � You can apply for a researchgrant. 2. to put something on a surface 3. touse existing knowledge or skills � Applythe same method as in the example. 4. (ofrules, regulations, orders, instructions, etc.)to be relevant � The rules which apply tothe measurement of wind velocities on iso-baric charts apply equally to contourcharts. (NOTE: applying – applies – ap-plied)approachapproach noun a path towards something� The approach to the site was blocked byan overturned lorry.

appropriate assessmentappropriate assessment noun a stepin the decision-making process which mustbe undertaken for plans or projects whichwould be likely to have a significant effecton a site of conservation importance, sothat any unfavourable impact can be avoid-edappropriate doseappropriate dose noun the amount of asubstance required to be effective, e.g. theamount of a fungicide required to control adiseaseappropriate technologyappropriate technology noun a tech-nology that is suited to the local environ-ment, usually involving skills or materialsthat are available locally � Biomethanationis an appropriate technology for use in ru-ral areas.aqua-aqua- prefix water. � aqui-aquacultureaquaculture, aquafarming noun sameas fish farmingaquariumaquarium noun a container with waterand a display of fish and other animals orplants that live in wateraquaticaquatic adjective referring to wateraquatic animalaquatic animal noun an animal thatlives in wateraquatic ecosystemaquatic ecosystem noun an ecosystemthat is based on water, e.g. a river, pond,lake or oceanaquatic plantaquatic plant noun a plant that grows inwateraqui-aqui- prefix water. � aqua-aquicludeaquiclude noun a body of rock or soilsuch as clay through which water passesvery slowlyaquicultureaquiculture noun same as fish farmingaquiferaquifer noun a body of porous rock or soilthrough which water passes and in whichwater gathersArAr symbol argonarablearable adjective referring to land onwhich crops are grownarable weedarable weed noun a weed that grows onor near land that has been cultivated forcrops, e.g. poppyarachnidarachnid noun an animal with four pairsof legs and a body with two segments.Class: Arachnida. (NOTE: Spiders, scorpi-ons and mites are arachnids.)ArachnidaArachnida noun a class of animals thathave eight legs, e.g. spiders and mitesarbor-arbor- prefix treearborealarboreal adjective referring to treesarboreal animalarboreal animal noun an animal whichlives in treesarboretumarboretum noun a collection of treesfrom different parts of the world, grown for


13 artificial fertiliserscientific study (NOTE: The plural is arbore-ta.)arboricidearboricide noun a chemical substancewhich kills treesarboriculturearboriculture noun the study of the cul-tivation of treesarboristarborist noun a person who studies thecultivation of treesarchipelagoarchipelago noun a group of islandsArcticArctic adjective referring to the areaaround the North Pole � noun the area ofthe Earth’s surface around the North Pole,north of the Arctic Circlearctic airarctic air noun a mass of cold air whichforms over the Arctic region and thenmoves southArctic CircleArctic Circle noun a parallel runninground the Earth at latitude 66°32N to thenorth of which lies the Arctic regionArctic CouncilArctic Council noun the eight Arcticcountries (Canada, Finland, Denmark, Ice-land, Norway, Sweden, Russia and theUnited States) which follow the Arctic En-vironmental Protection StrategyArctic Environmental Protection StrategyArctic Environmental ProtectionStrategy noun a plan followed by theArctic Council to monitor and protect theArctic environment. Abbr AEPSArctic Monitoring and Assessment ProgrammeArctic Monitoring and Assess-ment Programme noun a programmethat provides information on the status of,and threats to, the Arctic environment aswell as scientific advice on action to be tak-en to prevent or recover from contaminants.Abbr AMAPArctogeaArctogea noun one of the main biogeo-graphical regions of the Earth, comprisingthe Palaearctic, Nearctic, Oriental and Ethi-opian regions. � Neogea, Notogeaareaarea noun 1. the measurement of the spacetaken up by something, calculated by mul-tiplying the length by the width � The areaof this office is 3400 square feet. � We arelooking for an area of about 100 squaremetres. 2. a region of land � The wholearea has been contaminated by waste fromthe power station.area of low pressurearea of low pressure noun an area inwhich the atmospheric pressure is low andaround which the air turns in the same di-rection as the EarthArea of Outstanding Natural BeautyArea of Outstanding Natural Beau-ty noun in England and Wales, a regionwhich is not a National Park but which isconsidered sufficiently attractive to be pre-served from unsympathetic development.Abbr AONB

Area of Special Scientific InterestArea of Special Scientific Interestnoun in Northern Ireland, an area of landwhich is officially protected to maintain itsfauna, flora or geology. Abbr ASSIarêtearête noun a sharp ridge between two val-leysargonargon noun an inert gas, which occurs inair and of which isotopes form in the cool-ing systems of reactors. It is used in electriclight bulbs. (NOTE: The chemical symbol isAr; the atomic number is 18 and the atomicweight is 39.95.)aridarid adjective referring to soil which isvery dry, or an area of land which has verylittle rainaridityaridity noun the state of being extremelydryarithmetic meanarithmetic mean noun a number calcu-lated by adding together several figures anddividing by the number of figures added.Also called averagearomaticaromatic adjective having a pleasantsmellaromatic compoundaromatic compound, aromatic hy-drocarbon noun a compound such as ben-zene, with a ring of carbon atoms held bysingle and double bondsarrestarrest noun a sudden stoppagearresterarrester noun a device or substancewhich prevents or stops something fromhappeningarroyoarroyo noun a gully with a stream at thebottom, found in desert regions of the US.Compare wadiarsenicarsenic noun a grey semimetallic chemi-cal element that forms poisonous com-pounds such as arsenic trioxide, which wasformerly used in some medicines (NOTE:The chemical symbol is As; the atomicnumber is 33 and the atomic weight is74.92.)arsenidearsenide noun a compound of arsenicand a metallic elementartefactartefact, artifact noun a human-made ob-jectartesian wellartesian well noun a well which hasbeen bored into a confined aquifer, the hy-drostatic pressure usually being strongenough to force the water to the surfaceartifactartifact noun another spelling of artefactartificialartificial adjective made by humans andnot existing naturallyartificial communityartificial community noun a plantcommunity kept by people, as in a gardenartificial fertiliserartificial fertiliser noun a fertiliser man-ufactured from chemicals. Also calledchemical fertiliser


artificial insemination 14artificial inseminationartificial insemination noun a methodof breeding livestock by injecting spermfrom specially selected males into a female.Abbr AIartificial rechargeartificial recharge noun the introduc-tion of surface water into an undergroundaquifer through a recharge wellAsAs symbol arsenicasbestosasbestos noun a fibrous mineral sub-stance that causes lung disease if inhaled. Itwas formerly used as a shield against fireand as an insulating material in many in-dustrial and construction processes.asbestosisasbestosis noun a disease of the lungscaused by inhaling asbestos dustASCOBANSASCOBANS noun an agreement madebetween European countries in 1991. Fullform Agreement on the conservation ofsmall cetaceans of the Baltic and NorthSeasasexualasexual adjective not involving sexual re-productionashash noun 1. a hardwood tree. Genus: Frax-inus. 2. a grey or black powder formed ofminerals left after an organic substance hasbeen burntaspectaspect noun a direction in which some-thing faces � a site with a northern aspectaspenaspen noun a hardwood tree with leavesthat tremble in the wind. Genus: Populus.asphaltasphalt noun a black substance formedfrom bitumenassessmentassessment noun 1. careful considera-tion of something to make a judgmentabout it 2. a judgment based on evidenceASSIASSI abbr Area of Special Scientific Inter-estassimilateassimilate verb to take into the body’stissues substances which have been ab-sorbed into the blood from digested foodassimilationassimilation noun the action of assimi-lating food substancesassimilation efficiencyassimilation efficiency noun the per-centage of food energy which is taken intothe gut of a consumer and assimilatedthrough the wall of the gut. Abbr AEassociateassociate verb to be linked to or accom-panied by something � Turbulence is oftenassociated with strong winds.associationassociation noun 1. a group of peoplewith similar interests 2. a link between twothings � They were looking for an associa-tion between specific chemicals and thedisease. 3. same as biological associationastatineastatine noun a natural radioactive ele-ment (NOTE: The chemical symbol is At; theatomic number is 85 and the atomic weightis 210.)

AsteraceaeAsteraceae plural noun a common andvery large family of plants with flat flowersthat consist of many florets arrangedaround a central structure. Former nameCompositaeasulamasulam noun a herbicide used aroundtrees and fruit bushesAtAt symbol astatineAtlantic Conveyor BeltAtlantic Conveyor Belt noun same asNorth Atlantic ConveyorAtlantic OceanAtlantic Ocean noun the ocean to thenorth of the Antarctic, south of the Arctic,west of Europe and Africa and east ofNorth and South Americaatmosphereatmosphere noun 1. a mass of gases sur-rounding the Earth or any astronomical ob-ject such as a planet or star 2. a unit ofmeasurement of pressure, equal to 101325pascals or equal to a height of 760mm ofmercuryatmosphericatmospheric adjective referring to theatmosphereatmospheric contaminationatmospheric contamination nounpollution of the air with harmful substancesatmospheric lifetimeatmospheric lifetime noun same aslifetimeatmospheric pollutantatmospheric pollutant noun same asair pollutantatmospheric pollutionatmospheric pollution noun same asair pollutionatollatoll noun an island in warm seas, made ofcoral and shaped like a ringatomatom noun a fundamental unit of a chem-ical element and the smallest part of an ele-ment that can exist independentlyAtomic Energy AuthorityAtomic Energy Authority noun �United Kingdom Atomic Energy Author-ity, International Atomic Energy AgencyAtomic Energy CommissionAtomic Energy Commission nounUS an agency responsible for nuclear ener-gy in the US. Abbr AECatomic fissionatomic fission noun the splitting of thenucleus of an atom such as uranium-235into several small nuclei which then releaseenergy and neutrons. Also called nuclearfissionatomic power stationatomic power station noun a powerstation in which nuclear reactions are usedto provide energy to run turbines that gen-erate electricityatomic wasteatomic waste noun radioactive wastefrom a nuclear reactor, including spent fuelrods and coolantatomiseatomise, atomize verb to reduce liquidsto a fine sprayatrazineatrazine noun a herbicide used especiallyon maize crops that kills germinating seed-


15 azobacterlings. It is a contaminant of ground waterand is banned in the European Union, butstill allowed for essential use in the UK.atropine

atropine noun a poisonous plant com-pound (alkaloid), found in Atropa bella-donna, that affects heart rate and is usedmedically to relax musclesattendattend verb to exist or happen in connec-tion with something else (formal ) � Seriousconsequences may attend this decision.attend to

attend to verb 1. to deal with somethingor someone � We need to attend to the feed-back first of all. 2. to pay attention to some-thing (formal) � Please attend to this safetyadvice immediately.attract

attract verb to cause something to drawnear � If two magnets, with unlike poles arebrought together, they will attract each oth-er. � An animal may attract a mate with acourtship display.attractantattractant noun a chemical that attractsan organism. � pheromoneattraction

attraction noun the act or an instance ofbeing drawn near to someone or something� The strength of the magnetic force willdepend, amongst other things, on the mag-nitude of attraction at the magnetic source.attributeattribute noun a characteristic or qualityAu

Au symbol goldaudio-audio-, audi- prefix hearing or soundaudit

audit noun a check on figures, scientificdata or proceduresAurora Australis

Aurora Australis noun same as South-ern LightsAurora Borealis

Aurora Borealis noun same as North-ern Lightsautecology

autecology noun the study of an individ-ual species in its environment. Comparesynecologyauthority

authority noun 1. the power to act � toabuse your authority to use powers in anillegal or harmful way 2. an official bodythat controls an area or a specific activity �You will have to apply to the local planningauthority. 3. a person or body with special-ised knowledge of a subjectauto-

auto- prefix automatic or automatedautochthonousautochthonous adjective referring toflora, fauna or other matter which is pro-duced by the community in which it isfound. Compare allochthonousautocidal controlautocidal control noun a form of pestcontrol, especially of insects, by whichsterile males are introduced in order to stopthe population breeding

autoecology

autoecology noun same as autecologyautogenic succession

autogenic succession noun 1. suc-cession that follows biological processes,and can include colonisation and changesto the environment 2. the establishment ofdifferent communities in a particular areaas a result of biological changes, includingcolonisation and changes to the environ-ment

‘In the absence of natural ecological processes ofgrazing, fire and water-level fluctuations, au-togenic succession tends to build dense stands ofemergent hydrophytes in many wetlands’[Northern Prairies Wildlife Research Center]

autolysis

autolysis noun the action of cells de-stroying themselves with their own en-zymesautotroph

autotroph, autotrophic organism nounan organism which manufactures its ownorganic constituents from inorganic materi-als, e.g. a bacterium or green plant. Com-pare chemotroph, heterotrophautumn

autumn noun the season of the year, fol-lowing summer and before winter, whendays become shorter and the weather pro-gressively colder (NOTE: The US term isfall.)autumnal

autumnal adjective referring to the au-tumnautumn colour

autumn colour noun the bright red andyellow colours produced in the leaves ofsome plants by chemical changes as thedays shorten and become colderavalanche

avalanche noun a large mass of snowthat becomes detached and falls down theside of a mountainaverage

average adjective 1. typical or usual � ofaverage ability � below average perform-ance 2. referring to the arithmetic mean �average cost per unit � average price � av-erage sales per representative � noun sameas arithmetic mean � the average for thelast three months � sales average � verb toproduce as an average figureAves

Aves noun the class that comprises birdsavian

avian adjective relating to birdsaviary

aviary noun a cage or large enclosure forbirdsavicide

avicide noun a substance that kills birdsavifauna

avifauna noun all the birds that live natu-rally in a specific area (NOTE: The plural isavifauna or avifaunas.)azobacter

azobacter noun a nitrogen-fixing bacte-rium belonging to a group found in soil


BBB symbol boronBaBa symbol bariumbacillarybacillary adjective referring to a bacillusbacillusbacillus noun a bacterium shaped like arod (NOTE: The plural is bacilli.)backback verb (of wind ) to change direction,anticlockwise in the northern hemisphereand clockwise in the southern hemisphere.Opposite veerbackbonebackbone noun in vertebrate animals, aseries of bones (vertebrae) linked togetherto form a flexible column running from thepelvis to the skullbackgroundbackground noun a set of conditionswhich are always present in the environ-ment, but are less obvious or less importantthan othersbackground concentrationbackground concentration nounsame as background pollutionbackground extinction ratebackground extinction rate noun theusual rate at which some species becomeextinct as other species develop, not causedby the actions of human beingsbackground noisebackground noise noun 1. a generallevel of noise which is always there in theenvironment � The other machines aroundthis device will produce a lot of backgroundnoise. 2. (in an electronic instrument) noisewhich is present along with the requiredsignal � The modem is sensitive to back-ground noise.background pollutionbackground pollution noun the gener-al level of air pollution in an area, disre-garding any specifically local factors, e.g.the presence of a coal-fired power stationbackscatterbackscatter noun the sending back of ra-diation � Backscatter contributes to an in-crease in albedo. � verb to send back radi-ation � A proportion of incoming solar ra-diation is backscattered by air in theatmosphere.backshorebackshore noun the part of a beach be-tween the foreshore and where permanentvegetation growsbackswampbackswamp noun a marshy area in aflood plainback-to-natureback-to-nature adjective relating to asimple self-sufficient way of life with verylittle use of modern technology. � naturebackwashbackwash noun the flow of seawaterdown a beach. Compare swash

backwaterbackwater noun 1. stagnant water con-nected to a river or stream 2. the water heldbehind a dam, or kept back by a currentbacteriabacteria plural noun submicroscopic or-ganisms, belonging to a large group, someof which help in the decomposition of or-ganic matter, some of which are perma-nently in the intestines of animals and canbreak down food tissue and some of whichcause disease (NOTE: The singular is bacte-rium.)bacterialbacterial adjective referring to or causedby bacteria � a bacterial diseasebactericidalbactericidal adjective destroying bacte-riabactericidebactericide noun a substance that de-stroys bacteriabacteriologybacteriology noun the scientific study ofbacteriabacteriophagebacteriophage noun a virus that affectsbacteriabacteriumbacterium noun � bacteriabadlandsbadlands plural noun areas of land whichare or have become unsuitable for agricul-turebagbag noun a filter made of cloth or artificialfibre, used to remove particles of matterfrom waste gas from industrial processesbagged wastebagged waste noun mixed waste whichhas been collected from households andother sourcesbaghousebaghouse noun a device for cleaning gasby forcing it through large bags which trapparticulatesbalancebalance noun 1. a state in which weightsor forces are evenly distributed 2. a state inwhich proportions of substances are correct� to maintain a healthy balance of vitaminsin the dietbalanced dietbalanced diet noun a diet which pro-vides all the nutrients needed in the correctproportionsbalance of naturebalance of nature noun a popular con-cept that relative numbers of different or-ganisms living in the same ecosystem mayremain more or less constant without hu-man interference � to disturb the balanceof nature to make a change to the environ-ment which has the effect of putting someorganisms at a disadvantage compared withothers


17 base metalbaleenbaleen noun a series of plates like a comb,which hang down from the upper jaw ofsome whales and act like a sievebaleen whalebaleen whale noun a whale that has twobreathing holes and feeds by sucking in wa-ter and then forcing it out with the tonguethrough the baleen, which traps plankton.Suborder: Mysticeti. (NOTE: Baleen whalesare the larger of the two groups of whales;the others are the toothed whales or Odon-toceti.)balsa woodbalsa wood noun a very soft tropicalwood, used for making lightweight models.Latin name: Ochroma pyramidalis.banban noun an official statement forbiddingsomething, or saying that something shouldnot be done � verb to say that somethingshould not be done � The use of CFCs inaerosols is banned. � Importing someplants is banned under CITES regulations.bandband noun 1. a strip or loop of fabric, met-al or plastic � A jet stream is a narrow bandof high-altitude strong winds. 2. a narrowarea that is different in colour from otherareas 3. a layer of rockbandedbanded adjective 1. referring to rock ar-ranged in layers 2. showing bands of colourbankbank noun 1. a piece of land at the edge ofwater such as a river or lake 2. a long heapof sand or snow, e.g. a sandbank in shallowwater or a snowbank along the side of aroad 3. a place where something is collect-ed for a particular use, e.g. a seed bank or abottle bank. � bottle bank, can bankBAPBAP abbr Biodiversity Action Planbarbar noun 1. a unit of atmospheric pressure,equal to 1000 millibars or 105Pa. � millibar2. a long bank of sand submerged at hightide at the entrance to a harbour, river orbaybariumbarium noun a chemical element thatforms poisonous compounds (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Ba; the atomic numberis 56 and the atomic weight is 137.34.)barkbark noun 1. the outer layer of a tree trunkor branch 2. the cry of an animal of the dogfamily, e.g. a wolf or foxbarleybarley noun a cereal crop used as animalfeed and for making malt for beer or whis-ky. Latin name: Hordeum sativum.baro-baro- prefix referring to weight or pressurebarographbarograph noun an instrument thatrecords changes in atmospheric pressure bya pen attached to a barometer whichrecords fluctuations in pressure on a roll ofpaperbarometerbarometer noun an instrument whichmeasures changes in atmospheric pressure

and is used to forecast changes in theweatherbarometricbarometric adjective referring to a ba-rometerbarometricallybarometrically adverb by use of a ba-rometerbarragebarrage noun a construction to prevent orregulate the flow of tides, used either toprevent flooding or to harness tidal powerbarrelbarrel noun 1. a large cylindrical contain-er for liquids such as beer, wine and oil 2.the amount of a liquid contained in a stand-ard barrel of 42 US gallons, used as a meas-ure of the quantity of crude oil producedand equal to 159 litres or 35 imperial gal-lonsbarrenbarren adjective unable to support plantor animal life � a sparse and barren land-scape at high altitudebarrierbarrier noun a structure that preventssomething going from one place to another.� geographical barrier, species barrierbasalbasal adjective 1. being the base or bot-tom of something 2. forming the basis ofsomethingbasaltbasalt noun a hard black volcanic rockbasalticbasaltic adjective referring to or contain-ing basalt (NOTE: Most volcanic lava is ba-saltic.)basebase noun 1. the original, lowest or firstposition 2. the main ingredient of some-thing such as a paint or an ointment 3. asubstance that reacts with an acid to form asalt � verb 1. to start to calculate from a po-sition � We based our calculations on therate of change we observed. 2. to developsomething from something else � Fieldidentification of plants is based on morpho-logical characters.base levelbase level noun 1. the lowest level ofsomething, from which other levels are cal-culated 2. the depth below which erosionwould be unable to occurbaselinebaseline noun the point from whichchange can be measuredbaseline conditionsbaseline conditions plural noun (ineconomic analyses) the health, environ-mental, economic or other conditions thatexist before any accidental or deliberatechanges occur � return the damaged landto baseline conditionsbaseline emissionbaseline emission noun the level ofemission of a gas such as a greenhouse gasthat would occur without a change in policybasementbasement noun the lowest level of rock,which has been covered by sedimentbase metalbase metal noun a common metal, e.g.copper, lead or tin. Compare noble metal


basic 18basicbasic adjective 1. from which everythingelse comes � This chapter provides a basicunderstanding from which the study of me-teorology can develop. � The basic struc-ture is the same for all models in this range.2. relating to a chemical which reacts withan acid to form a saltbasic reproductive ratebasic reproductive rate noun thenumber of eggs produced per individualover the period of a cycle, calculated by di-viding the total number of eggs producedby the number of individuals at the begin-ning of the cyclebasinbasin noun a large low-lying area of land,drained by a large river system or surround-ing an ocean � Thousands of tributariesdrain into the Amazon basin. � A ring ofvolcanoes lies around the edge of the Pacif-ic basin.Batesian mimicryBatesian mimicry noun a form of mim-icry where one species mimics anotherwhich is poisonous, so as to avoid beingeatenbathing waterbathing water noun a seawater or fresh-water area used for swimming in for whichspecific water quality standards exist underEU lawbathy-bathy- prefix referring to the part of theseabed between 200 and 2000m deepbathyalbathyal adjective referring to the deeppart of the seabathylimneticbathylimnetic adjective referring to thedeepest part of a lakeBATNEECBATNEEC noun a principle applied to thecontrol of emissions into the air, land andwater from polluting processes, in order tominimise pollution without the use of ad-vanced technology or expensive methods.Full form best available technology notentailing excessive costbatterybattery noun a chemical device whichproduces electrical currentbattery farmingbattery farming noun a system of keep-ing thousands of chickens in a series ofsmall cagesbattery henbattery hen noun a chicken whichspends its life confined in a small cagebauxitebauxite noun a mineral that contains alu-minium orebaybay noun a wide curved coastline, partlyenclosing an area of seaBeBe symbol berylliumbeachbeach noun an area of sand or smallstones at the edge of the sea, a lake or a riv-er � verb to come or bring out of the sea ora lake onto a beach � Many whales die af-ter beaching themselves on coasts.

Beaufort scaleBeaufort scale noun a scale rising from0 to 12, used to refer to the strength of wind� The meteorological office has issued awarning of force 12 winds.beckbeck noun a mountain streambecquerelbecquerel noun the SI unit of measure-ment of radiation, 1 becquerel being theamount of radioactivity in a substancewhere one nucleus decays per second.Symbol Bq. � rad (NOTE: now used in placeof the curie)bedbed noun 1. the bottom of a river, lake orthe sea 2. a layer of sediment in rock � Thecliffs show clearly several beds of sand-stone. � � filter bedbeddingbedding noun sediment in different lay-ersbedrockbedrock noun the rock which is foundunder a layer of ore or coalbeebee noun a flying insect with a hairy body(NOTE: Bees pollinate some types of plant.)beechbeech noun a common temperate hard-wood tree. Genus: Fagus.beetlebeetle noun an insect with hard covers onits wings. Order: Coleoptera.beetle bankbeetle bank noun an uncultivated ridgeleft in the middle of large fields for insectsand spiders which survive there duringwinter and then spread rapidly into the cropin the following spring to eat pests such asaphidsbehaviour

behaviour noun the way in which a liv-ing organism responds to a stimulusbehaviouralbehavioural adjective referring to be-haviourbehavioural ecologybehavioural ecology noun the study ofpatterns of behaviour in animalsbehavioural strategybehavioural strategy noun a strategyadopted by an animal as a response to apredator, e.g. attack, escape or hidingbeltbelt noun a long, narrow area � a belt oftrees � Green Beltbenchmarkbenchmark noun a level or standardagainst which increases or decreases can bemeasured � verb to establish a level orstandard against which increases or de-creases can be measuredbenthicbenthic adjective on or living on the bot-tom of the sea or of a lakebenthic faunabenthic fauna plural noun animals liv-ing on the bottom of the sea or a lakebenthic organismbenthic organism noun an organismliving on the bottom of the sea or of a lakebenthosbenthos noun a collection of organismsliving on the bottom of the sea or a lake


19 biocatalyticbenzenebenzene noun a simple aromatic hydro-carbon produced from coal tar that is verycarcinogenic. Formula: C6H6.benzene hexachloridebenzene hexachloride noun the activeingredient of the pesticide lindanebenzpyrenebenzpyrene noun an inflammable sub-stance found in coal tar, produced in ex-haust fumes from petrol engines and coal-and oil-burning appliances, and fromsmoking tobacco. It is carcinogenic.Bergmann’s ruleBergmann’s rule noun the principlethat warmblooded animals from cold re-gions have larger bodies than animals of thesame species from warmer regions, thus re-ducing the ratio of their body volume tobody surfaceBern ConventionBern Convention, Berne Conventionnoun � Convention on the Conservationof European Wildlife and Natural Habi-tatsberryberry noun a small fleshy indehiscent fruitwith several seeds, e.g. a tomato or a grapeberylliosisberylliosis noun poisoning caused bybreathing in dust or fumes containing parti-cles of beryllium or beryllium compoundsberylliumberyllium noun a metallic element. It isused in making various alloys. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Be; the atomic numberis 4 and the atomic weight is 9.01.)best-before datebest-before date noun a date stampedon foodstuffs sold in supermarkets, whichis the last date when the food is guaranteedto be in good condition. Compare sell-bydatebeta diversitybeta diversity noun the number of spe-cies in a wide regionBetz limitBetz limit noun the maximum power thatcan be produced by a wind turbineBhopalBhopal noun a town in India that was thescene of an accident in 1984, when methylisocyanate gas escaped from a chemicalplant and caused many deathsBHTBHT abbr butylated hydroxytoluenebicarbonatebicarbonate noun same as hydrogencarbonatebiennialbiennial adjective happening every twoyears � noun a plant that completes its lifecycle over a period of two years. � annual,perennialbightbight noun a wide curve in a shorelinebilharziabilharzia noun 1. a flatworm which entersthe bloodstream from infected water andcauses schistosomiasis. Genus: Schisto-soma. 2. same as schistosomiasisbilharziasisbilharziasis noun same as schisto-somiasisbillionbillion noun a number equal to one thou-sand million (NOTE: In the US it has always

meant one thousand million, but in the UKit formerly meant one million million, and itis still sometimes used with this meaning.With figures it is usually written bn: 5bn.)bindbind verb to form a chemical bondbinding agentbinding agent noun a substance thatcauses two or more other substances tostick together or combinebinding targetbinding target noun an environmentalstandard that must be met in the futurebinomial classificationbinomial classification noun the sci-entific system of naming organisms de-vised by the Swedish scientist Carolus Lin-naeus (1707–78)

COMMENT: The Linnaean system of bino-mial classification gives each organism aname made up of two Latin words. Thefirst is a generic name referring to the ge-nus to which the organism belongs, andthe second is a specific name referring tothe particular species. Organisms are usu-ally identified by using both their genericand specific names, e.g. Homo sapiens(human), Felis catus (domestic cat) andSequoia sempervirens (redwood). A thirdname can be added to give a subspecies.The generic name is written or printed witha capital letter and the specific name witha lowercase letter. Both names are usuallygiven in italics or are underlined if writtenor typed.

bio-bio- prefix referring to living organismsbioaccessiblebioaccessible adjective able to be takenup by any organismbioaccumulatebioaccumulate verb (of toxic substanc-es) to accumulate in increasing amounts upthe food chainbioaccumulationbioaccumulation noun the accumula-tion of substances such as toxic chemicalsin increasing amounts up the food chainbioaerationbioaeration noun the treatment of sew-age by pumping activated sludge into itbioassaybioassay noun a test of a substance byexamining the effect it has on living organ-ismsbioaugmentationbioaugmentation noun the addition ofmicroorganisms to human or industrialwaste to reinforce natural biological proc-essesbioavailabilitybioavailability noun the degree to whicha nutrient or other chemical can be metabo-lised by an organismbiocatalysisbiocatalysis noun the process of achemical reaction being aided by a bio-chemical agent such as an enzymebiocatalystbiocatalyst noun a biological agent suchas an enzyme that aids a chemical reactionbiocatalyticbiocatalytic adjective referring to bioca-talysis


biochemical 20biochemicalbiochemical adjective referring to bio-chemistrybiochemical oxygen demandbiochemical oxygen demand nounsame as biological oxygen demandbiochemistbiochemist noun a scientist who special-ises in biochemistrybiochemistrybiochemistry noun the chemistry of liv-ing tissuesbiocidebiocide noun a substance that kills livingorganisms � Biocides used in agriculturerun off into lakes and rivers.biocide pollutionbiocide pollution noun pollution oflakes and rivers caused by the runoff fromfields of herbicides and other biocides usedin agriculturebioclimaticbioclimatic adjective referring to the re-lationship between climate and living or-ganisms, or to the study of bioclimatologybioclimatologybioclimatology noun the study of the ef-fect of climate on living organismsbiocoenosisbiocoenosis noun 1. a varied communi-ty of organisms living in the same smallarea such as the bark of a tree 2. the rela-tionship between the organisms in such acommunity (NOTE: [all senses] The USspelling is biocenosis.)biocompositebiocomposite noun a material that ismade from a plant fibre such as hemp fixedwithin a resin made from a fossil fuel. �ecocompositebiocontrolbiocontrol noun same as biological con-trolbioconversionbioconversion noun the changing of or-ganic waste into a source of energy, e.g. theproduction of methane gas from the decom-position of organic matterbiodegradabilitybiodegradability noun the degree towhich material such as packaging can bedecomposed by natural processesbiodegradablebiodegradable adjective easily decom-posed by organisms such as bacteria or bynatural processes such as the effect of sun-light or the sea � biodegradable householdwaste such as potato peelings � Biode-gradable cartons can be made from potatostarch. � Organochlorines are not biode-gradable and enter the food chain easily.biodegradable packagingbiodegradable packaging noun ma-terial such as boxes, cartons or bottles thatcan be decomposed by organisms such asbacteria or by natural processes such as theeffect of sunlight or the seabiodegradationbiodegradation noun the breakingdown of a substance by natural processes,e.g. the breakdown of activated sludge bybacteriabiodegradebiodegrade verb to decay as the result ofnatural processes

biodieselbiodiesel noun a substitute for diesel fuelmade wholly or partly from organic prod-ucts, especially oils extracted from plantssuch as oilseed rapebiodigestionbiodigestion noun the use of microor-ganisms to break down food and organicwastebiodiversebiodiverse adjective containing a largenumber of species � a biodiverse area ofrainforestbiodiversitybiodiversity noun the range of species,subspecies or communities in a specifichabitat such as a rainforest or a meadow.Also called biological diversity

‘Modern intensive farming is probably the maincause of declining biodiversity in the country-side. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Scienceand Innovation Strategy 2003–06)’

Biodiversity Action PlanBiodiversity Action Plan noun a de-tailed scheme to maintain the biological di-versity of a specific area. Abbr BAPbiodiversity hotspotbiodiversity hotspot noun a threat-ened region with a large range of endemicplant species (at least 1500) but wheremore than 70% of the original habitat hasbeen lost because of human activities. Typ-ically, the diversity of endemic vertebratesis also high.biodiversity indicatorbiodiversity indicator noun a factorthat allows change in the environment overtime to be assessed. Also called bioindica-torbiodiversity prospectingbiodiversity prospecting noun theprocess of searching among wild organ-isms for new species or genetic characteris-tics that may have potential commercialvaluebiodomebiodome noun a very large greenhouse orsimilar structure with a controlled internalenvironment in which plants and animalsfrom much warmer or colder regions arekept in conditions similar to naturebiodynamic agriculturebiodynamic agriculture noun a viewof agriculture based on a holistic and spirit-ual understanding of nature and humans’role in it, which considers a farm as a self-contained evolving organism, relying onhome-produced feeds and manures withexternal inputs kept to a minimumbiodynamicsbiodynamics noun the study of livingorganisms and the production of energybioecologybioecology noun the study of the rela-tionships among organisms and betweenthem and their physical environment, withparticular emphasis on the effect of humanson the environmentbioenergeticsbioenergetics noun same as biodynam-ics


21 biological monitoringbioenergybioenergy noun energy produced frombiomassbioengineeringbioengineering noun the use of bio-chemical processes on an industrial scale toproduce drugs and foodstuffs or to recyclewastebioerosionbioerosion noun erosion or decay due tothe action of living organismsbioethanolbioethanol noun a fuel for internal-com-bustion engines that is made by fermentingbiological material to produce alcohol(NOTE: Typically 5–10% bioethanol is add-ed to petrol.)biofilterbiofilter noun a filter system that uses mi-croorganisms to convert the organic com-pounds of a pollutant to carbon dioxide,water and saltsbiofuelbiofuel noun a fuel produced from organ-ic domestic waste or other sources such asplants (NOTE: Coppiced willow is some-times grown for biofuel.)biogasbiogas noun a mixture of methane andcarbon dioxide produced from fermentingwaste such as animal dung � Farm biogassystems may be uneconomic unless there isa constant demand for heat. � The use ofbiogas systems in rural areas of developingcountries is increasing.biogenicbiogenic adjective relating to plants andanimalsbiogenic sourcebiogenic source noun a plant or animalwhich emits air pollutantsbiogeochemicalbiogeochemical adjective relating tobiogeochemistrybiogeochemical cyclebiogeochemical cycle noun a processin which nutrients from living organismsare transferred into the physical environ-ment and back to the organisms (NOTE: Thisprocess is essential for organic life to con-tinue.)biogeochemistrybiogeochemistry noun the study of liv-ing organisms and their relationship to thechemical components of the Earth such asits soil, rocks and mineralsbiogeographerbiogeographer noun a scientist whostudies regions that have their own faunaand florabiogeographical regionbiogeographical region, biogeo-graphical zone noun a region of the Earththat has its own special fauna and flora,separated from other regions by a naturalbarrier or change in environmental condi-tionsbiogeographybiogeography noun the study of the re-lationship between organisms and the ge-ography of the region where they occur, in-cluding how they originally came to that re-gion

biogeospherebiogeosphere noun the top layer of theEarth’s crust, which contains living organ-ismsbiohazardbiohazard noun a risk to human beingsor their environment presented by some-thing that is toxic or infectiousbiohydrologybiohydrology noun the study of the in-teractions between the water cycle andplants and animalsbioindicatorbioindicator noun same as biodiversityindicatorbioinformaticsbioinformatics noun the use of comput-ers to extract and analyse biological databioinsecticidebioinsecticide noun an insecticide de-veloped from natural plant toxins, e.g. py-rethrum. � microbial insecticidebiologicalbiological adjective referring to biologybiological associationbiological association noun a groupof organisms living together in a large area,forming a stable communitybiological controlbiological control noun the control ofpests by using predators and natural proc-esses to remove them. Also called biocon-trolbiological desertbiological desert noun an area wherethere is no life (NOTE: Heavy pollution canturn the bottom of a lake into a biologicaldesert.)biological diversitybiological diversity noun same as bio-diversityBiological Diversity ConventionBiological Diversity Conventionnoun one of two binding treaties agreed atthe Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in June1992, requiring states to take steps to pre-serve ecologically valuable areas and spe-ciesbiological efficiencybiological efficiency noun the ratio ofthe productivity of an organism or commu-nity of organisms to that of its supply of en-ergybiological half-lifebiological half-life noun the time takenfor half of an amount of radioactive materi-al to be eliminated naturally from a livingorganismbiological indicatorbiological indicator noun an organismthat is known to respond to specific chang-es in the environmentbiologically decomposablebiologically decomposable adjectivesame as biodegradablebiological magnificationbiological magnification noun sameas bioaccumulationbiological massbiological mass noun same as bio-massbiological monitoringbiological monitoring noun the proc-ess of checking the changes that take placein a habitat over time


biological oxygen demand 22biological oxygen demandbiological oxygen demand noun theamount of pollution in water, shown as theamount of oxygen needed to oxidise thepolluting substances. Abbr BOD

COMMENT: Diluted sewage passed into riv-ers contains dissolved oxygen, which isutilised by bacteria as they oxidise the pol-lutants in the sewage. The oxygen is re-placed by oxygen from the air. Dilutedsewage should not absorb more than 20ppm of dissolved oxygen.

biological pesticidebiological pesticide noun same as bi-opesticidebiological pumpbiological pump noun the process bywhich carbon sinks from the surface to thedepths of the oceans, so reducing the levelsof carbon dioxide in the atmospherebiological wastewater treatmentbiological wastewater treatmentnoun the use of aerobic or anaerobic micro-organisms to produce effluents and separat-ed sludge containing microbial mass to-gether with pollutants, often as well as us-ing mechanical processesbiologistbiologist noun a scientist who specialisesin biologybiologybiology noun the study of living organ-ismsbioluminescencebioluminescence noun the productionof light by organisms such as fireflies or seaanimals, as a result of an enzymic reaction(NOTE: Bioluminescence is found in manydeep-sea animals, fireflies and some bac-teria and fungi.)biomagnificationbiomagnification noun same as bioac-cumulationbiomanipulationbiomanipulation noun the action orprocess of changing the environment to im-prove the survival of wildlifebiomarkerbiomarker noun a distinctive indicator ofa biological or biochemical process, e.g. achemical whose occurrence shows thepresence of a diseasebiomassbiomass noun 1. the sum of all living or-ganisms in a given area or at a given trophiclevel, usually expressed in terms of livingor dry mass 2. organic matter used to pro-duce energy (NOTE: Willow and miscanthusare grown as biomass for fuel.)biomass boilerbiomass boiler noun a device that burnsbiomass as a fuel to heat waterbiomass energybiomass energy noun the energy pro-duced by burning renewable materials suchas wood or wastebiomaterialbiomaterial noun a biodegradable mate-rial of plant originbiomebiome noun a large ecological regioncharacterised by its vegetation and climateand the organisms adapted to live in it

COMMENT: The ten principal biomes are:mountains, polar regions, tropical rainfor-est, grasslands, deserts, temperate for-ests, monsoon forests, deciduous forests,coniferous forests and evergreen shrubforests.

biometeorologybiometeorology noun the scientificstudy of the weather and its effect on organ-ismsbiomethanationbiomethanation noun a system of pro-ducing biogas for use as fuel

‘Biomethanation is attractive for use in rural are-as for several reasons: it is an anaerobic digestionprocess, which is the simplest, safest way thathas been found for treating human excreta andanimal manure.’ [Appropriate Technology]

biometricalbiometrical adjective referring to bio-metricsbiometricsbiometrics noun the use of statisticaltechniques on biological data (NOTE: takesa singular verb)biomonitoringbiomonitoring noun the measurementand tracking of a chemical substance in anorganism or in biological material such asblood or urine, in order to monitor exposureto pollution, chemicals or other hazardsbionbion noun a single living organism in anecosystembiopesticidebiopesticide noun a pesticide producedfrom biological sources such as plant tox-ins that occur naturally. � microbial insec-ticidebiophytebiophyte noun a plant that obtains nutri-ents from the decomposing bodies of in-sects which it traps and kills, e.g. a sundewbiopiracybiopiracy noun the commercial develop-ment of genetic resources such as plantswith medicinal properties or genes for re-sistance to disease without allowing thepeople or government of the area wherethey were originally discovered to share infinancial benefitsbioprospectingbioprospecting noun the process oflooking for plants that contain potentiallyuseful pharmaceutical compoundsbioregionbioregion noun an area defined in envi-ronmental terms rather than by geopoliticsbioremediationbioremediation noun the use of organ-isms such as bacteria to remove environ-mental pollutants from soil, water or gases(NOTE: Bioremediation is used to clean upcontaminated land and oil spills.)biosecuritybiosecurity noun the management of therisks to animal, plant and human healthposed by pests and diseasesbioseparationbioseparation noun the use of biologi-cal agents such as plants, enzymes, or bio-logical membranes in separating the differ-ent components of something, e.g. in the


23 birthratepurification of proteins or water, or in mak-ing food and pharmaceutical productsbiosolidsbiosolids plural noun a nutrient-rich or-ganic material, solid or semi-solid beforeprocessing, that is derived from sewage asa product of wastewater treatment and usedas a fertilizerbiospherebiosphere noun same as ecospherebiosphere reservebiosphere reserve noun an environ-mentally sensitive area with protected sta-tus managed primarily to preserve naturalecological conditions (NOTE: Biosphere re-serves may be open to tourists.)biospheric cyclebiospheric cycle noun a natural cycli-cal process that supports life on Earth, e.g.the oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogencycle or water cyclebiostimulationbiostimulation noun the addition of nu-trients to polluted waste or ground in orderto enhance the remedial activity of micro-organismsbiosynthesisbiosynthesis noun the production ofchemical compounds by a living organismbiotabiota noun the flora and fauna of a regionbiotechnologybiotechnology noun the use of biologi-cal processes in industrial production, e.g.the use of yeasts in making beer, bread oryoghurt. � genetic modificationbioticbiotic adjective referring to the living con-stituents of an environment. Compare abi-oticbiotic barrierbiotic barrier noun a set of conditionswhich prevent members of a species mov-ing to other regionsbiotic carrier potentialbiotic carrier potential noun an as-sessment of the maximum increase in thenumber of individuals in a species, not con-sidering the effects of competition and nat-ural selectionbiotic climaxbiotic climax noun a plant communityproduced by a permanent influence or com-bination of influences of organisms, includ-ing people, e.g. woodlandbiotic communitybiotic community noun a communityof organisms in a specific areabiotic factorbiotic factor noun an organism that hasan effect on a specific environment. Com-pare abiotic factorbiotic indexbiotic index noun a scale for showing thequality of an environment by indicating thetypes of organisms present in itbiotic potentialbiotic potential noun same as bioticcarrier potentialbiotic pyramidbiotic pyramid noun a graphical repre-sentation of the structure of an ecosystemin terms of which organism eats which.Also called ecological pyramid (NOTE:The base is composed of producer organ-

isms, usually plants, then herbivores, thencarnivores. It may be measured in terms ofnumber, biomass or energy.)biotic successionbiotic succession noun the sequenceof changes that takes place in the composi-tion of a group of organisms under the in-fluence of their changing environmentbiotopebiotope noun a small area with uniformbiological conditions such as climate, soilor altitudebiotrophbiotroph noun a parasite which onlyfeeds on living organisms. Compare necro-trophbiotypebiotype noun a group of similar individu-als within a speciesbiphenylbiphenyl noun a white or colourless crys-talline substance, used as a fungicide, in theproduction of dyes and as a preservative ap-plied to the skins of citrus fruit. Formula:C6H5C6H[[SUB]]5. (NOTE: The preserva-tive has E number E230.)birchbirch noun a common hardwood treefound in northern temperate zones. Genus:Betula.birdbird noun a warm-blooded animal that haswings, feathers and a beak and lays eggs

‘Birds are sensitive to even small climate chang-es. For instance the North Atlantic Oscillation –the Atlantic’s version of El Niño – has subtle ef-fects on weather. These go unnoticed by mosthumans, but research shows that as the oscilla-tion waxes and wanes, populations of larks andsandpipers rise and fall. (Climate Change, UKfarmland birds and the global greenhouse. RSPB2001)’

birderbirder noun same as birdwatcherbird havenbird haven noun same as bird sanctuarybird of preybird of prey noun a bird that kills andeats other birds or small animalsbird reservebird reserve noun same as bird sanctu-arybird sanctuarybird sanctuary noun a place where birdscan breed and live in a protected environ-mentBirds directiveBirds directive noun a European Uniondirective relating to the conservation of allspecies of naturally occurring wild birdsbirdsongbirdsong noun singing calls made bybirds to communicate with each otherbirdwatcherbirdwatcher noun a person who ob-serves and studies birds as a leisure activity.Also called birderbirdwatchingbirdwatching noun observing and stud-ying birds as a leisure activitybirthbirth noun the event of being bornbirthratebirthrate noun the number of births peryear, shown per thousand of the population� a birthrate of 15 per thousand � Therehas been a severe decline in the birthrate.


bison 24bisonbison noun US a type of large cattle foundin North America, now largely restricted toprotected areas because of hunting. Alsocalled buffalobitumenbitumen noun a solid hydrocarbon con-tained in coal. Also called tarbituminous coalbituminous coal noun coal containing ahigh percentage of tarbituminous sandbituminous sand, bituminous shalenoun same as oil sandbivalvebivalve noun an invertebrate animal witha shell composed of two halves joined atone place. Bivalves such as oysters or mus-sels may live in fresh or salt water.black carbonblack carbon noun carbon in the form offine particles which rise in the smoke pro-duced by the burning of fossil fuels such ascoal, wood or oilblack earthblack earth noun same as chernozembladderbladder noun 1. an inflated modified leafof a plant that traps insects, e.g. bladder-wort, or an inflated fruit, e.g. senna pod 2.same as air bladderbladeblade noun 1. a flattened part of a propel-ler, rotor or wind turbine 2. a thin flat leaf,e.g. a leaf of a grass, iris or daffodilblanket bogblanket bog noun a wide area of marshyground that may occur in lowland or uplandareas (NOTE: In the UK, they occur mainly athigh altitude in the north and west.)blastblast noun the impact from an explosion� Thousands of people would be killed bythe blast.blast effectblast effect noun a result of the impactfrom an explosion, e.g. damage causedblazeblaze noun a mark put on a tree to showthat it needs to be felled or to indicate a paththrough a forestbleachingbleaching noun 1. the removal of colourby the action of a chemical or sunlight 2. aprocess in which coral loses its colour orloses its symbiotic algae � There have beenseveral incidents of coral bleaching onreefs around Easter Island and northeast-ern Australia.bleedbleed verb 1. to exude blood or sap from awound 2. to remove liquid or gas from asystemblightblight noun 1. a disease caused by differ-ent fungi, that rapidly destroys a plant orplant part 2. � (urban) blight excessivebuilding development, or the occurrence ofdilapidated and unattractive areas in a cityor town � verb to ruin or spoil the environ-ment � The landscape was blighted byopen-cast mining.blizzardblizzard noun a heavy snowstorm withwind, or lying snow which is blown by

strong wind � There were blizzards in thehighlands during the weekend.bloombloom noun a flower � The blooms on theorchids have been ruined by frost. � verb toflower � The plant blooms at night. �Some cacti only bloom once every sevenyears.blowblow verb (of air or wind) to move � Thesea breeze may blow almost parallel to thecoast.blow-byblow-by noun unburnt fuel mixed with airand other gases that escapes past the pistonrings in an internal combustion engineblowholeblowhole noun 1. a hole in the roof of acave by the sea, leading to the surface of thecliff above, through which air and water aresent out by the pressure of the waves break-ing beneath 2. the nostril of a cetacean suchas a whale, situated towards the back of theskull, through which the whale releases airand waterblowoutblowout noun a sudden rush of oil or gasfrom an oil wellblubberblubber noun fat lying in a thick layer un-der the skin of marine animals such aswhalesblue flag beachblue flag beach noun a beach with seawater that meets the cleanliness require-ments of the European Commission andhas been awarded the symbol of a blue flagblue-green algablue-green alga noun � cyanobacteri-umblue whaleblue whale noun a large whale with noteeth, which feeds by straining largeamounts of water through its baleen and soretaining plankton and other foodboard of inquiryboard of inquiry noun a group of peoplewho carry out a formal investigation whenthere has been an accident, or somethinghas gone wrongBOATBOAT abbr byway open to all trafficBODBOD abbr 1. biochemical oxygen demand2. biological oxygen demand � The mainaim of sewage treatment is to reduce theBOD of the liquid.body burdenbody burden noun the amount of achemical contained in a human or animalbodybogbog noun soft wet land, usually with mossgrowing on it, which does not decompose,but forms a thick layer of acid peat (NOTE:The mosses that grow on bogs live on thenutrients that fall in rain.)boggyboggy adjective soft and wet like a bogboglandbogland noun an area of bogboilboil verb to heat a liquid until it reaches atemperature at which it changes into gasbolebole noun the wide base of a tree trunk


25 Brbondbond noun same as chemical bond �verb 1. (of two substances) to link together� Adsorption is the bonding of a gas to asolid surface. 2. (of atoms) to form a chem-ical bondbonebone noun 1. one of the calcified pieces ofconnective tissue which make up the skele-ton, e.g. a leg bone 2. a hard substance ofwhich the parts of the skeleton are formedbonemealbonemeal noun a fertiliser made ofground bones or horns, reduced to a finepowderboomboom noun a sudden loud noise, especial-ly one caused by an aircraft travelling atspeeds greater than the speed of soundboom townboom town noun a town where the pop-ulation and number of buildings is increas-ing very quickly, or a town where businessis thriving � The oil industry has turnedthis once sleepy port into a boom town.boosterbooster noun a device which increasesthe force or amount of somethingBordeaux mixtureBordeaux mixture noun a mixture ofcopper sulfate, lime and water, used tospray on plants to prevent infection by fun-giborebore noun 1. a measurement across the in-side of a pipe or hole � The central heatinguses small-bore copper piping. � The wellhas a 2-metre bore. 2. a tidal wave whichrushes up the estuary of a river at high tide� verb to make a round hole in the ground� They have bored six test holes to try tofind water.borealboreal adjective referring to the climate inthe northern hemisphere between 60º and40° N with short hot summers and longercold wintersboreal forestboreal forest noun a forest in the tundraareas around the North Pole, consisting pri-marily of black spruce and white sprucetrees with balsam fir, birch and aspenboreal regionboreal region noun one of the biogeo-graphical regions of Europe, in the northeast between the Arctic and the continentalregionboreholeborehole noun 1. a hole bored deep intothe ground to survey for the presence of oil,gas or water, or to establish the nature ofground structure � The borehole is intend-ed to test the geology of the site to see whatsort of foundation the building will need. 2.a hole bored into the water table for the ex-traction of water � Boreholes supply waterof excellent quality.-borne-borne suffix carried by � wind-bornepollen of grasses

boronboron noun a chemical element. It is es-sential as a trace element for healthy plantgrowth. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is B;the atomic number is 5 and the atomicweight is 10.81.)botanicbotanic, botanical adjective referring tobotanybotanical gardenbotanical garden, botanic gardennoun a place where plants are grown forshowing to the public and for scientificstudybotanical horticulturebotanical horticulture noun the activ-ity of growing different species of plants tostudy and maintain thembotanical insecticidebotanical insecticide noun an insecti-cide made from a substance extracted fromplants, e.g. pyrethrum, derived from chry-santhemums, or nicotine, derived from to-bacco plantsbotanical specimenbotanical specimen noun a plant col-lected for studybotanistbotanist noun someone who studiesplants as a scientific or leisure activitybotanybotany noun the study of plants as a sci-entific or leisure activitybottle bankbottle bank noun a large container intowhich people put empty glass bottles andjars which can then be recycled into newglassbottled gasbottled gas noun a gas produced fromrefining crude oil and sold in pressurisedmetal containers for use in domestic cook-ing or heating, or as vehicle fuelbottombottom noun 1. the floor of a sea, lake orriver 2. a flat area along a river where silt isdeposited when the river floodsbottom feederbottom feeder noun an organism suchas a fish which collects food on the bottomor in the deepest water of the sea, a lake orriverbottom-up controlbottom-up control noun the system ofregulation of trophic levels by which theabundance of individuals in the highertrophic levels is determined by factors inthe lower levels. Compare top-down con-trolboulderboulder noun a large rounded piece ofrockBovidaeBovidae plural noun the largest class ofeven-toed ungulates, including cattle, ante-lopes, gazelles, sheep and goatsbovinebovine adjective referring to cattlebovine spongiform encephalopathybovine spongiform encephalopa-thy noun full form of BSEBqBq symbol becquerelBrBr symbol bromine


bracken 26brackenbracken noun a tall fern with large trian-gular fronds that grows on hillsides and inwoodland. Latin name: Pteridium aquili-num. (NOTE: no plural)brackishbrackish adjective referring to waterwhich contains some salt, though less thanseawater, and is not good to drinkbractbract noun a small green leaf at the baseof a flower or flowering stembraided riverbraided river noun a river that is dividedinto a pattern of many channels with smallareas of dry land between thembraidingbraiding noun the process of a river be-coming divided into many channels withsmall areas of dry land between thembranbran noun the outside covering of a cerealgrain (NOTE: It is removed from wheat inmaking white flour, but is an importantsource of roughage in the human diet andis used in muesli and other breakfast cere-als.)branchbranch noun 1. a woody stem growingout from the main trunk of a tree 2. a subdi-vision of something larger 3. a smallerstream separating from but still formingpart of a riverbrassbrass noun an alloy of copper and zincBrassicaceaeBrassicaceae noun a family of commonplants, including cabbage, whose flowershave four petals. Former name Cruciferaebreakdownbreakdown noun 1. a failure of a systemor organisation 2. the separation of a sub-stance into its component partsbreakthroughbreakthrough noun a situation occur-ring when sewage or other pollutants getinto the main domestic water supplybreakwaterbreakwater noun a stone or woodenstructure that is built out from the shore intothe sea in order to block the force of wavesand so prevent erosionbrecciabreccia noun a type of rough rock madeof sharp fragments of other rocks fused to-getherbreedbreed noun a group of organisms of a spe-cific species which have been developed bypeople over a period of time for desirablecharacteristics � a hardy breed of sheep �Two new breeds of rice have been devel-oped. � verb 1. (of organisms) to produceyoung � Rabbits breed very rapidly. 2. toencourage something to develop � Insani-tary conditions help to breed disease. 3. toproduce an improved animal or plant bycrossing two parent animals or plantsshowing the desired characteristics �Farmers have bred new hardy forms ofsheep. � to breed true to reproduce all the

characteristics of the type in the next gener-ation � F1 hybrids do not breed true.breederbreeder noun a person who breeds newforms of animals or plants � a cat breeder� a cattle breeder � a rose breeder � aplant breederbreedingbreeding noun the crossing of differentplants or animals to produce offspring withdesirable characteristicsbreeding birdbreeding bird noun a bird that is activelyreproducing in a specific place at a specifictimeBreeding Bird SurveyBreeding Bird Survey noun an ongo-ing assessment of breeding birds conductedby the British Trust for Ornithology, JNCCand RSPBbreeding groundbreeding ground noun an area wherebirds or animals come each year to breedbreeding pairbreeding pair noun two animals, espe-cially birds, that have established a matingrelationship with each otherbreeding seasonbreeding season noun the time of yearwhen organisms produce offspringbreezebreeze noun 1. a light wind 2. the solidwaste of burnt coal or other material pro-duced by a furnacebridle pathbridle path, bridle way noun a trackalong which a horse can be riddenBritish thermal unitBritish thermal unit noun the amountof heat needed to raise the temperature ofone pound of water by one degree Fahren-heit (NOTE: Its approximate SI equivalent is1055 joules.)British Trust for OrnithologyBritish Trust for Ornithology nounan independent scientific research trust thatinvestigates the populations, movementsand ecology of wild birds in the BritishIsles. Abbr BTObroadbroad noun a river that has spreads to cov-er low-lying landbroadacre agriculturebroadacre agriculture noun the large-scale cultivation of field cropsbroadleafbroadleaf, broadleaf tree noun a decid-uous tree that has wide leaves, e.g. beech oroak. Compare coniferbroadleavedbroadleaved adjective (of a tree) havingwide leaves rather than needles. Compareconiferousbroadleaved evergreenbroadleaved evergreen noun an ever-green tree or shrub with wide leaves, e.g.rhododendron or laurelbroadleaved forestbroadleaved forest, broadleavedwoodland noun an area of wooded landconsisting of more than 75% of broad-leaved treesbroad-spectrumbroad-spectrum adjective referring toan antibiotic or pesticide which kills orcontrols many types of organism


27 building permit‘Broad-spectrum pesticides often control bothpest and natural enemies removing the benefitsof biological control. Often, pesticides are ap-plied just after damage or infestations are identi-fied. Such treatments will prevent beneficialpests from multiplying to populations that willsignificantly reduce pest numbers. (Pest Man-agement in cereals and oilseed rape – a guide.HGCA 2003)’

brominebromine noun a chemical element. It isused in various industrial processes and inantiknock additives for petrol. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Br; the atomic numberis 35 and the atomic weight is 79.90.)broodbrood noun a group of offspring producedat the same time, especially a group ofyoung birds � The territory providesenough food for two adults and a brood ofsix or eight young.brooding timebrooding time noun the length of time abird sits on its eggs to hatch them outbrookbrook noun a little streambrownbrown adjective 1. of a colour like the col-our of earth or wood 2. not produced fromrenewable sourcesbrown earthbrown earth noun good fertile soil,slightly acid and containing humusbrownfieldsbrownfields plural noun vacant industri-al land that was formerly developedbrownfield sitebrownfield site noun a development sitethat is in a town and formerly had buildingson it, preferred for building development toopen fields. Compare greenfield sitebrown fumesbrown fumes plural noun fumes fromtarry substances produced by coal burningat low temperatures. Also called brownsmokebrownlandsbrownlands plural noun areas of land fordevelopment that have been previously de-veloped but are currently unusedbrown smokebrown smoke noun � brown fumesbrowsebrowse verb to feed on plant material, es-pecially the leaves of woody plants, whichis not growing close to the ground. Com-pare grazebrucellosisbrucellosis noun a disease which can becaught from cattle or goats or from drink-ing infected milk, spread by a species of thebacterium Brucellabrushwoodbrushwood noun undergrowth withtwigs and small branchesbryophytebryophyte noun a non-flowering plant,frequently growing in damp places, withseparate gamete- and spore-bearing forms,e.g. moss. Division: Bryophyta.BSEBSE noun a fatal brain disease of cattle.Also called mad cow disease. Full formbovine spongiform encephalopathyBTOBTO abbr British Trust for Ornithology

budbud noun a young shoot on a plant, whichmay later become a leaf or flowerbuddingbudding noun a way of propagatingplants in which a bud from one plant isgrafted onto another plantbuffalobuffalo noun 1. a common domestic ani-mal in tropical countries, used for milk andalso as a draught animal 2. US same as bi-sonbufferbuffer noun a solution in which the pH isnot changed by adding acid or alkali � verbto prevent a solution from becoming acid oralkaline � If a lake is well buffered, it willnot have a low pH factor, even if acid rainfalls into it. � Bicarbonate is the main buff-ering factor in fresh water.buffer landbuffer land, buffer zone noun land be-tween a protected area such as a nature re-serve and the surrounding countryside ortownbugbug noun 1. an insect (informal ) 2. awinged insect belonging to the class Hemi-pterabuildbuild verb to make a construction � Thedeveloper is planning to build 2500 newhouses on the greenfield site. � The femalebirds build nests of straw in holes in trees.buildingbuilding noun 1. a construction such as ahouse, shop or office � modern buildingswith good insulation 2. the process of con-structing something � permission forbuilding on the sitebuilding areabuilding area noun an area of land onwhich building may take place or is takingplace. Also called building zonebuilding certificatebuilding certificate noun an officialdocument allowing a person or company tobuild a property. Also called building per-mitbuilding controlbuilding control noun a system for reg-ulating the design of buildings, especiallyfor the safety and health of the occupantsbuilding densitybuilding density noun a number ofbuildings allowed on a specific area of land,e.g. fifteen houses to the acrebuilding developmentbuilding development noun an area ofland on which building is taking or has tak-en place � The company is planning a newbuilding development of 1500 homes.building groundbuilding ground, building land nounan area of land suitable for or with permis-sion for building onbuilding legislationbuilding legislation noun the set oflaws controlling all aspects of putting upnew buildings or altering existing buildingsbuilding permitbuilding permit noun same as buildingcertificate


building-related illness 28building-related illnessbuilding-related illness noun an ill-ness that can be traced to a specific pollut-ant or source within a building (NOTE: Le-gionnaires’ disease is a building-related ill-ness.)building sitebuilding site noun an area of land onwhich building is taking placebuilding zonebuilding zone noun same as buildingareabuild upbuild up verb 1. to form by accumulation� The pesticide gradually built up in thefood chain. 2. to develop gradually � Traf-fic has built up over the last five years.build-upbuild-up noun a gradual accumulation �a build-up of DDT in the food chain � abuild-up of static electricitybuilt environmentbuilt environment noun the buildings,roads and other structures made by peopleand in which they live, work or travel.Compare natural environmentbuilt heritagebuilt heritage noun the part of a coun-try’s historic resources that consists ofbuildings and structures, as opposed to nat-ural assetsbuilt-up areabuilt-up area noun an area which hasmany houses, shops, offices and otherbuildings, with very little open spacebulbbulb noun an underground plant organ offleshy scale leaves and buds. It can beplanted and will produce flowers and seed.bulkbulk noun a large quantity of something �in bulk in large quantitiesbulking agentbulking agent noun an additive whichcauses a substance to stick together as amassbulk plantbulk plant noun a factory which produc-es something in large quantitiesbundbund noun a soil wall built across a slopeto retain water or to hold waste in a slopinglandfill sitebundingbunding noun the formation of bunds

‘Farmers have traditionally relied on a system ofbunding to grow sorghum in the area’s semi-aridsoil.’ [New Scientist]

burial siteburial site noun 1. a place where nuclearwaste is buried 2. a place where animalsthat have died from an infectious diseasesuch as foot and mouth disease are buriedburnburn noun 1. an injury to skin and tissuecaused by light, heat, radiation, electricityor a chemical 2. in Scotland, a small stream� verb 1. to destroy or damage somethingby fire � Several hundred hectares of forestwere burnt in the fire. � slash and burn ag-riculture 2. to use fuel or food to produceenergy � Swimming will help you burn cal-ories.

burnerburner noun a device for burning some-thing such as fuel or wasteburner reactorburner reactor noun a type of nuclearreactor in which fuel such as uranium-239is used to generate heat by fissionburningburning noun 1. the act or process of de-stroying or damaging something by fire 2.the process of burning something such asfuel or wasteburn-upburn-up noun the amount of fuel burnt ina nuclear reactor, shown as a proportion ofthe fuel originally usedbushbush noun 1. a plant with many woodystems � a coffee bush � a rose bush 2. insemiarid regions, natural land covered withbushes and small treesbush-fallowbush-fallow noun a form of subsistenceagriculture in which land is cultivated for afew years until its natural fertility is ex-hausted, then allowed to rest for a long pe-riod during which the natural vegetation re-grows, after which the land is cleared andcultivated againbusiness parkbusiness park noun an area of land withbuildings specially designed and construct-ed for business premises, light industries orsciencebutanebutane noun a gas produced during petro-leum distillation, used domestically forheating and sold in special containers asbottled gas. Formula: C4H10.butterflybutterfly noun a flying insect with large,often colourful wingsbutterwortbutterwort noun an insectivorous plantthat grows in bogs. Genus: Pinguicula.butylated hydroxytoluenebutylated hydroxytoluene noun acommon antioxidant additive (E321) usedin processed foods containing fat. It may becarcinogenic. Abbr BHTby-catchby-catch noun fish or sea mammalscaught during fishing but not required andthrown back dead into the sea � By-catch isa major environmental problem as it in-volves the uncontrolled destruction of pop-ulations.by-passby-pass noun a road built around a town,to relieve traffic congestion � Since the by-pass was built, traffic in the town has beenreduced by half.by-productby-product noun something additionalproduced during a processbywaybyway noun a small country road or trackbyway open to all trafficbyway open to all traffic noun a roadmainly used by the public as a footpath orbridleway on which vehicles are allowed.Abbr BOAT


CCC symbol 1. carbon 2. CelsiusC3 plantC3 plant noun a plant found in temperateregions in which photosynthesis levels offat high light intensitiesC4 plantC4 plant noun a plant, usually found inhot dry regions, which is efficient at photo-synthesis at high light intensitiesCaCa symbol calciumCACA abbr Countryside Agencycactuscactus noun a succulent plant with afleshy stem often protected by spines,found in the deserts of North and CentralAmerica (NOTE: The plural is cacti or cac-tuses.)cadmiumcadmium noun a metallic element natu-rally present in soil and rock in associationwith zinc (NOTE: The chemical symbol isCd; the atomic number is 48 and the atomicweight is 112.40.)caducouscaducous adjective referring to a part ofa plant or animal which becomes detachedduring the organism’s lifecaesiumcaesium noun a metallic alkali elementwhich is one of the main radioactive pollut-ants taken up by fish (NOTE: The chemicalsymbol is Cs; the atomic number is 55 andthe atomic weight is 132.91.)calcal symbol caloriecalcareouscalcareous adjective referring to achalky soil that contains calcium or to arock such as chalk or limestone that con-tains calciumcalcareous grasslandcalcareous grassland noun the typeof vegetation such as grasses that is typicalon chalk soil. � acid grasslandcalcicolecalcicole, calcicolous plant noun aplant which grows well on chalky or alka-line soils. Also called calciphilecalcificationcalcification noun the process of hard-ening by forming deposits of calcium saltscalcifiedcalcified adjective made hard � Bone iscalcified connective tissue.calcifugecalcifuge noun a plant which prefers acidsoils and does not grow on chalky or alka-line soils. Also called calciphobecalcimorphic soilcalcimorphic soil noun soil which isrich in limecalcinationcalcination noun the heating of some-thing such as a gas at high temperature inthe production of metal oxides

calciphilecalciphile noun same as calcicolecalciphobecalciphobe noun same as calcifugecalciumcalcium noun a metallic chemical ele-ment naturally present in limestone andchalk. It is essential for biological process-es. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ca; theatomic number is 20 and atomic weight is40.08.)calcium carbonatecalcium carbonate noun a white insol-uble solid formed from animal organismsthat is naturally abundant and is found inchalk, limestone and marble. It is used inthe production of cement, paint and tooth-paste. Formula: CaCO3.calcium phosphatecalcium phosphate noun the mainconstituent of bones and bone ash fertiliser.Formula: (Ca3(Po4)2.calibratecalibrate verb to make a scale on a meas-uring instrumentcalmcalm noun a period when there is no windat allcaloriccaloric adjective referring to caloriescaloriecalorie noun a unit of measurement ofheat or energy. Symbol cal (NOTE: Thejoule, an SI measure, is now more usual: 1calorie = 4.186 joules.)calorific valuecalorific value noun same as energyvaluecalyxcalyx noun the part of a flower made up ofgreen sepals which cover the flower when itis in bud (NOTE: The plural is calyces.)camouflagecamouflage noun the natural conceal-ment of an animal’s shape by colours orpatterns � The stripes on the zebra are aform of camouflage which makes the ani-mal difficult to see in long grass. � verb tohide the shape of an animal or object by us-ing colours or patterns on the skin or exte-riorcanalcanal noun 1. a waterway made by peoplefor boats to travel along 2. a waterwaymade by people to take water to irrigatelandcan bankcan bank noun a large container in a pub-lic place into which people can put theirempty metal food containers for collectionand recyclingcandelacandela noun an SI unit measuring thebrightness of a light. Symbol cdcankercanker noun 1. a disease causing lesionson a plant or on the skin of an animal � a


cankered 30bacterial canker of fruit trees 2. an area ofdamage caused by canker � cankers on thestemcankeredcankered adjective (of skin or plant tis-sue) having areas of damage caused bycankercanopycanopy noun a layer of branches andleaves of trees which shade the ground un-derneath

‘Trees that grow to form the tallest part of thecanopy suffer more damage than the slowergrowing trees forming the understorey.’ [Guard-ian]

canopy covercanopy cover noun the percentage ofthe surface of the ground which is shadedby the leaves and branches of treescanyoncanyon noun a deep valley with steepsidescapcap noun a part of the dome-shaped struc-ture of some fungi which bears spores on itslower surfaceCAPCAP abbr Common Agricultural Policycapacitycapacity noun 1. the ability to do some-thing easily � the capacity to conserve thewoodland 2. the amount of somethingwhich a container can hold � Each cylinderhas a capacity of 0.5 litres.capillaritycapillarity noun same as capillary ac-tioncapillarycapillary noun a narrow tube carrying aliquidcapillary actioncapillary action, capillary flow nounthe movement of a liquid upwards inside anarrow tube or upwards through the soilcapillary porecapillary pore noun a space in the soilthrough which water flows towards a rootcapsid bugcapsid bug noun a tiny insect that sucksthe sap of plantscapsularcapsular adjective referring to a capsulecapsulecapsule noun 1. a dry structure whichbursts open with force releasing the seedsof flowering plants or spores of mosses 2. amembrane round an organcaptive breedingcaptive breeding noun the breeding ofthreatened species in zoos, usually with theintention of later releasing them into thewildcarbamatecarbamate noun a pesticide belonging toa large group used as insecticides, herbi-cides and fungicidescarbohydratecarbohydrate noun an organic com-pound composed of carbon, hydrogen andoxygen, e.g. sugars, cellulose and starchcarboncarbon noun a common non-metallic ele-ment that is an essential component of liv-ing matter and organic chemical com-pounds (NOTE: The chemical symbol is C;

the atomic number is 6 and the atomicweight is 12.01.)carbon-14 datingcarbon-14 dating noun same as carbondatingcarbonaceouscarbonaceous adjective referring torock which is rich in hydrocarbons, e.g.coalcarbonatecarbonate noun a compound formedfrom a base and carbonic acid � verb to addcarbon dioxide to a drink to make it fizzycarbonationcarbonation noun the addition of carbondioxide to a drink to make it fizzycarbon cyclecarbon cycle noun the circulation ofcarbon, by which carbon atoms from car-bon dioxide are incorporated into organiccompounds in plants during photosynthe-sis. They are then oxidised into carbon di-oxide during respiration by plants or her-bivores which eat them and by carnivoreswhich eat the herbivores, thus releasingcarbon to go round the cycle again.carbon datingcarbon dating noun the process of find-ing out how old something is by analysingthe amount of carbon, especially the radio-active isotope carbon-14, in it that has de-cayed. Also called carbon-14 datingcarbon dioxidecarbon dioxide noun a colourlessodourless non-flammable atmospheric gas.It is used in photosynthesis and given off inaerobic respiration. Formula: CO2.

COMMENT: Carbon dioxide exists naturallyin air and is produced by burning or by de-caying organic matter. In animals, thebody’s metabolism utilises carbon, whichis then breathed out by the lungs as wastecarbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is re-moved from the atmosphere by plantswhen it is split by chlorophyll in photosyn-thesis to form carbon and oxygen. It is alsodissolved from the atmosphere in water.The increasing release of carbon dioxideinto the atmosphere, especially from burn-ing fossil fuels, contributes to the green-house effect.

carbon dioxide equivalentcarbon dioxide equivalent noun ametric measure used in comparing emis-sions from different greenhouse gases toassess their global warming potential. Alsocalled CO2 equivalentcarbon dioxide taxcarbon dioxide tax noun same as car-bon taxcarbon emissionscarbon emissions plural noun the car-bon dioxide and carbon monoxide pro-duced by motor vehicles and industrialprocesses and regarded as atmospheric pol-lutantscarboniferouscarboniferous adjective containing coalor carbon � carboniferous limestoneCarboniferous periodCarboniferous period noun the periodof geological time when reptiles first ap-


31 cash croppeared and much of the Earth’s surface wascovered by forestscarbonisationcarbonisation noun the process bywhich fossil plants have become carboncarbon monoxidecarbon monoxide noun a colourless,odourless and poisonous gas found infumes from car engines, burning gas andcigarette smoke. Formula: CO.carbon neutralcarbon neutral adjective referring to thebalance between producing and using car-bon (NOTE: Renewable plant fuels are car-bon neutral – if the same numbers of plantsare replanted as are harvested the CO2 lev-els in the air will remain about the same.)carbon sequestrationcarbon sequestration noun the uptakeand storage of carbon by trees and otherplants absorbing carbon dioxide and releas-ing oxygencarbon sinkcarbon sink noun a part of the ecospheresuch as a tropical forest which absorbs car-boncarbon sourcecarbon source noun a part of the eco-sphere such as animals or an industrial ordomestic process that releases carbon intothe atmosphere in the form of carbon diox-idecarbon taxcarbon tax noun an amount of moneyadded by a government to the price of fuelaccording to its carbon content, to encour-age the use of fuels that contain less carbonand so reduce emissions of carbon dioxide.Also called carbon dioxide taxcarbon tetrachloridecarbon tetrachloride noun a densenon-flammable toxic liquid that is colour-less with a sweetish smell, used as a sol-vent, refrigerant and dry-cleaning agentand in fire extinguishers. Formula: CCl4.carbon tradingcarbon trading noun the system of onecountry using some of another country’spermitted carbon dioxide output as well asits own. � emissions tradingCarbon TrustCarbon Trust noun a UK organisationsupported by government grants that en-courages and promotes the development oflow-carbon technologies, both energy-effi-cient technologies and low-carbon energysuppliescarboxyhaemoglobincarboxyhaemoglobin noun a com-pound of carbon monoxide and the bloodpigment haemoglobin formed when a per-son breathes in carbon monoxide from carfumes or from ordinary cigarette smokecarcin-carcin- prefix cancercarcinogencarcinogen noun a substance whichcauses cancercarcinogenesiscarcinogenesis noun the formation ofcancerous cells in tissuecarcinogeniccarcinogenic adjective causing cancer

car lobbycar lobby noun a group of people who tryto persuade politicians that cars should beencouraged and not restrictedcarnivorecarnivore noun an animal that eats meat.� detritivore, frugivore, herbivore, omni-vorecarnivorouscarnivorous adjective 1. referring to an-imals that eat meat � a carnivorous animal2. referring to plants which trap and digestinsects � Sundews are carnivorous plants.carotenecarotene noun an orange or red plant pig-ment (NOTE: Some carotenes are convert-ed to vitamin A by animals.)carpelcarpel noun a female part of a flower,formed of an ovary, style and stigmacarrcarr noun an area of wetland which sup-ports some trees � fen carr � willow carrcarrageencarrageen noun a purplish-brown sea-weed that contains a mucilage. Genera:Chondrus or Gigartina. Also called Irishmosscarrageenancarrageenan noun an extract of sea-weed, used as an emulsifier. It may be car-cinogenic.carriercarrier noun 1. an organism that carriesdisease and infects other organisms, e.g. aninsect that transmits the parasite causingmalaria 2. someone who has an infectiousdisease without showing symptoms, whomay then infect other people 3. a neutralsubstance to which an active ingredient isaddedcarrier bagcarrier bag noun a paper or plastic bagused for carrying goods bought in shops(NOTE: Plastic bags present a considerableproblem in terms of waste disposal.)carrier gascarrier gas, carrier solvent noun a gasused in an aerosol can to make the spraycome outcarrying capacitycarrying capacity noun the maximumnumber of individuals of a species that canbe supported in a given areacascadecascade noun 1. a small waterfall 2. asystem for purifying substances, in whichthe substance passes through a series ofidentical processes, each stage increasingthe purity � verb (of liquid) to fall down likea waterfallcasecase noun 1. an outer covering � A butter-fly pupa is protected in a hard case orchrysalis. 2. same as seedcase 3. a singleoccurrence of a disease � There were twohundred cases of cholera in the recent out-break.cash cropcash crop noun a crop grown to be soldrather than eaten by the person who growsit, e.g. oil palm


cashew-nut shell liquor 32cashew-nut shell liquorcashew-nut shell liquor noun a highlycorrosive substance produced from theshells of cashew nuts, used in paints forships, heatproof materials and in ecocom-posites to replace fossil oil. Abbr CNSLcastecaste noun a group with a particular func-tion in a hierarchical society of social in-sects such as termitesCATCAT abbr control action thresholdcataboliccatabolic adjective referring to catabo-lismcatabolismcatabolism noun the breaking down ofcomplex chemicals into simple chemicalscatadromouscatadromous, katadromous adjectivereferring to fish that live in fresh water andgo to the sea to spawn. Compare anadro-mouscatadromycatadromy, katadromy noun the migra-tion of fish such as eels from fresh water tothe sea for spawning. Compare anadromycatalysecatalyse verb to act as a catalyst in help-ing to make a chemical process take place(NOTE: The US spelling is catalyze.)catalysiscatalysis noun a process in which achemical reaction is helped by a substance,the catalyst, which does not change duringthe processcatalystcatalyst noun a substance which produc-es or helps a chemical reaction without it-self changing � an enzyme which acts as acatalyst in the digestive process.catalyticcatalytic adjective referring to catalysiscatalytic convertercatalytic converter, catalytic mufflernoun a box filled with a catalyst such asplatinum attached to the exhaust pipe of amotor vehicle burning unleaded petrol inorder to reduce the emission of carbonmonoxidecatchcatch noun the amount of fish caught �regulations to limit the herring catchcatchmentcatchment, catchment area noun 1. anarea of land, sometimes extremely large,that collects and drains the rainwater thatfalls on it, e.g. the area round a lake or thebasin of a river. Also called drainage area,drainage basin 2. an area around a school,hospital, shopping centre, or other servicefrom which its pupils, patients or customerscomecatchment basincatchment basin noun same as catch-ment 1catchwater draincatchwater drain noun a type of draindesigned to take rainwater from slopinggroundcatenacatena noun a diagram showing the dif-ferences in soil caused by drainagecationcation noun an ion with a positive electriccharge

catkincatkin noun a long hanging structure con-sisting of many single-sex flowers on a thinstem, found on temperate trees such as ha-zel, birch and oak. They are pollinated bythe wind.cattlecattle plural noun domestic farm animalsraised for their milk, meat and hide. Class:Bovidae. � herds of cattle � dairy cattlecattle identification documentcattle identification document nouna document which identifies an animal andshows its movements from owner to owner.Abbr CIDcausticcaustic adjective acidcaustic sodacaustic soda noun same as sodium hy-droxidecavecave noun a large hole under the ground,usually in rockcaverncavern noun a very large cave, formed bywater which has dissolved limestone orother calcareous rockcavitycavity noun a hole inside a solid substanceCBCB abbr cumulonimbusCBDCBD abbr Convention on Biological Di-versityCCWCCW abbr Countryside Council for WalesCdCd symbol cadmiumCDMCDM abbr Clean Development Mecha-nismCECE abbr consumption efficiencycedarcedar noun a large coniferous tree belong-ing to several genera, including Thuya andCedrusceilingceiling noun an upper limit or point thatcannot be passed � a ceiling on imports-cele-cele, -coele suffix referring to a hollowcellcell noun 1. the basic independently func-tioning unit of all plant and animal tissue 2.a separate unit or section of something larg-er 3. a system of positive and negativeplates for storage of electricity that form abattery 4. the central part of a thunder cloud� The life cycle of the thunderstorm cellends when the downdraughts have spreadthroughout the cloud.cellularcellular adjective 1. referring to the cellsof organisms 2. made of many similar partsconnected togethercellulosecellulose noun 1. a carbohydrate whichmakes up a large percentage of plant mat-ter, especially cell walls 2. a chemical sub-stance processed from wood, used for mak-ing paper, film and artificial fibresCelsiusCelsius noun a scale of temperaturewhere the freezing and boiling points ofwater are, respectively, 0° and 100°. Sym-bol C. Former name centigrade (NOTE: It isused in many countries, except in the USA,


33 characterwhere the Fahrenheit system is still com-monly used.)cementcement noun 1. material which bindsthings together, such as that which bindsminerals together to form sedimentaryrocks 2. a powder which, if mixed with wa-ter and then dried, sets hard like stonecensuscensus noun a survey of a specific popu-lation to assess numbers and other featurescentigradecentigrade noun � Celsiuscentimetrecentimetre noun a unit of measurementof length, equivalent to one hundredth of ametre. Symbol cmcentrecentre noun 1. a point in the middle ofsomething � a park in the centre of thetown � The centre of the hurricane passedover the city. 2. a large building � a confer-ence centre 3. a focus for activity or atten-tion, or where activities are coordinated �a resource centre (NOTE: The US spelling iscenter.)Centre for Ecology and HydrologyCentre for Ecology and Hydrologynoun a UK organisation that does researchon and monitors terrestrial and freshwaterenvironmentscentre of gravitycentre of gravity noun the pointthrough which the resultant force of gravityactscentre of origincentre of origin, centre of origin anddiversity noun a region where a species isthought to have originated and spread fromcentrifugalcentrifugal adjective going away fromthe centrecentrifugationcentrifugation noun the separation ofthe components of a liquid in a centrifuge.Also called centrifugingcentrifugecentrifuge noun a device which usescentrifugal force to separate or remove liq-uidscentrifugingcentrifuging noun same as centrifuga-tioncentripetalcentripetal adjective going towards thecentrecephal-cephal- prefix referring to the headcephaliccephalic adjective referring to the headcephalopodcephalopod noun a marine invertebrateanimal with a well-developed head and ten-tacles, e.g. an octopus, squid or cuttlefish.Class: Cephalopoda.CERCLACERCLA abbr Comprehensive Environ-mental Response, Compensation, and Lia-bility Actcerealcereal noun a type of grass which is culti-vated for its grains. Cereals are used espe-cially to make flour for breadmaking, foranimal feed or for producing alcohol.(NOTE: The main cereals are wheat, rice,barley, maize and oats.)

certificationcertification noun the process of obtain-ing or giving approval for something suchas carrying out specific tests, or confirma-tion for something such as the source fromwhich something was obtainedcertifycertify verb to authorise or permit the useof somethingcesspoolcesspool, cesspit noun a tank for house-hold sewage, constructed in the groundnear a house which is not connected to themain drainage system, and in which thewaste is stored before being pumped out fordisposal somewhere elseCetaceaCetacea noun an order of mammalswhich live in the sea, e.g. dolphins, por-poises or whalesCFCCFC abbr chlorofluorocarbonCFMCFM abbr chlorofluoromethaneCFPCFP abbr Common Fisheries Policychainchain noun a number of componentslinked together, or a number of connectedeventschalkchalk noun a fine white limestone rockformed of calcium carbonatechalkpitchalkpit noun a hole in the ground fromwhich chalk is extractedchalkychalky adjective referring to soil which iscontains a lot of chalkCHaMPCHaMP abbr coastal habitat managementplanchangechange verb to use one thing instead ofanotherchannelchannel noun 1. a deep part of a harbouror sea passage where ships can pass, or astretch of water between two seas 2. a bedof a river or stream � verb to send water ina particular direction (NOTE: British Englishis channelled – channelling, but the USspelling is channeled – channeling.)channelisationchannelisation noun the process ofstraightening a stream which has manybends, in order to make the water flow fast-erchannelisechannelise verb to straighten a streamwhich has many bends, in order to make thewater flow fasterchaos theorychaos theory noun a theory stating thatwhen a system is sensitive to small differ-ences in initial values, the future behaviourof that system may be unpredictablechaparralchaparral noun an area of temperate landcovered with shrubs, found along the coastof Californiacharactercharacter noun 1. the way in which aperson thinks and behaves 2. the way inwhich an animal or plant is different fromothers 3. a feature of an organism that canbe inherited 4. a graphical symbol which


characterisation 34appears as a printed or displayed mark, e.g.one of the letters of the alphabet, a numberor a punctuation markcharacterisationcharacterisation noun a description ofthe typical features of something � ecolog-ical characterisation of the landscapecharacterisecharacterise verb 1. to be a characteris-tic of something or someone � Deserts arecharacterised by little rainfall, arid soiland very little vegetation. 2. to describe thetypical features of somethingcharacteristiccharacteristic noun a property or fea-ture of something � inherited characteris-tics � One of the characteristics of an octo-pus is that it can send out a cloud of inkwhen attacked. � adjective typical or spe-cialcharacteristic speciescharacteristic species noun a speciestypical of and only occurring in a particularregioncharcoalcharcoal noun an impure form of carbon,formed when wood is burnt in the absenceof oxygenchargecharge noun a quantity of electricitymeasured in coulombschartchart noun 1. a diagram showing informa-tion as a series of lines or blocks 2. a mapof an area of water such as the sea or a largelake � verb to make a chart of somethingchasmchasm noun a deep hole in the earth orrockchem-chem- prefix referring to chemistry orchemicalschemicalchemical noun a substance formed ofchemical elements or produced by a chem-ical process � the widespread use of chem-icals in agriculture � The machine analy-ses the chemicals found in the collectedsamples. � adjective 1. referring to chemis-try or chemicals 2. not found in nature(informal) � an unpleasant chemical tastechemical bondchemical bond noun the force whichlinks atoms to form molecules. Also calledbondchemical closetchemical closet noun same as chemi-cal toiletchemical controlchemical control noun the control ofpests using chemicalschemical elementchemical element noun a substancewhich exists independently and cannot bebroken down into simpler substanceschemical fertiliserchemical fertiliser noun same as artifi-cial fertiliserChemical of ConcernChemical of Concern noun � List ofChemicals of Concernchemical oxygen demandchemical oxygen demand noun theamount of oxygen taken up by organic mat-

ter in water used as a measurement of theamount of organic matter in sewage. AbbrCODchemical toiletchemical toilet noun a toilet containingchemicals to neutralise the body’s wasteproducts. Also called chemical closetchemical toxicitychemical toxicity noun the poisonousnature of chemicals used in pest controlchemistchemist noun a scientist who specialisesin the study of chemistrychemistrychemistry noun 1. the study of substanc-es, elements and compounds and their reac-tions with each other 2. chemical substanc-es existing together � Human action hasradically altered the chemistry of the at-mosphere.chemo-chemo- prefix chemistrychemoautotrophicchemoautotrophic adjective referringto the oxidation of nitrogen or other chem-ical elements to create a source of food.Compare photoautotrophicchemolithotrophicchemolithotrophic adjective referringto organisms such as bacteria which obtainenergy from inorganic substanceschemo-organotrophicchemo-organotrophic adjective refer-ring to an organism such as an animalwhich obtains its energy from organicsourceschemoreceptorchemoreceptor noun a cell which re-sponds to the presence of a chemical com-pound by activating a sensory nerve. � re-ceptorchemospherechemosphere noun the zone in theEarth’s atmosphere, above the upper part ofthe troposphere and within the strato-sphere, where chemical changes take placeunder the influence of the Sun’s radiationchemosterilantchemosterilant noun a chemical sub-stance which sterilises by microorganismschemosynthesischemosynthesis noun the productionby bacteria of organic material using chem-ical reactionschemotaxischemotaxis noun a movement of a cellwhich is attracted to or repelled by a chem-ical substancechemotrophchemotroph noun an organism whichconverts the energy found in organic chem-ical compounds into more complex energy,without using sunlight. Compare pho-totrophchemotrophicchemotrophic adjective obtaining ener-gy from sources such as organic matter.Compare phototrophic (NOTE: Most ani-mals are chemotrophic.)chemotropismchemotropism noun the movement orgrowth of an organism in response to achemical stimulus


35 chlorosisChernobylChernobyl noun a town in the Ukrainewhere a large nuclear power station had adisastrous fire in 1986chernozemchernozem noun a dark fertile soil, richin organic matter, found in the temperategrass-covered plains of Russia and Northand South America. Also called blackearthchickpeachickpea noun a legume crop, grown forits large round pale-yellow seeds. It is im-portant in India and Pakistan as a source ofprotein. Genus: Cicer arietinum. Alsocalled gramchillchill noun coldnesschimneychimney noun a tall tube, either inside abuilding or separate from it, which takessmoke and fumes away from a fire � Smokepoured out of the factory chimneys. �Chimneys were built very tall, so that thepolluting smoke would be carried a longway away by the wind.chimney stackchimney stack noun a tall chimney, es-pecially on an industrial buildingchina claychina clay noun same as kaolinChina syndromeChina syndrome noun a potential dis-aster occurring when the core of a nuclearreactor overheatschinookchinook noun a warm wind that blowsfrom the Rocky mountains down onto theCanadian plains in winter. Compare föhnchitinchitin noun a tough waterproof substancethat forms part of the outer skeleton of in-sects and the cell walls of fungichlor-chlor- prefix same as chloro-chlorellachlorella noun a very small green fresh-water alga, occurring naturally or growncommercially for use in human foodchloridechloride noun a salt of hydrochloric acidchlorinatechlorinate verb to treat something withchlorine, especially to sterilise drinkingwater or water in a swimming pool by add-ing chlorinechlorinatedchlorinated adjective treated with chlo-rinechlorinated hydrocarbonchlorinated hydrocarbon noun acompound containing chlorine, carbon andhydrogen that remains in the environmentafter use and may accumulate in the foodchain, e.g. an organochlorine pesticide suchas lindane or DDT, an industrial chemicalsuch as a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB),or a chlorine waste product such as a dioxinor furanchlorinationchlorination noun sterilisation by add-ing chlorinechlorinatorchlorinator noun an apparatus for addingchlorine to water

chlorine

chlorine noun a greenish chemical ele-ment. It is used to sterilise water and forbleaching. (NOTE: The chemical symbol isCl; the atomic number is 17 and the atomicweight is 35.45.)chloro-

chloro- prefix chlorinechlorofluorocarbon

chlorofluorocarbon noun a compoundof fluorine and chlorine. It is used as a pro-pellant in aerosol cans, in the manufactureof plastic foam boxes, as a refrigerant in re-frigerators and air conditioners and as acleaner of circuit boards for computers.Abbr CFC

COMMENT: Chlorofluorocarbons are clas-sified by numbers: CFC-10 is used in aer-osols; CFC-11 is used to make plasticfoam; CFC-12 is a coolant for refrigera-tors; and CFC-13 is a cleaning substanceused in the electronics industry. WhenCFCs are released into the atmosphere,they rise slowly, taking about seven yearsto reach the stratosphere. But once theyare there, under the influence of the Sun’sultraviolet light they break down into chlo-rine atoms which destroy the ozone layer.This allows harmful solar UV radiation topass through to the Earth’s surface. Be-cause it takes so long for the CFCs toreach the stratosphere, any reduction intheir use on Earth does not have an imme-diate effect on the concentrations in thestratosphere. Replacements for CFCs arebeing developed.

chlorofluoromethane

chlorofluoromethane noun a gas thatis a volatile organic compound, generatedfrom landfill sites, petrol engine exhaustsand other industrial processes. In the chem-ical industry, it is often manufactured fromcarbon tetrachloride. Formula: CH2CHO.Abbr CFMchloromethane

chloromethane noun a gas which is acompound of carbon and chlorine, formedby fungi as they rot wood (NOTE: It acts in asimilar way to CFCs in depleting the ozonelayer.)chlorophyllchlorophyll noun a green pigment inplants and some algaeChlorophyta

Chlorophyta noun a large group of algaethat possess chlorophyllchloroplastchloroplast noun a tiny sac within thecells of plants and some algae which con-tains chlorophyll and other pigments and isthe place where photosynthesis occurs(NOTE: The number of chloroplasts in a cellvaries, but each consists of interconnectedstacks of disc-shaped membranes in fluid,surrounded by a double membrane.)chlorosis

chlorosis noun a reduction of chloro-phyll in plants, making the leaves turn yel-low


chlorpyrifos 36chlorpyrifoschlorpyrifos noun an organophosphateinsecticide used on a wide range of cropschlortoluronchlortoluron noun a herbicide applied asa spray, especially on cereals (NOTE: It is un-der review for withdrawal from use in theEuropean Union.)choleracholera noun a serious bacterial diseasespread through food or water which hasbeen infected by Vibrio cholerae � A chol-era epidemic broke out after the flood.cholesterolcholesterol noun a fatty substance foundin fats and oils. It is produced by the liverand forms an essential part of cells.CHP plantCHP plant abbr combined heat and pow-er plantchrom-chrom- prefix same as chromo-chromatographychromatography noun a scientificmethod for separating and analysing chem-icals through a porous mediumchromatophorechromatophore noun a plant or animalcell which contains pigment, e.g. a cell inthe eyes, hair and skin, or a similar cell inan alga (NOTE: Chromatophores enablechameleons to change colour.)chromiumchromium noun a metallic trace element.It is used to make alloys. (NOTE: The chem-ical symbol is Cr; the atomic number is 24and the atomic weight is 52.00.)chromo-chromo- prefix 1. colour 2. chromiumchromosomalchromosomal adjective referring tochromosomeschromosomechromosome noun a thin structure inthe nucleus of a cell, formed of DNA whichcarries the genes (NOTE: Different types oforganism have different numbers of chro-mosomes.)chromosome numberchromosome number noun thenumber of chromosomes present in eachcell nucleus of a specific animal or plant(NOTE: Each species has its own character-istic chromosome number, e.g. humanshave 46 chromosomes, receiving 23 fromeach parent.)chronic exposurechronic exposure noun exposure to apollutant or radioactive substance for along period, even for a whole lifetimechronobiologychronobiology noun the study of recur-ring cycles of events in the natural worldchrysalischrysalis noun 1. a stage in the develop-ment of a butterfly or moth when the pupais protected in a hard case 2. the hard casein which a pupa is protectedChrysophytaChrysophyta noun a group of golden-brown algae, which store oil in their cellwallschutechute noun 1. a sloping channel alongwhich something such as water or rubbishmay pass 2. a waterfall

CIDCID abbr cattle identification document-cide-cide suffix killingciliacilia plural of ciliumciliaryciliary adjective referring to ciliaciliateciliate, ciliated adjective having ciliaciliumcilium noun one of many tiny projectionsresembling hairs which move backwardsand forwards and drive particles or fluidalong (NOTE: The plural is cilia.)cinderscinders plural noun 1. hard pieces of ma-terial left when the flames from a burningsubstance have gone out 2. the small piecesof lava and rock thrown up in a volcaniceruptioncircadian rhythmcircadian rhythm noun a rhythm of dai-ly activities in plants and animals, repeat-ing every twenty-four hourscircuit breakercircuit breaker noun an electrical deviceused to interrupt an electrical supply whenthere is too much current flowcirculatecirculate verb to move round in such away as to arrive at the point of departure �Water circulates via the radiator and pumpthrough to the engine block itself.circulationcirculation noun the act of moving roundin such a way as to arrive at the point of de-parture � the circulation of the blood � Thegeneral circulation is indicated by the ar-rows.circulatorycirculatory adjective referring to circula-tioncircum-circum- prefix aroundcircumpolarcircumpolar adjective around the Northor South Polecircumpolar vortexcircumpolar vortex noun a circularmovement of air around the North or SouthPole. Also called polar vortexcirquecirque noun a hollow formed in moun-tains or high plateaux by small, separateglaciers. Also called corrie, cwmcirrocumuluscirrocumulus noun a form of highcloud, occurring above 5000m, like altocu-mulus with little cloudscirrostratuscirrostratus noun a high thin layer ofcloudcirruscirrus noun a high cloud, occurring above5000m, forming a mass of separate cloudswhich look as if they are made of fibres, butwhich are formed of ice crystalsCITESCITES abbr Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fau-na and Floracitric acidcitric acid noun an acid found in fruitsuch as oranges, lemons and grapefruitcitric acid cyclecitric acid cycle noun same as KrebscycleClCl symbol chlorine


37 climaxcladdingcladding noun a protective material sur-rounding somethingclarificationclarification noun the process of remov-ing solid waste matter from sewageclassclass noun one of the categories intowhich organisms are divided � Groups ofplant and animal families are classifiedinto orders and groups of orders into class-es.classificationclassification noun a system by whichobjects or organisms are put into order so asto be able to refer to them again and identi-fy them � the classification of plants andanimalsclassifyclassify verb 1. to allocate something to acategory � The area has been classified asan Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. �The pollution records are classified underthe name of the site which has been pollut-ed. 2. to restrict the publication of � The re-ports on the accident are classified andmay not be consulted by the public.clayclay noun a type of heavy non-porous soilmade of fine particles of silicateclayeyclayey adjective containing clay � Theseplants do best in clayey soils.claypanclaypan noun a hollow on the surface ofclay land where rain collectsclean airclean air noun air which does not containimpuritiesClean Development MechanismClean Development Mechanismnoun a scheme by which an industrialisedcountry can receive credit for emission re-ductions in a developing country which re-sult from projects financed by the industr-ialised country. Abbr CDMcleanercleaner noun a fish or insect which cleansother animals by removing dirt or parasitescleansecleanse verb to make cleancleansercleanser noun a powder or liquid usedfor cleaningclean upclean up verb to remove refuse, wastesubstances or pollutants from a place �They are working to clean up the beachesafter the oil spill.clean-upclean-up, cleaning-up noun an act of re-moving refuse, waste substances or pollut-ants � The local authorities have organiseda large-scale clean-up of polluted beaches.clean-up costsclean-up costs plural noun the amountof money which has to be spent to removepollutants, e.g. after an industrial process oran environmental disaster such as an oilspillclearclear verb to remove something which isin the way � They cleared hectares of jun-gle to make a new road to the capital.

clear airclear air noun an atmosphere with no mistor smokeclearanceclearance noun the act of removingsomething which is in the way in order tomake space for something elseclearcutclearcut noun the cutting down of all thetrees in an area � verb to clear an area offorest by cutting down all the treesclearcuttingclearcutting, clearfelling noun cuttingdown all the trees in an area at the sametime � The greatest threat to wildlife is thedestruction of habitats by clearfelling theforest for paper pulp.clearfellclearfell verb to clear an area of forest bycutting down all the treesclear skyclear sky noun a sky with no cloudscliffcliff noun the steep side of an area of highground, often by the sea, usually rockyclimateclimate noun the general weather patternsthat a place hasclimate changeclimate change noun a long-term alter-ation in global weather patterns, occurringnaturally, as in a glacial or post-glacial pe-riod, or as a likely result of atmosphericpollution (NOTE: Sometimes climatechange is used interchangeably with ‘glo-bal warming’, but scientists tend to use theterm in the wider sense to include naturalchanges in the climate.)climaticclimatic adjective referring to climateclimatic factorclimatic factor noun a condition of cli-mate which affects the organisms living ina specific areaclimatic variationclimatic variation noun the differencesbetween one type of climate and another, orwithin the same climate type on differentoccasionsclimatic zoneclimatic zone noun one of the eight are-as of the Earth which have different cli-mates

COMMENT: The climatic zones are: the twopolar regions (the Arctic and Antarctic); theboreal in the northern hemisphere, southof the Arctic; two temperate zones, one inthe northern hemisphere and one in thesouthern hemisphere; two subtropicalzones, including the deserts; and theequatorial zone which has a damp tropicalclimate.

climatologicalclimatological adjective referring to cli-matology � Scientists have gathered clima-tological statistics from weather stationsall round the world.climatologistclimatologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of the climateclimatologyclimatology noun the scientific study ofclimateclimaxclimax noun the final stage in the develop-ment of plant colonisation of a specific site,


climax community 38when changes occur within a mature andrelatively stable communityclimax communityclimax community noun a plant com-munity which has been stable for manyyears and which changes only as the envi-ronment or climate changes or there is hu-man interferencecline

cline noun the set of gradual changeswhich take place in a species according togeographical and climatic differencesacross the environment in which it lives. �ecocline, geoclineclinker

clinker noun the lumps of ash and hardresidue from furnaces, used to make roadsurfaces or breeze blocksclisere

clisere noun the succession of communi-ties influenced by the climate of an areaclogclog verb to prevent movement of fluidthrough a pipe, channel or filter because ofa build-up of solid matter � The stream wasclogged with waterweed.clone

clone noun 1. a group of cells derivedfrom a single cell by asexual reproductionand therefore identical to the first cell 2. anorganism produced asexually, either natu-rally or by means such as taking cuttingsfrom a plant 3. a group of organisms all ofwhich have been derived from a single indi-vidual by asexual means � verb to repro-duce an individual organism by asexualmeanscloning

cloning noun the reproduction of an indi-vidual organism by asexual meansClostridiumClostridium noun a type of bacterium(NOTE: Species of Clostridium cause botu-lism, tetanus and gas gangrene, but also in-crease the nitrogen content of soil.)cloud

cloud noun 1. a mass of water vapour orice particles in the sky which can producerain or snow 2. a mass of particles suspend-ed in the air � Clouds of smoke poured outof the factory chimney. � Dust clouds sweptacross the plains. (NOTE: As a plural,clouds means several separate clouds;otherwise the singular cloud can be usedto refer to a large continuous mass: Thereis a mass of cloud over the southern part ofthe country.)

COMMENT: Clouds are formed as humid airrises and then cools, causing the water init to condense. They are classified by me-teorologists into ten categories: cirrus, cir-rocumulus and cirrostratus (high-levelclouds); altocumulus and altostratus (mid-dle-level clouds); and stratocumulus, nim-bostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus andstratus (low-level clouds).

cloudbankcloudbank noun a mass of low clouds

cloudbasecloudbase noun the bottom part of a lay-er of cloudcloudburstcloudburst noun a sudden rainstormcloud chambercloud chamber noun a piece of labora-tory equipment in which clouds can beformed for the study of ionisationcloud covercloud cover noun the amount of skywhich is covered by clouds. � oktacloud forestcloud forest noun a tropical forest grow-ing at high altitude that is usually coveredby cloud and where epiphytes such as or-chids, mosses and ferns grow easily on thetrees because of the constant moisture inthe aircloud formationcloud formation noun a pattern ofclouds in the skycloudlayercloudlayer noun a mass of clouds at aspecific height above the landcloudlesscloudless adjective without cloudscloudycloudy adjective 1. covered with clouds �a cloudy sky 2. not clear or transparent � acloudy liquidclumpclump noun 1. a group of particles whichstick together 2. a group of trees or plantsgrowing together � a clump of bushes � aclump of grass 3. a group of items broughtclose together in a mass � to form a clump� verb to collect or stick togetherclumpingclumping noun the formation of a massof things in close associationclustercluster noun 1. a group of similar thingsthat are close together � a flower cluster 2.a number of similar events happening at asimilar time or in a similar place � a clusterof leukaemia patients in the area of the nu-clear power stationcnidariancnidarian noun a marine invertebratewith tentacles surrounding its mouth, e.g. asea anemone, coral and jellyfish. Phylum:Cnidaria.CNSLCNSL abbr cashew-nut shell liquorCoCo symbol cobaltCOCO symbol carbon monoxideCOCO2, CO2 symbol carbon dioxidecoagulantcoagulant noun a substance which canmake blood coagulatecoagulatecoagulate verb (of a liquid) to becomesemi-solid as suspended particles clump to-gethercoagulationcoagulation noun (of a liquid) the proc-ess of becoming semi-solidcoalcoal noun a solid black organic substancefound in layers underground in most partsof the world, burnt to provide heat or powercoal depositcoal deposit noun a layer of coal in therocks beneath the Earth’s surface


39 codominantcoalescencecoalescence noun the process of joiningtogether to form a larger mass or number �Coalescence of water vapour in the atmos-phere forms larger droplets of water.coal-fired power stationcoal-fired power station noun a pow-er station which burns coal to produce elec-tricitycoal measurecoal measure noun a layer of rock con-taining coal that erodes very quickly andsoon becomes covered in vegetation, there-fore rarely seen exposedcoal minecoal mine noun a hole dug in the groundto extract coalcoarsecoarse adjective referring to a particle orfeature which is larger than others �Coarse sand fell to the bottom of the liquidas sediment, while the fine grains remainedsuspended.coarse fishcoarse fish noun freshwater fish otherthan salmon and troutcoarse fishingcoarse fishing noun the leisure activityof catching freshwater fish other than salm-on and troutcoastcoast noun the zone where the land meetsthe seacoastalcoastal adjective near the coast � a plantfound in coastal waterscoastal areacoastal area noun an area of land that isaffected in various ways by its closeness tothe sea together with the area of sea that isaffected by being close to human activitieson and from the landcoastal cellcoastal cell noun a specific area of coastwithin which sediments movecoastal defencescoastal defences plural noun structuressuch as sea walls or groynes built to protectthe coast from erosion by the action ofwaves. Also called sea defencescoastal defence strategycoastal defence strategy noun an of-ficial plan for the protection of the coastcoastal erosioncoastal erosion noun the loss of landfrom a coast as a result of the force ofwaves and currentscoastal fisherycoastal fishery noun an area of sea nearthe coast where fish are caughtcoastal fogcoastal fog noun a type of advection fogwhich forms along the coastcoastal habitat management plancoastal habitat management plannoun an overview of the loss and gain ofcoastal habitats over 30–100 years and op-tions for preventing, restoring or compen-sating for lost habitats. Abbr CHaMPcoastal lagooncoastal lagoon noun a body of seawaternear the coast, separated from the sea by asmall strip of land and with only a smallopening to the sea

coastal pelagic fishcoastal pelagic fish noun a fish whichlives in the upper layer of the sea, close tolandcoastal protectioncoastal protection, coast protectionwork noun action to protect the coast frombeing eroded by the action of the sea suchas building sea walls and projecting struc-tures to break the force of the wavescoastal realignmentcoastal realignment noun the gradualchange in a coastline, as land disappearsinto or is deposited from the sea, often aspart of a policy to provide more effectivesea defences or restore wetlandscoastal retreatcoastal retreat noun serious erosion ofa coastlinecoastal squeezecoastal squeeze noun the reduction ofthe area of land near a coast or the loss ofits former use because of its position be-tween rising sea levels and fixed sea de-fences or high groundcoastal waterscoastal waters plural noun the watersoutside the low-water line or the outer limitof an estuarycoastlinecoastline noun the outline of a coast asseen on a map or a high place, or the landas seen from the seacobcob interjection same as corn cobcobaltcobalt noun a metallic element. It is usedto make alloys. (NOTE: The chemical sym-bol is Co; the atomic number is 27 and theatomic weight is 58.93.)coccidioidomycosiscoccidioidomycosis noun a lung dis-ease caused by inhaling spores of the fun-gus Coccidioides immitiscoccuscoccus noun a bacterium shaped like aball (NOTE: The plural is cocci.)cockroachcockroach noun a black beetle that is acommon household pest. Order: Dyctyop-tera.coconut oilcoconut oil noun an oil extracted fromdried coconut flesh or copracoconut palmcoconut palm noun a palm tree withlarge hard-shelled edible nuts. Latin name:Cocos nucifera.CODCOD abbr chemical oxygen demandcodecode verb to convert instructions, infor-mation or data into another formcodisposalcodisposal noun the final disposal ofnon-hazardous solid industrial waste thatwill not decompose together with hazard-ous waste in a managed sitecodistillationcodistillation noun the process by whichmolecules of toxic substances can be evap-orated into clouds over land and then fallback into the sea as raincodominantcodominant adjective 1. referring to aspecies that is as abundant as another in acommunity � There are three codominant


coefficient 40tree species in this forest. 2. referring to al-leles of a gene that are not fully dominantover other alleles in a heterozygous indi-vidualcoefficientcoefficient noun a mathematical quantityplaced before and multiplying another(NOTE: In 4xy, 4 is the coefficient of x.)coefficient of hazecoefficient of haze noun a numberwhich shows the percentage of dust andsmoke in the atmosphere-coele-coele suffix another spelling of -celecoelomcoelom noun the body cavity in mostmany-celled animals including humanscoevolutioncoevolution noun the evolution of twospecies together such as parasite and hostcoffeecoffee noun a bush or small tree widelygrown in the tropics for its seeds, which areused to make a drink. Latin name: Coffeaarabica.cogenerationcogeneration noun the production ofheat and power, as in a combined heat andpower installationcohortcohort noun a group of individuals shar-ing a common factor such as age or a set ofcircumstancescohort studycohort study noun an investigation inwhich a group of people without a diseaseare classified according to their exposure toa risk and are studied over a period of timeto see if they develop the disease, in orderto study links between risk and diseasecoircoir noun a rough fibre from the outerhusk of coconutscokecoke noun a fuel manufactured by heatingcoal to high temperatures without the pres-ence of aircoke burnercoke burner noun a device in which coalis heated to produce cokecolcol noun 1. a high pass between twomountains 2. a low pressure area betweentwo anticyclonescold-bloodedcold-blooded adjective referring to ananimal such as a reptile or fish whose bodytemperature is dependent on the tempera-ture of its surroundings. Also called ecto-therm, poikilothermcoleopterancoleopteran noun an insect such as abeetle with modified tough forewings thatact as covers for the membranous hind-wings. Order: Coleoptera.coliformcoliform adjective referring to bacteriawhich are similar in shape to Escherichiacolicollectioncollection noun 1. the process of gather-ing something together � the regular col-lection of samples for analysis 2. a group ofobjects or organisms brought together � a

labelled collection of insects � a living col-lection of plantscollector panelcollector panel noun same as solarpanelcolloidcolloid noun a substance with very smallparticles that do not settle but remain insuspension in a liquidcolloidalcolloidal adjective referring to a colloidcolonialcolonial adjective referring to a colonycolonial animalcolonial animal noun an animal whichusually lives in colonies, e.g. an antcolonisationcolonisation noun the act of colonisinga place � Islands are particularly subject tocolonisation by species of plants or ani-mals introduced by people.colonisecolonise verb (of plants and animals) tobecome established in a new ecosystem �Derelict city sites rapidly become colonisedby plants. � Rats have colonised the sew-ers.colonisercoloniser, colonist noun an organismthat moves into and establishes itself in anew ecosystem, e.g. a plant such as a weedcolonycolony noun a group of animals, plants ormicroorganisms living together in a place �a colony of antscolorationcoloration noun the colours or patternsof an animal � protective colorationcolourcolour noun the set of differing wave-lengths of light that are reflected from ob-jects and sensed by the eyes � Flower col-our attracts insects. � verb to give colour tosomething � The chemical coloured thewater blue. (NOTE: [all senses] The USspelling is color.)colouringcolouring noun 1. the appearance ofsomething in terms of its colour 2. same asfood colouringcolourlesscolourless adjective with no colour �Water is a colourless liquid.columncolumn noun 1. a solid with a tall narrowshape � Basalt rocks form columns in someparts of the world. 2. a body of fluid with atall, narrow shape � Torricelli first demon-strated that the atmosphere has weight byshowing that it can support a column of liq-uid. 3. a vertical section of a table in a doc-ument � Column four of the table showsthe totals of the other three.columnarcolumnar adjective in the form of a col-umn � Igneous rocks may have a columnarstructure.combecombe, coombe noun a small valley withsteep sides and usually no water flowingthrough itcombinationcombination noun 1. two or more thingstogether � Lichens are a combination of afungus and an alga. 2. the act of bringing


41 compactiontwo or more things together � the success-ful combination of our ideas with their re-sourcescombinecombine verb to bring two or more thingstogether to make one, or to come togetherto make onecombined heat and power plantcombined heat and power plantnoun a power station that produces bothelectricity and hot water. Abbr CHP plant(NOTE: Such a plant may operate on almostany fuel, including refuse.)combustcombust verb to burn, or to burn some-thing � The region combusts 75% of itsrefuse for heat reclamation.combustioncombustion noun the burning of a sub-stance with oxygencommand-and-control regulationscommand-and-control regulationsplural noun rules that require polluters tomeet specific emission-reduction targets,often using specific types of equipmentcommensal

commensal noun an organism whichlives on another plant or animal but doesnot harm it or influence it in any way. � par-asite, symbiont � adjective referring to acommensalcommensalism

commensalism noun the state of organ-isms existing together as commensalscomminutioncomminution noun the crushing orgrinding of rock, ore or sewage into smallparticlescomminutorcomminutor noun a crushing machinethat makes particles smallercommittee

committee noun a group of people deal-ing with a particular subject or problemcommoncommon adjective 1. occurring frequent-ly � a common spelling error 2. used ordone by several people � a common ethicalstance 3. ordinary � common householdchemicals 4. belonging to several differentpeople or to everyone � common land �noun an area of land to which the public hasaccess for walking

COMMENT: About 80% of common land isprivately owned and, subject to the inter-ests of any commoners, owners enjoy es-sentially the same rights as the owners ofother land. Commoners have differenttypes of ‘rights of common’, e.g. to grazeanimals, or to extract sand, gravel or peat.

Common Agricultural Policy

Common Agricultural Policy noun aset of regulations and mechanisms agreedbetween members of the European Unionto control the supply, marketing and pricingof farm produce. Abbr CAPCommon Birds Census

Common Birds Census noun an on-going survey of commonly occurring birds,run by the British Trust for Ornithology

commonercommoner noun someone with a right touse a common in a particular way, e.g. tograze animals on itCommon Fisheries PolicyCommon Fisheries Policy noun thelegal framework which covers all fishing inthe European Union. It aims to conservefish stocks by regulating fish catches. AbbrCFPcommon landcommon land noun same as commoncommon nuisancecommon nuisance noun a criminal actwhich causes harm or danger to membersof the public in general or to their rightscommunitycommunity noun 1. a group of peoplewho live and work in a district � The healthservices serve the local community. 2. agroup of different organisms which live to-gether in an area � the plant community onthe sand dunescommunity architecturecommunity architecture noun a wayof designing new housing projects or adapt-ing old buildings, in which the people liv-ing in the area as well as specialists are in-volved in the planningcommunity ecologycommunity ecology noun the study ofthe processes that determine the composi-tion and structure of the mixture of speciesfound in a particular areacommunity forestcommunity forest noun a woodedlandscape near an urban area, sometimescreated on formerly derelict land, main-tained for work, wildlife, recreation and ed-ucationcommunity transportcommunity transport noun a bus orrail service which is available to the com-munitycommutecommute verb to travel regularly to andfrom home and a place of work � Thou-sands of people commute long distancesdaily.commutercommuter noun a person who travelsregularly to and from his or her place ofwork, especially in a citycommuter beltcommuter belt noun an area around abig city, where commuters livecommutingcommuting noun the activity of travel-ling regularly to and from home and a placeof work � a huge increase in commutingfrom cheaper housing areas into the citiescompactcompact verb to compress the groundand make it hard, e.g. by driving over itwith heavy machinery or as the result of alot of people walking on itcompactioncompaction, compacting noun thecompression of ground and making it hard,e.g. by driving over it with heavy machin-ery or as the result of a lot of people walk-ing on it


compactor 42compactorcompactor noun 1. a machine whichcompresses the ground and makes it hard 2.a machine that crushes refusecompanion animalcompanion animal noun an animal thatis kept for company and enjoyable interac-tion, rather than for work or foodcompanion plantcompanion plant noun a plant whichimproves the growth of nearby plants(NOTE: Companion plants are often used byhorticulturists and gardeners because theyencourage growth or reduce pest infesta-tion in an adjacent plant.)companion plantingcompanion planting noun the use ofplants that encourage the growth of othersnearbycomparative risk analysiscomparative risk analysis noun thecomparison of two types of riskcompartmentcompartment noun a section of a man-aged plantation of treescompensation depthcompensation depth noun the point ina lake or sea at which the rate of formationof organic matter by photosynthesis is thesame as the rate of loss of matter by respi-rationcompensation pointcompensation point noun the point atwhich the rate of photosynthesis is thesame as the rate of respiration (NOTE: It canbe measured as the point at which theamount of carbon dioxide used by plantsequals the amount of oxygen they release.)compensatory habitatcompensatory habitat noun a habitatcreated because an existing protected natu-ral area has been damaged or lostcompensatory measurecompensatory measure noun acourse of action that is taken to improve asituation when environmental damage can-not be directly restoredcompetecompete verb to try to obtain the samelimited resources such as food, light or amate as other organisms of the same or dif-ferent speciescompetitioncompetition noun the struggle for limit-ed resources such as food, light or a mate,occurring between organisms of the sameor different speciescompetitive exclusion principlecompetitive exclusion principlenoun the concept that two or more specieswith identical requirements will not be ableto live on the same limited resources be-cause one species will compete more suc-cessfully than the other (NOTE: The loserhas to adapt its feeding habits or behaviouror migrate to another area, otherwise it willexperience a decrease in population oreven become extinct.)competitive releasecompetitive release noun the processby which a species may expand its niche ifit has no competitors

complementaritycomplementarity noun nature conser-vation based on a balance between wild anddomesticated species in an areacompliancecompliance noun the act of obeying aregulation or conforming to a set of stand-ardscomply withcomply with verb to obey a regulation �People importing plants have to complywith CITES regulations.composecompose verb to be made from a numberof parts � A carpel is composed of an ova-ry, a stigma and a style.CompositaeCompositae plural noun former namefor Asteraceaecompositioncomposition noun the make-up or struc-ture of something � the composition of theatmospherecompostcompost noun 1. rotted vegetation, usedas fertiliser or mulch 2. a prepared soil orpeat mixture in which plants are grown inhorticulture � verb to form material resem-bling humus by the decomposition of or-ganic waste, as in a compost heapcompost heapcompost heap noun a pile of organic,especially plant, waste, usually kept in acontainer and left to decay gradually, beingturned over occasionally. It is used as a fer-tiliser and soil improver.compostingcomposting noun the controlled decom-position of organic waste, especially usedfor the disposal for plant waste in gardensor domestic green waste such as vegetablepeelingscompoundcompound noun a substance made up oftwo or more componentscompound fertilisercompound fertiliser noun a fertiliserthat supplies two or more nutrients. Alsocalled mixed fertiliser. Compare straightfertilisercompulsorycompulsory adjective forced or orderedby an authority � the compulsory slaughterof infected animalsconcentrateconcentrate noun 1. the strength of a so-lution, or the quantity of a substance in aspecific volume 2. a strong solution whichis to be diluted � orange juice made fromconcentrate � verb to reduce the volume ofa solution and increase its strength by evap-oration. Opposite diluteconcentrationconcentration noun 1. a collection in aparticular place rather than spread around� The maximum concentration of ozone isbetween 20 and 25km above the Earth’ssurface. 2. the amount of a substance in agiven volume or mass of a solutionconcentration peakconcentration peak noun the largestamount of a substance in a solution or in agiven volume


43 connectionconcreteconcrete noun a hard stone-like sub-stance made by mixing cement, sand, ag-gregate and water and letting it dryconcretionconcretion noun the formation of a solidmass of rock from pieces of stones and oth-er sedimentary materialsconcretionaryconcretionary adjective referring tostone which is formed by concretioncondensatecondensate noun 1. a substance formedby condensation, e.g. a liquid formed froma vapour 2. a substance that is a gas whenoccurring naturally underground but be-comes liquid when brought to the surfacecondensationcondensation noun 1. the action ofmaking vapour into liquid 2. the water thatforms when warm damp air meets a coldsurface such as a wall or windowcondensecondense verb 1. to make somethingcompact or more dense 2. to make a vapourbecome liquidcondensedcondensed adjective made compact ormore densecondensercondenser noun a device that coolssteam or other vapour and turns it back intoliquidconditioncondition noun 1. the present state ofsomething 2. the physical state of a site ofspecial scientific interest, according towhether or not conservation objectives arebeing achieved � favourable condition �unfavourable condition � plural noun con-ditions variable environmental factorssuch as temperature, salinity and acidity towhich organisms respond � in wet or dryconditionsconditioned reflexconditioned reflex noun 1. an automat-ic reaction by an animal to a stimulus,learned from past experience 2. a reactionto a stimulus learned from past experienceconditionerconditioner noun a substance that isused to make an improvement in somethingelse � mushroom compost used as a soilconditionerconditioningconditioning noun the act of improvingthe quality of somethingconductconduct verb to carry out something suchas an experiment, survey or reviewconductionconduction noun the process by whichheat or electricity passes through a sub-stance � Heat is transferred to the layer ofair next to the Earth’s surface by conduc-tion.conductiveconductive adjective having the abilityto allow heat or electricity to pass through� Steel is a conductive material. � Landmasses are less conductive than water.conductivityconductivity noun the ability of a mate-rial to conduct heat or electricity � Because

of the poor conductivity of air, heat is trans-ferred from the Earth’s surface upwards byconvection.conduitconduit noun 1. a channel along which afluid flows 2. a pipe or elongated box usedto protect electrical cablesconecone noun 1. a solid body with a base inthe shape of a circle, and with sides thatnarrow to a point 2. a hard scaly structurecontaining seeds on such plants as conifersConference of the PartiesConference of the Parties noun thegroup of nations which have ratified theFramework Convention on ClimateChange. Abbr COPconfluenceconfluence noun a place where two riv-ers or streams of air joincongenercongener noun 1. a species which be-longs to the same genus as another 2. achemical element which belongs to thesame group as anothercongenitalcongenital adjective existing at or beforebirthcongestedcongested adjective blockedcongestioncongestion noun 1. the blocking of atube or a passage 2. the situation that occurswhen there is too much traffic to be able toflow freely in the streets of a town or citycongestion chargecongestion charge noun a sum ofmoney paid by motorists to be allowed todrive a vehicle into a town or city centrecongestion chargingcongestion charging noun a methodof reducing congestion in a city by chargingmotorists a fee to drive within a certain areaconglomerateconglomerate noun a sedimentary layerformed of small round stonesconiferconifer noun a tree with long thin needle-shaped leaves and bearing seed in scalycones. Most are evergreen.coniferousconiferous adjective referring to coni-fersconiferous forestconiferous forest, coniferous wood-land noun an area of wooded land consist-ing of more than 75% conifersconingconing noun the widening out of a col-umn of smoke as it leaves a chimneyconjugationconjugation noun 1. a simple form of re-production in single-celled organisms inwhich they join together, exchange geneticinformation and then separate 2. in algaeand fungi, the fusion of male and femalenuclei 3. the alternation in a molecule oftwo or more double or triple bonds withsingle bondsconnectconnect verb to join or associate two ormore objects, processes or ideas together �Bones are connected to form a skeleton.connectionconnection noun a point at which thingsare joined or associated � the connection


conservancy 44between living things and their environ-mentconservancyconservancy noun an official bodywhich protects a part of the environmentconservationconservation noun 1. the process ofprotecting something from undesirablechange 2. the maintenance of environmen-tal quality and resources by the use of eco-logical knowledge and principlesconservation areaconservation area noun an area of spe-cial environmental or historical importancethat is protected by law from changes thathave not received official permissionconservation biologyconservation biology noun the studyof how species and ecosystems can bemaintainedconservation bodyconservation body noun a group ofpeople or an organisation that promotes theconservation of species, habitats or an areaof countryside and the careful managementof natural resourcesconservation headlandconservation headland noun an areabetween the edge of a crop and the firsttractor tramline that is treated less inten-sively with pesticides so that a range ofbroadleaved weeds and beneficial insectssurvive, used as a method of encouragingbiodiversityconservationistconservationist noun a person whopromotes, carries out or works for conser-vationconservation measureconservation measure noun a way inwhich environmental quality can be main-tainedconservation of energyconservation of energy noun theprocess of making consumption of energymore efficient, preventing loss or waste ofenergy, e.g. by the loss of heat from build-ingsconservation of resourcesconservation of resources noun theprocess of managing resources such as fos-sil fuels and other natural materials so asnot to waste them, damage them or usethem too quicklyconservation statusconservation status noun the condi-tion of a site of special scientific interest,according to whether or not conservationobjectives are being achievedconservation tillageconservation tillage noun a farmingmethod which aims to plough the soil as lit-tle as possible, to prevent erosion, save en-ergy and improve biodiversity. Also calledminimum tillageconserveconserve verb 1. to keep and not wastesomething � to conserve energy to useonly as much electricity or other fuel as isreally needed, e.g. by keeping central heat-ing a little lower than before 2. to look after

and keep something in the same state � toconserve tigers’ habitatconsociationconsociation, consocies noun an eco-logical community that has one main spe-cies, e.g. a wood consisting mostly of beechtreesconspecificconspecific adjective referring to an or-ganism belonging to the same species asanother organism � noun an organism be-longing to the same species as another or-ganismconstantconstant noun an item of data whose val-ue does not change. Opposite variable �adjective 1. not changing � to remain con-stant to stay the same � The temperature ofthe gas remains constant. 2. continuous,not stopping � The wardens complainedabout the constant stream of visitors to thereservation.constituentconstituent noun a substance or compo-nent which forms part of a whole � adjec-tive forming part of a whole � the constitu-ent elements of airconstructionconstruction noun 1. the building ofsomething 2. something built � an elegantconstruction of steelconstruction industryconstruction industry noun the busi-ness or trade of constructing buildingsconsultative bodyconsultative body noun a group ofpeople who can give their advice and opin-ion on a subject but who do not have thepower to make lawsconsumableconsumable adjective able to be con-sumedconsumable goodsconsumable goods, consumablesplural noun products that are used quicklyand have to be bought often, e.g. food orstationeryconsumeconsume verb 1. to use up or burn fuel �The new pump consumes only half the fuelwhich the other pump would use. 2. to eatfoodstuffs � The population consumes tentonnes of foodstuffs per week.consumerconsumer noun 1. a person or companywhich buys and uses goods and services �Gas consumers are protesting at the in-crease in prices. � The factory is a heavyconsumer of water. 2. an organism that eatsother organisms. Compare producerconsumerismconsumerism noun a movement for theprotection of the rights of consumersconsumer panelconsumer panel noun a group of con-sumers who report on products they haveused so that the manufacturers can improvethem or use what the panel says about themin advertisingconsumer protectionconsumer protection noun protectingconsumers against unfair or illegal traders


45 contractconsumer researchconsumer research noun research intowhy consumers buy goods and what goodsthey really want to buyconsumptionconsumption noun 1. the fact or processof using something � a car with low petrolconsumption � The country’s consumptionof wood has fallen by a quarter. 2. the tak-ing of food or liquid into the body � Nearly3% of all food samples were found to be un-fit for human consumption through contam-ination by lead.consumption efficiencyconsumption efficiency noun the per-centage of the total available matter at onetrophic level which is consumed by animalsat the next trophic level, e.g. the percentageof plants eaten by herbivores. Abbr CEcontactcontact noun a physical connection be-tween two or more thingscontact herbicidecontact herbicide, contact weedkillernoun a substance which kills a plant whoseleaves it touches, e.g. paraquatcontagioncontagion noun the spreading of a dis-ease by touching an infected person, or ob-jects which an infected person has touched.Compare infectioncontagiouscontagious adjective referring to a dis-ease which can be transmitted by touchingan infected person, or objects which an in-fected person has touched. Compare infec-tiouscontainercontainer noun 1. a box, case or bottlethat holds something else 2. a large case,with internationally agreed measurements,that can be transported by truck and theneasily loaded on a shipcontainmentcontainment noun the actions taken tostop the spread of something such as dis-ease or contaminationcontaminantcontaminant noun a substance whichcauses contaminationcontaminatecontaminate verb to make somethingimpure by touching it or by adding some-thing, especially something harmful, to it �Supplies of drinking water were contami-nated by uncontrolled discharges from thefactory.contaminated landcontaminated land, contaminatedsite noun an area which has been pollutedas a result of human activities such as in-dustrial processes, presenting a hazard tohuman health, and which needs cleaningbefore it can be used for other purposes

COMMENT: Contaminated land is a featureof most industrialised countries. Carelesspast management of waste, lack of pollu-tion controls and many leaks and spillshave left a legacy of land contaminated bya wide variety of substances. In some cas-es this presents unacceptable risks to hu-

man beings, ecosystems, water resourcesor property and has to be dealt with by for-mal remedial measures.

contaminationcontamination noun 1. the action ofmaking something impure � the contami-nation of the water supply by runoff fromthe fields � contamination of air pollutionin the atmosphere 2. the state of somethingsuch as water or food which has been con-taminated and so is harmful to living organ-isms � The level of contamination is drop-ping.contentcontent noun whatever is contained with-in something (NOTE: This is often ex-pressed as a percentage.)continentcontinent noun one of the seven largelandmasses on the Earth’s surface (NOTE:The continents are Asia, Africa, NorthAmerica, South America, Australia, Europeand Antarctica.)continentalcontinental adjective referring to a con-tinentcontinental climatecontinental climate noun a type of cli-mate found in the centre of a large conti-nent away from the sea, with long dry sum-mers, very cold winters and not much rain-fallcontinental crustcontinental crust noun the part of theEarth’s crust under the continents and con-tinental shelves, lying above the oceaniccrustcontinental driftcontinental drift noun a geological the-ory that the present continents were oncepart of a single landmass and have gradual-ly drifted away from each other over a peri-od of millions of yearscontinental shelfcontinental shelf noun the sloping landsurface of the seabed from the shore out tosea for an average distance of 70 kmcontingent valuation methodcontingent valuation method noun asurvey-based economic method which isused to determine the monetary value of thebenefits or costs of an environmental policyor featurecontinuouscontinuous adjective going on withoutstoppingcontourcontour noun 1. the shape of something2. same as contour linecontour linecontour line noun a line drawn on a mapto show ground of the same height abovesea levelcontour ploughingcontour ploughing noun the practiceof ploughing across the side of a hill so asto create ridges along the contours of theland which will hold water and prevent ero-sioncontractcontract noun an agreement


control 46controlcontrol noun 1. the action of directing orworking in a specific way 2. the process ofrestraining something or keeping some-thing in order � to bring or keep some-thing under control to make sure thatsomething is well regulated � The authori-ties brought the epidemic under control. �out of control unregulated � The epidemicappears to be out of control. 3. (in experi-ments) a sample used as a comparison withthe one being tested � verb to direct ormanage somethingcontrol action thresholdcontrol action threshold noun thepoint at which the amount of pest infesta-tion makes it necessary to start pest control.Abbr CATcontrolled atmospherecontrolled atmosphere noun the con-ditions in which oxygen and carbon diox-ide concentrations are regulated and moni-tored, e.g. to improve the storage of fruitand vegetablescontrolled dumpingcontrolled dumping noun the disposalof waste on special sitescontrolled environmentcontrolled environment noun an envi-ronment in which conditions such as tem-perature, atmosphere and relative humidityare regulated and monitoredcontrolled experimentcontrolled experiment noun an exper-iment designed to test the effects of inde-pendent variables on a dependent variableby changing one independent variable at atimecontrolled landfillcontrolled landfill noun the disposal ofwaste in a landfill carried out under a per-mit system according to the specific laws inforcecontrolled tippingcontrolled tipping noun the disposal ofwaste in special landfill sites. � fly-tippingconurbationconurbation noun a large area coveredwith buildings such as houses, factories orofficesconvectionconvection noun the process by whichhot air rises and cool air descends � Heat istransferred from the Earth’s surface up-wards largely by convection.conventionconvention noun 1. a meeting of largenumbers of people � a convention of envi-ronmentalists 2. a formal agreement �Convention on Biological Diversity � byconvention by general agreement or cus-tomconventionalconventional adjective usual, acceptedand familiar to most people � the conven-tional symbols used on weather chartsconventional fuelconventional fuel noun a traditionalmeans of providing energy, e.g. coal, woodor gas, as opposed to alternative energy

sources such as solar power, tidal power orwind powerConvention on Biological DiversityConvention on Biological Diversi-ty noun an international agreement made atthe Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992to conserve biological diversity, encouragesustainable use of natural resources and en-sure that benefits from the use of genetic re-sources are shared in a fair way. Abbr CBDConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraConvention on International Tradein Endangered Species of WildFauna and Flora noun an internationalagreement between 123 countries to reduceor prevent the trade in endangered speciesof wild animals and plants. Abbr CITESConvention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural HabitatsConvention on the Conservationof European Wildlife and NaturalHabitats noun an agreement made in1979 between 45 European and Africanstates to conserve wild flora and fauna, es-pecially endangered and vulnerable spe-cies, including migratory species, and theirnatural habitats. Also called Bern Conven-tionconvergenceconvergence noun 1. the movement to-wards or the act of coming together ormeeting at a point � There is convergenceof meridians of longitude at the North andSouth Poles. 2. a phenomenon that occurswhenever there is a net inflow of air into aregion of the atmosphere, resulting in theaccumulation of air and an increase in den-sity. Compare divergence 3. the processthat occurs in an ocean when warm surfacewater meets cold polar surface water andstarts to cool and sinkconvergence zoneconvergence zone noun the area of anocean in which convergence occursconversionconversion noun a change from one sys-tem or set of beliefs to anotherconvertconvert verb to change something to adifferent system, set of rules or state � Pho-tochemical reactions convert oxygen toozone. � She has converted her car to takeLPG.converterconverter noun a device which alters theform of something � A backup converterconverts the alternating current power intodirect current.coolcool adjective rather coldcoolantcoolant noun a substance used to coolsomething such as an enginecoombecoombe noun another spelling of combecooperationcooperation noun the act of working to-gether in harmony to achieve a commongoalCOPCOP abbr Conference of the Parties


47 cosmic radiationcoppercopper noun a metallic trace element. It isessential to biological life and used in mak-ing alloys and in electric wiring. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Cu; the atomic numberis 29 and the atomic weight is 63.55.)coppicecoppice noun an area of trees which havebeen cut down to near the ground to allowshoots to grow which are then harvested.The shoots may be used as fuel or for mak-ing products such as baskets or fencing. �verb to cut trees down to near the ground toproduce strong straight shoots � Coppicedwood can be dried for use in wood-burningstoves. Compare pollardcoppice forestcoppice forest, coppice wood nounwoodland that has regrown from shootsformed on the stumps or roots of previouslycut trees, usually cut again after a few yearsto provide small branches for uses such asfuelcoppicingcoppicing noun the practice of regularlycutting down trees near to the ground toproduce strong straight shoots for fuel orother uses � Coppicing, a traditional meth-od of woodland management, is now of in-terest for producing biofuel.

COMMENT: The best trees for coppicingare those which naturally send up severaltall straight stems from a bole, such as wil-low, alder or poplar. In coppice manage-ment, the normal cycle is about five to tenyears of growth, after which the stems arecut back.

copracopra noun the dried pulp of a coconut,from which oil is extracted by pressingcoprolitecoprolite noun fossilized dung of ancientanimals, formerly mined and used as ferti-lizercoprophilouscoprophilous adjective growing ondung � coprophilous fungicopsecopse noun an area of small treescopycopy noun a duplicate of an original �Make copies of the report for everyone.coralcoral noun a rock-like substance com-posed of the skeletons of dead polypscorecore noun the central part of something �The Earth’s core is believed to be formed ofnickel and iron.CorinairCorinair noun a programme to establishan inventory of emissions of air pollutantsin EuropeCorineCorine noun a collection of informationon important issues such as land cover,coastal erosion and biotopes for the majornatural sites in Europe. Full form Coordi-nation of information on the environ-mentcorkcork noun a protective outer layer thatforms part of the bark in woody plants, tak-

ing many years to regrow once stripped(NOTE: It is used, among other things, forbottle corks, fishing net floats and flooring,but cork oaks are now attracting conserva-tion interest.)cork oakcork oak, cork tree noun an evergreentree from which cork is harvested. Latinname: Quercus suber.cormcorm noun a swollen underground plantstem with a terminal bud, e.g. a crocuscormcorncorn noun 1. wheat or barley (informal) 2.US maizecorn cobcorn cob noun a seed head of maize.Also called cobcornflourcornflour, corn starch noun a type offlour extracted from maize grain. It con-tains a high proportion of starch, and isused for thickening sauces.corn on the cobcorn on the cob noun a seed head ofmaize when used as foodcorollacorolla noun a set of petals in a flowercoronacorona noun a trumpet-shaped, petal-likeoutgrowth in flowers such as narcissicorrasioncorrasion noun the wearing away of rockby material carried by ice, water or windcorrectioncorrection noun the adjustment orchanging of something to make it correctcorrespondcorrespond verb to write to someone �She corresponded with several Russian sci-entists.corridorcorridor noun � ecological corridorcorriecorrie noun same as cirquecorrodecorrode verb to destroy something by aslow chemical process � Turbine fuels tendto corrode the components of the fuel andcombustion systems mainly as a result ofthe sulfur and water content of the fuel.corrosioncorrosion noun 1. a process in which thesurface of a material, generally a metal, ischanged by the action of moisture, air or achemical 2. erosion of rocks by the actionof chemicals or the weathercorrosivecorrosive adjective causing corrosion �Sulfuric acid is very corrosive.cortexcortex noun 1. the tissue in plants be-tween the outer layer (epidermis) and thecentral core (stele) of the stem or root 2. anouter layer of tissue in the brain, glands orcellsCOSHHCOSHH noun UK regulations controllingsubstances with known health risks. Fullform Control of Substances Hazardousto Health (UK Regulations)cosmiccosmic adjective referring to the cosmoscosmic radiationcosmic radiation noun � cosmic ray


cosmic ray 48cosmic raycosmic ray noun a stream of high-energyparticles entering Earth’s atmosphere fromspace

COMMENT: Primary cosmic rays are of so-lar origin and their composition reflects theSun’s own, consisting mainly of neutronsand alpha particles, since the Sun con-sists mainly of hydrogen and helium. Othercosmic rays appear to come from deepspace, especially from supernovae, whichaccounts for the appearance of heaviernuclei.

cosmopolitancosmopolitan adjective relating toplants or animals growing or occurring inmany different parts of the worldcosmoscosmos noun the whole universecost-benefit analysiscost-benefit analysis noun an eco-nomic examination of the advantages anddisadvantages of a specific course of actioncost-benefit ratiocost-benefit ratio noun a comparisonof the cost to its benefitscost-effectivenesscost-effectiveness noun the measure-ment of how cost-effective something iscost of livingcost of living noun the level of prices ofthe basic necessities of life such as food,clothing, shelter and fuel � The cost of liv-ing has risen by 2% over the last year.cotton grasscotton grass noun a plant with whitefluffy flower heads that grows in boggyground. Latin name: Eriophorum angusti-folium.cottonwoodcottonwood noun a kind of poplar tree.Genus: Populis.cotyledoncotyledon noun the green plant structureresembling a leaf that appears as a seed ger-minates and before the true leaves appear,developing from the embryo of the seedcountcount noun the process of totalling anumber of itemscountershadingcountershading noun a type of animalcoloration where the back is darker than thebelly, making it more difficult to see the an-imal’s shape clearlycountrycountry noun 1. a politically independentnation or state 2. same as countrysidecountry codecountry code noun a voluntary code ofconduct for people spending leisure time inthe countryside, which indicates how to re-spect the natural environment and avoidcausing damage to itcountry parkcountry park noun an area in the coun-tryside set aside for the public to visit andenjoy leisure activities. � national parkcountry planningcountry planning noun the activity oforganising how land is to be used in thecountryside and the amount and type ofbuilding there will be. Also called ruralplanning

countrysidecountryside noun the land that sur-rounds towns and built-up areasCountryside AgencyCountryside Agency noun a statutorybody funded by Defra with the aim of mak-ing life better for people in the countryside.It is the statutory advisor on landscape is-sues and was formed by merging the Coun-tryside Commission with parts of the RuralDevelopment Commission, but is to be re-organised.Countryside and Rights of Way ActCountryside and Rights of WayAct noun legislation passed by the UKgovernment in 2000 that gave the publicgreater freedom of access to privatelyowned areas of uncultivated land andstrengthened legislation protecting wild-life. Abbr CROW ActCountryside CommissionCountryside Commission noun aformer organisation in the UK, which su-pervised countryside planning and recrea-tion. It was particularly concerned with Na-tional Parks and Areas of Outstanding Nat-ural Beauty.Countryside Commission for ScotlandCountryside Commission forScotland noun an organisation in Scot-land concerned with the protection of thecountryside and with setting up countryparks for public recreation. It is part ofScottish National Heritage.Countryside Council for WalesCountryside Council for Walesnoun a statutory advisory body of the UKgovernment responsible for sustaining nat-ural beauty, wildlife and outdoor leisureopportunities in Wales and its coastal areas.Abbr CCWcountryside managementcountryside management noun thestudy and practice of environmental con-servation in association with rural enter-prise, countryside access and recreationalactivitiesCountryside Management SchemeCountryside Management Schemenoun in Northern Ireland, a system of pay-ments designed to encourage landownersand farmers to adopt, or to continue with,environmentally sensitive farming practic-escountryside recreationcountryside recreation noun leisureactivities that take place in the countryside.Also called rural recreationcountryside recreation site

countryside recreation site noun alocation visited or used by tourists in thecountryside, e.g. a national park, heritagecoast, cycle path or watersports facilitycountryside stewardshipcountryside stewardship noun thepractice of altering farming practices tobenefit wildlife and retain natural diversity.Abbr CSS


49 crocoiteCountryside Stewardship SchemeCountryside Stewardship Schemenoun in England and Wales, a system ofpayments made to landowners and farmerswho alter their farming practices to benefitthe natural environment and maintain bio-diversity

‘The Defra-funded Countryside Stewardship andEnvironmentally Sensitive Areas schemes helpto maintain and enhance the biodiversity andlandscape value of farmed land, protect historicfeatures and promote public access. (Deliveringthe evidence. Defra’s Science and InnovationStrategy, 2003–06)’

Countryside Vegetation SystemCountryside Vegetation Systemnoun a standard classification of commonvegetation types in Britain into 8 major andultimately 100 smaller vegetation classes.Abbr CVS (NOTE: The major classes are:crops and weeds, tall grass and herb, fertilegrassland, infertile grassland, lowlandwooded, upland wooded, moorland grass,and heath and bog.)country stewardshipcountry stewardship noun � country-side stewardshipcoupecoupe noun an area of a forest in whichtrees have been cut downcoursecourse noun 1. a set of actions taken in aparticular situation � What course of actiondo you recommend? 2. the development ofevents over a period of time � the usualcourse of the disease � in the normalcourse of events usuallycovercover noun 1. something that goes oversomething else completely 2. the amount ofsoil surface covered with plants. � groundcovercover cropcover crop noun 1. a crop sown to coverthe soil and prevent it from drying out andbeing eroded (NOTE: When the cover crophas served its purpose, it is usuallyploughed in, so leguminous plants whichare able to enrich the soil are often used ascover crops.) 2. a crop grown to give pro-tection to another crop that is sown with it� In the tropics, bananas can be used as acover crop for cocoa. 3. a crop grown togive cover to game birdsCPRECPRE noun a UK charity that campaignsfor rural areas to be protected. Full formCampaign to Protect Rural EnglandCrCr symbol chromiumCRCR abbr critically endangeredcraftcraft noun a practical skill � a revival ofcountry crafts such as basket-makingcratercrater noun a round depression at the topof a volcanocreekcreek noun a narrow tidal inlet on a seacoast

creepcreep noun 1. gradual change 2. a slowmovement of soil down a slope � verb tomove slowly or without being noticedcreepercreeper noun 1. a plant that spread orclimbs by clinging to a surface, formingroots at each node of long shoots 2. a smallinsectivorous bird of the northern hemi-sphere that climbs in trees. Family: Certhi-dae.creosotecreosote noun a yellowish brown oilysubstance with a characteristic smell, de-rived from wood tar and formerly used as awood preservative (NOTE: It is now bannedin the European Union.)crestcrest noun 1. the highest point on the topof an object 2. the highest point of a hill ormountain ridge 3. a growth on the head of abird or other animal 4. the white top of awavecrestedcrested adjective referring to a bird orother animal with a crest � a crested newtcrevassecrevasse noun a large crack in a glaciercrevicecrevice noun a crack or little hole in rockcrisiscrisis noun a time when things are in avery bad state � a crisis caused by drought(NOTE: The plural is crises)criterioncriterion noun a standard by which some-thing is defined, decided or judged (NOTE:The plural is criteria.)criticalcritical adjective referring to a crisis �critical conditionscritical factorcritical factor noun something in the en-vironment which causes a sudden changeto occur, e.g. the introduction of a pollutantor a drop in temperaturecritical linkcritical link noun an organism in a foodchain which is responsible for taking upand storing nutrients which are then passedon down the chaincritical loadcritical load noun the highest level ofpollution which will not cause permanentharm to the environmentcritically endangeredcritically endangered adjective refer-ring to a species facing a high risk of be-coming extinct, usually taken to be whenthere are fewer than 50 mature individuals.Abbr CRcritical pointcritical point, critical state noun a mo-ment at which a substance undergoes achange in temperature, volume or pressurecritical thresholdcritical threshold noun the point atwhich a species is likely to become extinctcriticisecriticise verb to say what is wrong withsomething � The report criticised the safe-ty procedures.crocoitecrocoite noun an orange mineral contain-ing lead chromate. Formula: PbCrO4.


crop 50cropcrop noun 1. a plant grown for food 2. ayield of produce from plants � The tree hasproduced a heavy crop of apples. � Thefirst crop was a failure. � The rice crop hasfailed. 3. the bag-shaped part of a bird’sthroat where food is stored before digestion� verb (of plants) to produce fruit � a newstrain of rice which crops heavilycrop breedingcrop breeding noun the development ofnew varieties of cropscrop dustingcrop dusting noun the practice of apply-ing insecticide, herbicide or fungicide tocrops in the form of a fine dust or spray.Also called crop sprayingcroplandcropland noun agricultural land which isused for growing cropscrop relativecrop relative noun a wild plant that isgenetically related to a crop plantcrop rotationcrop rotation noun a system of cultiva-tion where crops such as cereals andoilseed rape that need different nutrientsand/or management are grown one after theothercrop sprayingcrop spraying noun same as crop dust-ingcrosscross verb to produce a new form of plantor animal from two different breeds, varie-ties or species � They crossed two strains ofrice to produce a new strain which is highlyresistant to disease. � noun 1. an act ofcrossing two plants or animals � made across between two strains of cattle 2. a newform of plant or animal bred from two dif-ferent breeds, varieties or speciescrossbredcrossbred adjective having been bredfrom two parents with different characteris-tics � a herd of crossbred sheepcrossbreedcrossbreed noun an animal bred fromtwo different pure breeds � verb to producenew breeds of animals by mating animalsof different pure breedscross-compliancecross-compliance noun the setting ofenvironmental conditions that must be metwhen developing agricultural support poli-cies, especially in the European Union.Also called environmental conditionalitycross-fertilisationcross-fertilisation noun the fertilisingof one individual plant by another of thesame speciescrossingcrossing noun the breeding of plants oranimals from two different breeds or varie-tiescross-pollinationcross-pollination noun the pollinationof a flower with pollen from another plantof the same species. Compare self-pollina-tion (NOTE: The pollen goes from the an-ther of one plant to the stigma of another.)

cross-sectioncross-section noun 1. a typical repre-sentative range � The group included across-section of backgrounds and agegroups. 2. a view of an object seen as if cutthrough � a cross-section of a leafCROW ActCROW Act abbr Countryside and Rightsof Way Actcrowncrown noun the top part of a plant wherethe main growing point is � protecting thecrowns from frost � The disease first affectsthe lower branches, leaving the crowns stillgrowing.crown covercrown cover noun the area of land shad-ed by the branches and leaves of a treecrown-of-thornscrown-of-thorns noun 1. a large starfishwhich lives on coral and destroys reefs 2.one of various thorny plantsCruciferaeCruciferae noun former name forBrassicaceaecrudecrude adjective in a natural or originalstate and not treated or improved in anyway � crude results � crude productscrude oilcrude oil noun oil before it is refined andprocessed into petrol and other productscrushercrusher noun a machine for breakingdown material such as rock, ore or seed intosmaller piecescrustcrust noun 1. a hard top layer 2. the toplayer of the surface of the Earth, which isformed of rockCrustaceaCrustacea noun a class of animals whichhave hard shells which are shed periodical-ly as the animals growcrustaceancrustacean noun an invertebrate animalwith a hard chalky outer shell, several pairsof jointed legs and eyes on stalks. Subphy-lum: Crustacea. (NOTE: Crabs, lobsters,barnacles and woodlice are all crusta-ceans.)crustaceouscrustaceous adjective referring to crus-taceanscryogeniccryogenic adjective referring to very lowtemperaturescryophilouscryophilous adjective referring to aplant that needs a period of cold weather togrow properlycryophytecryophyte noun a plant which lives incold conditions, such as in snowcryopreservationcryopreservation noun the storage ofbiological material at very low tempera-turescryospherecryosphere noun the frozen part of theEarth’s surfacecryptic colorationcryptic coloration noun a pattern ofcolouring which makes an animal less easyto see, e.g. stripes on a zebracrypto-crypto- prefix hidden


51 cuspate forelandcryptobiosiscryptobiosis noun a form of dormancywhere the animal remains dormant for avery long period, found in animals whichlive in mosscryptogamcryptogam noun an organism that repro-duces by means of spores, e.g. mosses orfungicryptogamiccryptogamic adjective referring to cryp-togamscryptosporidiumcryptosporidium noun a single-celledorganism that can infect humans, usuallyfound in contaminated watercryptozoiccryptozoic adjective referring to animalswhich live hidden in holes in rocks or treesor under stonescrystalcrystal noun a regular geometric shapeformed by minerals, or as water freezescrystallinecrystalline adjective formed of crystalsCsCs symbol caesiumCSSCSS abbr Countryside StewardshipSchemeCuCu symbol coppercubic centimetrecubic centimetre, cubic foot, cubicinch, cubic metre, cubic yard noun thevolume of a cube whose edge measures onecentimetre, foot, inch, metre or yard, re-spectivelycullcull verb to reduce the numbers of wild an-imals by killing them in a controlled way �Deer may have to be culled each year tocontrol the numbers on the hills.culletcullet noun broken glass collected for re-cyclingculmculm noun 1. the stem of a grass whichbears flowers 2. a type of waste from an an-thracite processing plantcultchcultch noun waste material placed in thesea to act as a breeding ground for oysterscultivarcultivar noun a variety of a plant that hasbeen developed under cultivation and thatdoes not occur naturally in the wildcultivatecultivate verb 1. to grow crops � Pota-toes are cultivated as the main crop. 2. todig and manure the soil ready for growingcrops � The fields are cultivated in the au-tumn, ready for sowing wheat.cultivated landcultivated land noun land that has beendug or prepared for growing cropscultivationcultivation noun the action of cultivatingland or plants � to take land out of culti-vation to stop cultivating land or growingcrops on it and allow it to lie fallowcultivatorcultivator noun 1. a person who culti-vates land 2. an instrument or small ma-chine for cultivating small areas of landculturalcultural adjective referring to agriculturaltechniques

cultural control

cultural control noun the control ofpests using various agricultural techniquessuch as crop rotationculture

culture noun a microorganism or tissuesgrown in a culture medium � verb to growa microorganism or tissue in a culture me-dium. � subcultureculvertculvert noun a covered drain for watercumulative

cumulative adjective produced by beingadded in small, regular amounts � The cu-mulative effect of these chemicals is consid-erable over time.cumulative impactscumulative impacts plural noun the ef-fects of a group of activities throughout anarea or region, although each individual ef-fect may not be significant on its own, in-cluding the effects of any future activitiesthat may reasonably be expected to takeplacecumulonimbus

cumulonimbus noun a dark low cumu-lus cloud associated with thunderstorms �A cumulonimbus has a characteristic anvilshape. Abbr CBcumuluscumulus noun a quantity of big, fluffy,white or grey clouds heaped or piled up,which develop at low altitude � Grey cu-mulus often develop into cumulonimbus. �Cumulus clouds may develop because ofthermal activity resulting from the warmingof the surface.curiecurie noun a former unit of measurementof radioactivity, now replaced by the bec-querel. Symbol Cicurrentcurrent noun a flow of water, air or elec-tricity � Dangerous currents make fishingdifficult near the coast. � A warm westerlycurrent of air is blowing across the country.Curry Report

Curry Report noun a UK governmentreport published in 2002 after a major out-break of foot and mouth disease. It recom-mended radical changes to the agricultureand food industries, looking forward to aprofitable sustainable future for farming inproviding good food for consumers whoplace increasing emphasis on a healthy dietas well as caring for the environment.curvature of the earthcurvature of the earth noun the visiblecurving of the horizon, seen most clearly atseacurvecurve noun a smoothly bending line, as ona graphcusp

cusp noun the point where two arcs of acurve meetcuspate foreland

cuspate foreland noun a large triangu-lar area of deposits made by the sea on acoast


cuticle 52cuticlecuticle noun 1. a thin waxy protective lay-er on plants 2. the outer layer of skin in an-imalscuttingcutting noun a small piece of a plant fromwhich a new plant will growCVSCVS abbr Countryside Vegetation Systemcwmcwm noun � cirquecyanidecyanide noun a salt of hydrocyanic acidcyanobacteriumcyanobacterium noun a bacterium of alarge group that carry out photosynthesis.Family: Cyanophyta. Former name blue-green algacyanocobalamincyanocobalamin noun vitamin B12CyanophytaCyanophyta noun a group of blue-greenalgae, usually found in fresh water, whichstore starch in the form of glycogencycadcycad noun a tropical plant that has an un-branched trunk with large divided leavesgrowing from the top and conescyclecycle noun 1. a series of actions whichend at the same point as they begin � thelife cycle of a moth � A biennial plant com-pletes its life cycle within two years. 2. a se-ries of events which recur regularly � In-dustrial waste upsets the natural nutrientcycle.cycle pathcycle path noun a track alongside a road,or a marked strip at the side of a road, alongwhich only bicycles may be riddencyclicalcyclical adjective occurring in cycles �Off-shore and on-shore wind patterns arecyclical.cyclo-cyclo- prefix cyclic

cyclonecyclone noun 1. an area of low pressurearound which the air turns in the same di-rection as the Earth. � anticyclone 2. a de-vice which removes solid particles fromwaste gases produced during industrialprocessescycloniccyclonic adjective referring to a cyclone� in a cyclonic direction flowing in thesame direction as the rotation of the Earthcyclonicallycyclonically adverb in a cyclonic direc-tion � Waterspouts rotate cyclonically, thatis anticlockwise in the northern hemisphereand clockwise in the southern hemisphere.cyto-cyto- prefix cellcytochemistrycytochemistry noun the study of thechemical activity of living cellscytogeneticscytogenetics noun a branch of geneticswhich studies the structure and function ofcells, especially chromosomescytologycytology noun the study of the structureand function of cellscytolysiscytolysis noun the breaking down ofcellscytoplasmcytoplasm noun a jelly-like substanceinside the cell membrane which surroundsthe nucleus of a cellcytoplasmiccytoplasmic adjective referring to thecytoplasm of a cellcytotoxiccytotoxic adjective harmful or fatal toliving cells (NOTE: Cells that kill other cellsas part of the immune response are de-scribed as cytotoxic.)cytotoxincytotoxin noun a substance which has atoxic effect on living cells


DDACTARIDACTARI noun a pilot scheme set up toassess the implications of exotic diseases indogs and cats travelling into the UK. Fullform Dog and Cat Travel and Risk Infor-mationdamdam noun 1. a construction built to blocka river in order to channel the flow of waterinto a hydroelectric power station or to reg-ulate the water supply to an irrigationscheme 2. the female parent of an animal,usually a domestic animal

COMMENT: Dams are constructed either tochannel the flow of water into hydroelectricpower stations or to regulate the watersupply to irrigation schemes. Dams canhave serious environmental effects: thelarge lake behind the dam may alter thewhole climate of a region; the large heavymass of water in the lake may trigger earthmovements if the rock beneath is unsta-ble; in tropical areas, dams encourage thespread of bacteria, insects and parasites,leading to an increase in diseases; damsmay increase salinity in watercourses andretain silt which otherwise would be car-ried down the river and be deposited asfertile soil in the plain below; dams mayalso deprive downstream communities orcountries of water, leading to regional ten-sions.

damagedamage noun the harm done to some-thing � environmental damagedamp offdamp off verb to die from a fungus infec-tion which spreads in warm damp condi-tions and attacks the roots and lower stemsof seedlingsdangerous substancedangerous substance noun a sub-stance which is particularly hazardous be-cause of any of 14 features such as toxicity,flammability, bioaccumulation potential orpersistenceDARDNIDARDNI abbr Department of Agricultureand Rural Development, Northern IrelandDarrius RotatorDarrius Rotator noun a type of vertical-axis wind turbine that has thin bladesDarwin, Charles Darwin, Charles (1809–92) a scientistknown for the theory of evolution proposedin his book On the Origin of Species thatdescribed how species gradually changeand evolve to succeed in their environmentDarwinian fitnessDarwinian fitness noun a measure ofthe success of organisms at passing on theirgenes to subsequent generations

DarwinismDarwinism, Darwinian theory noun thetheory of evolution, formulated by CharlesDarwin, which states that species of organ-isms arose by natural selection. � neo-Dar-winismdatadata plural noun factual information �The data show that a chemical changetakes place. � The data show that thenumber of plants in the population has in-creased. (NOTE: The singular is datum)data analysisdata analysis noun the extraction of in-formation and results from datadatabasedatabase noun an integrated collectionof files of data stored in a structured form ina large memory, which can be accessed byone or more users at different terminalsdaylengthdaylength noun � photoperioddaylightdaylight noun the light of the sun duringthe daydBdB abbr decibeldBA scaledBA scale abbr decibel A scaleDCDC abbr direct currentDDTDDT noun an insecticide that was formerlyused especially against malaria-carryingmosquitoes. It is now banned in manycountries because of its toxicity and abilityto accumulate in the environment. Formu-la: C14H9Cl5. Full form dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethaneDDT-resistant insectDDT-resistant insect noun an insectthat has developed resistance to DDTDEDE abbr diatomaceous earthdeactivatedeactivate verb to turn off a system or apiece of equipment, stopping it from beingready to operatede-aeratorde-aerator noun a device to remove gasfrom a liquiddeath ratedeath rate noun the number of deaths peryear, shown per 1000 of a population � adeath rate of 15 per 1000 � an increase inthe death rate Also called mortality ratedebacledebacle noun the breaking up of ice on alarge river as it melts in springdebrisdebris noun rubbish or waste matter �volcanic debris from the eruption � Checkthat the area is free of stones and other de-bris.decaydecay noun a process by which tissues be-come rotten and decompose, caused by theaction of microorganisms and oxygen �The soft leaves will gradually decay on the


dechannelise 54compost heap � verb 1. (of organic matter)to rot or decompose 2. (of radioactivematter ) to disintegratedechannelisedechannelise, dechannelize verb tomake a river return to its original place andpattern of flowdechlorinationdechlorination noun removal of chlo-rine and its replacement with hydrogen orwith hydroxide ions to detoxify a substancedecibeldecibel noun a unit for measuring thepower of a sound or the strength of a signal.The decibel scale is logarithmic. Abbr dBdecibel A scaledecibel A scale noun an internationalscale of noise leveldeciduousdeciduous adjective referring to treesthat shed all their leaves in one season �beech, oak and other deciduous trees � de-ciduous woodlandsdeciduous forestdeciduous forest noun a wooded areacomposed mainly of broadleaved trees thatlose all their leaves during one season.Such forests are found in regions with atemperate climate that have a winter andrainfall throughout the year.decimatedecimate verb 1. to reduce something se-verely � Overfishing has decimated theherring population in the North Sea. 2. toreduce by one in tendecision frameworkdecision framework noun a method oforganising and evaluating information,leading eventually to the making of a deci-siondeclinedecline noun a process of becoming less� The decline in the number of cases of pol-lution is due to better policing of factoryemissions. � The population of these birdsnow seems to be on the decline. � Ecolo-gists are working to diagnose forest declinein its early stages. � decline in populationreduction in the number of organisms liv-ing in one place � verb to become less �The fish population declined sharply as thewater became more acid.decommissiondecommission verb to shut down a nu-clear reactor or a power stationdecommissioningdecommissioning noun the process ofshutting down a power stationdecommissioning wastedecommissioning waste noun radio-active material no longer needed as a resultof the shutting down of a nuclear reactor ora nuclear power stationdecomposabledecomposable adjective referring to asubstance which can be broken down intosimple chemical compoundsdecomposedecompose verb (of organic material) tobreak down into simple chemical com-pounds by the action of sunlight, water orbacteria and fungi

decomposerdecomposer noun an organism whichfeeds on dead organic matter and breaks itdown into simple chemicals, e.g. a fungusor bacteriumdecompositiondecomposition noun the process ofbreaking down into simple chemical com-poundsdecontaminatedecontaminate verb to remove a harm-ful substance such as poison or radioactivematerial from a building, a watercourse, aperson’s clothes or some other placedecontaminationdecontamination noun the removal of aharmful substance such as poison or radio-active material from a building, a water-course, a person’s clothes or some otherplacedecreasedecrease noun a lessening or reduction� a decrease in power � on the decreasebecoming less � verb to become less � Airdensity and pressure decrease with an in-crease in altitude. Opposite increasedeductive reasoningdeductive reasoning noun the processof drawing conclusions from observationsof the natural world by using logical rea-soning. Compare inductive reasoningdeep ecologydeep ecology noun an extreme form ofecological thinking in which humans areconsidered as only one species amongmany in the environment and large num-bers of humans are seen as harmful to theenvironment in which they livedeep-freezingdeep-freezing noun long-term storageat temperatures below freezing point (NOTE:Many crops such as peas and beans aregrown specifically for commercial deep-freezing.)deep-litterdeep-litter noun a system of using straw,wood shavings, sawdust or peat moss forbedding poultry or cattledeep-seadeep-sea adjective referring to the deep-est part of the sea a long way from landdefensive mutualismdefensive mutualism noun a relation-ship between two species in which one pro-tects the other from a predatordeficiencydeficiency noun a lack of somethingdeficiency diseasedeficiency disease noun a diseasecaused by the lack of an essential elementin the diet, e.g. vitamins or essential aminoacids and fatty acidsdeficientdeficient adjective lacking something es-sential � The soil is deficient in importantnutrients. � Scrub plants are well adaptedto this moisture-deficient habitat. � Shehas a calcium-deficient diet.deficitdeficit noun a situation in which theamount going out is larger than the amountcoming in


55 -demedefinitive hostdefinitive host noun a host on which aparasite settles permanentlydeflatedeflate verb to allow air to escape fromsomething such as a tyre or balloon so thatit becomes smaller or collapses � To de-flate a tyre, remove or depress the valve andallow the air to escape. Opposite inflatedefoliantdefoliant noun a type of herbicide whichmakes the leaves fall off plantsdefoliatedefoliate verb to make the leaves fall offa plant, especially by using a herbicide or asthe result of disease or other stressdefoliationdefoliation noun the loss of leaves froma plant, especially as the result of using aherbicide or because of disease or otherstressdeforestdeforest verb to cut down forest treesfrom an area for commercial purposes or tomake arable land � Timber companies havehelped to deforest the tropical regions. �About 40000 square miles are deforestedeach year.deforestationdeforestation noun the cutting down offorest trees for commercial purposes or tomake arable or pasture landDefraDefra abbr Department for Environment,Food and Rural Affairsdegasdegas verb to remove gas from somethingsuch as a boreholedegassingdegassing noun the removal of gas fromsomething such as a boreholedegradabledegradable adjective referring to a sub-stance which can be broken down into itsseparate elements. � biodegradabledegradationdegradation noun 1. a reduction in thequality of something � Chemical degrada-tion of the land can be caused by overuse offertilisers and by pollutants from industrialprocesses. � degradation of air the pollu-tion of the air 2. the decomposition of achemical compound into its elementsdegradative successiondegradative succession noun thecolonisation and subsequent decomposi-tion of dead organic matter by fungi andmicroorganismsdegradedegrade verb 1. to reduce the quality ofsomething � The land has been degradedthrough overgrazing. � Ozone may worsennutrient leaching by degrading the water-resistant coating on pine needles. 2. tomake a chemical compound decomposeinto its elementsdegreaserdegreaser noun a device for removinggrease and oildegreedegree noun 1. a level, amount or quanti-ty � The degree of compression is insuffi-cient. � Manufacturers aim for a high de-

gree of safety. � to a certain degree, tosome degree partly � to a minor degree ina small way 2. a unit of temperature �twenty degrees Centigrade (20°C) Symbol° � degree Celsius unit of measurement ona scale of temperature where the freezingand boiling points of water are 0° and 100°,respectively. � Celsius � degree Fahren-heit unit of measurement on a scale of tem-perature where the freezing and boilingpoints of water are 32° and 212°, respec-tively 3. a unit of measurement of an angleequal to 1/360th of a circle. Symbol °(NOTE: Each degree is divided into 60 min-utes and each minute into 60 seconds.)dehiscedehisce verb (of a ripe seed pod, fruit orcapsule) to burst open to allow seeds orspores to scatterdehiscencedehiscence noun the sudden bursting ofa seed pod, fruit or capsule when it is ripe,allowing the seeds or spores to scatterdehiscentdehiscent adjective referring to seedpods, fruit or capsules which burst open toallow the seeds or spores to scatter. Com-pare indehiscentdehumidifierdehumidifier noun a machine which re-moves the moisture from air, often part ofan air-conditioning systemdehydratedehydrate verb 1. to lose water, or tomake something lose water � dehydratedfoods 2. to lose water from the body � Aftertwo days without food or drink, he becameseverely dehydrated.dehydrationdehydration noun 1. loss of water, or theremoval of water from something � preser-vation of food by dehydration 2. loss of wa-ter from the bodydeinkingdeinking noun the process of removingthe ink from waste newspaper to allow it tobe recycleddeinking unitdeinking unit noun a factory or machinewhich removes the ink from waste newspa-perdeintensified farmingdeintensified farming noun farmingwhich was formerly intensive, using chem-ical fertilisers to increase production, buthas now become extensivedeltadelta noun a triangular piece of land at themouth of a large river formed of silt carriedby the river � the Nile Delta � the Missis-sippi Deltadeltaic depositdeltaic deposit noun a deposit of silt ina river deltademedeme noun a population of organisms in asmall area-deme-deme suffix a section of a populationwhich has distinctive characteristics


demersal 56demersaldemersal adjective referring to fishwhich live on or near the seabed. Comparepelagicdemineralisationdemineralisation, demineralizationnoun the removal of salts which are dis-solved in waterdemineralisedemineralise, demineralize verb to re-move dissolved salts from waterdemographicdemographic adjective referring to de-mographydemographic transitiondemographic transition noun the pat-tern of change of population growth fromhigh birth and death rates to low birth anddeath ratesdemographydemography noun the study of humanpopulations and their developmentdenaturationdenaturation noun 1. making somethingchange its nature 2. converting a proteininto an amino aciddenaturedenature verb 1. to add a poisonous sub-stance to alcohol to make it unsuitable forhumans to drink 2. to change the naturalstructure of a protein or nucleic acid byhigh temperature, chemicals or extremes ofpH 3. to add an isotope to fissile material tomake it unsuitable for use in nuclear weap-ons 4. to make something change its nature5. to convert a protein into an amino aciddendritedendrite noun a crystal that has branchedin two as it growsdendriticdendritic adjective with branched partsdendrochronologydendrochronology noun a scientificmethod of finding the age of wood by thestudy of tree ringsdendroclimatologydendroclimatology noun the study ofclimate over many centuries, as shown intree rings

COMMENT: Because tree rings vary inwidth depending on the weather during aspecific year, it has been possible to showa pattern of yearly growth which applies toall wood from the same region. This meth-od allows old structures to be dated evenmore accurately than with carbon-datingsystems. It is also possible to chart pastchanges in climate in the same way, asrings vary in thickness according to climat-ic conditions, allowing scientists to com-pare the climatic changes in various partsof the world over a very long period of time.

dendrologicaldendrological adjective referring todendrologydendrologydendrology noun the study of treesdenitrificationdenitrification noun the releasing of ni-trogen from nitrates in the soil by the actionof bacteriadenizendenizen noun a non-native plant or ani-mal that grows or lives in a specific area

densedense adjective referring to a substancewhich is closely pressed togetherdensely populateddensely populated adjective havingmany humans or other organisms inhabit-ing the same areadensitydensity noun 1. the quantity of mass perunit of volume � air density 2. the numberof individuals in a specific areadensity dependencedensity dependence noun a situationin which an aspect or feature of a popula-tion varies with population densitydensity-dependentdensity-dependent adjective referringto a situation where an aspect or feature ofa population varies with population density� density-dependent population regulationdensity-independentdensity-independent adjective refer-ring to a situation where an aspect or fea-ture of a population does not vary with pop-ulation density � density-independent mor-talitydentatedentate adjective same as tootheddenudationdenudation noun the process of makingland or rock bare by cutting down trees orby erosiondenudedenude verb to make land or rock bare bycutting down trees and other plants or byerosion � The timber companies have de-nuded the mountains.deoxygenatedeoxygenate verb to remove oxygenfrom water or air � The weed rapidly deox-ygenates watercourses, killing fish and oth-er aquatic life.deoxygenationdeoxygenation noun the removal of ox-ygen from water or airdeoxyribonucleic aciddeoxyribonucleic acid noun � RNA.Full form of DNADepartment for Environment, Food and Rural AffairsDepartment for Environment,Food and Rural Affairs noun the UKgovernment department responsible for ru-ral affairs in England and Wales. Abbr De-fra

‘Defra was created to focus and lead the Govern-ment’s wider approach to sustainable develop-ment and specifically to address this aim for theenvironment, the food industry and rural econo-mies and communities. (Delivering the evidence.Defra’s Science and Innovation Strategy, 2003–06)’

dependency ratiodependency ratio noun a measure ofthe number of children and old people thateach 100 people of working age have tosupportdependentdependent adjective affected by or vary-ing with something else � The output is de-pendent on the physical state of the link.depletedeplete verb to remove a resource fromsomethingdepletiondepletion noun the removal of a resourcefrom something � a study of atmospheric


57 designozone depletion � Production of ice crys-tals from methane can deplete ozone stillfurther.deploydeploy verb to use something � Theyneeded to deploy more resources to com-plete the review on time.depollutiondepollution noun the removal of pollu-tion from a contaminated areadepositdeposit noun 1. a layer of metal, coal orother substance that occurs in the ground �Deposits of coal have been found in thenorth of the country. 2. a quantity of mate-rial moved from one place on the Earth’ssurface to another by natural agents such aswind or water � deposits of silt � glacialdeposits 3. a thin layer or coating on an in-ner or outer surface � deposits of red dust� fatty deposits in the arteries 4. a fee thatis added to the price of a product and re-funded when the used product is returnedfor recycling � verb to coat a surface witha thin layer of a substancedepositorydepository noun a place where some-thing is stored, e.g. refuse or nuclear waste� They carried out tests to establish thesuitability of the rock formation as a wastedepository.depotdepot noun a place or building wheresomething is stored � There has been a fireat the oil depot.depressiondepression noun 1. an area of low at-mospheric pressure. Also called low 2. alower area on a surface that is often difficultto see � A depression on the wing surfacemust be investigated in case it is an indica-tion of more serious structural damage.depthdepth noun the distance from the top sur-face of something to the bottom � The trop-osphere’s depth is variable in temperatelatitudes. � the water is two metres indepth the water is two metres deepdepth of rainfalldepth of rainfall noun a measurement ofthe amount of rain which has fallenderelictderelict adjective 1. referring to landwhich has been damaged and made ugly bymining or other industrial processes, orwhich has been neglected and is not usedfor anything � a plan to reclaim derelict in-ner city sites 2. referring to a buildingwhich is neglected and in ruins � derelictfactoriesderelictiondereliction noun 1. a state of being dam-aged or neglected 2. a failure to do whatyou ought to do � dereliction of dutyderivativederivative noun a substance or productwhich is formed from something elsedermaldermal adjective referring to the skin

derrisderris noun a powdered insecticide ex-tracted from the root of a tropical plant,used against fleas, lice and aphidsdesalinatedesalinate verb to remove salt from asubstance such as sea water or soildesalinationdesalination noun the removal of saltfrom a substance such as sea water or soil

COMMENT: Desalination may be used toremoving salt from sea water to make itdrinkable. Desalination plants work by dis-tillation, dialysis or by freeze drying. Theprocess is only cost-effective where thesupplies of fresh water are very small.

desertdesert noun an area of land with very lit-tle rainfall, arid soil and little or no vegeta-tion

COMMENT: A desert will be formed in areaswhere rainfall is less than 25 cm per an-num whether the region is hot or cold.About 30% of all the land surface of theEarth is desert or in the process of becom-ing desert. The spread of desert conditionsin arid and semi-arid regions is caused notonly by climatic conditions, but also by hu-man pressures. So overgrazing of pastureand the clearing of forest for fuel and forcultivation both lead to the loss of organicmaterial, a reduction in rainfall by evapora-tion and soil erosion.

desert formationdesert formation noun same as deser-tificationdesertificationdesertification noun the process bywhich an area of land becomes a desert be-cause of a change of climate or because ofthe action of humans, e.g. through intensivefarming � Changes in the amount of sun-light reflected by different vegetation maycontribute to desertification. � Increasedtilling of the soil, together with long peri-ods of drought, have brought about the de-sertification of the area.

‘Desertification, broadly defined, is one of theprincipal barriers to sustainable food securityand sustainable livelihoods in our world today’[Environmental Conservation]

desertifydesertify verb to make land into a desert� It is predicted that half the country willbe desertified by the end of the century.desiccantdesiccant noun 1. a substance whichdries something 2. a type of herbicidewhich makes leaves wither and diedesiccatedesiccate verb to dry outdesiccationdesiccation noun 1. the act or process ofremoving water 2. the act of drying out thesoil � The greenhouse effect may lead toclimatic changes such as the desiccation oflarge areas.designdesign noun the planning or drawing ofsomething before it is constructed or man-ufactured � product design and develop-


designate 58ment � a creative garden design � Sheworks in design.designatedesignate verb to name something offi-cially or appoint someone to a position of-ficially � The city centre has been desig-nated a traffic-free zone.desk studydesk study noun an investigation of rel-evant available facts and figures, often be-fore starting practical study of a problemdestroydestroy verb to damage something so se-verely that it cannot recover � At this rate,all virgin rainforests will have been de-stroyed by the year 2020. � The building ofthe motorway will destroy several areas ofscientific importance.destructiondestruction noun the act of severelydamaging something � The destruction ofthe habitat has led to the almost completeextinction of the species.desulfurisationdesulfurisation, desulphurisationnoun the process of removing sulfur from asubstance such as oil, iron ore or coaldetectdetect verb 1. to notice something that isnot obvious � She detected a slight smell ofgas. 2. to discover the existence of some-thing using scientific methods and equip-ment � The equipment can detect very faintsignals.detectabledetectable adjective which can be de-tected � The increase in the amount of car-bon dioxide, together with trace gases suchas methane and nitrogen oxide, is likely tocause a detectable global warming.detectiondetection noun the discovery of the pres-ence of somethingdetection limitdetection limit noun the smallestamount of a substance, noise, etc., that canbe detecteddetergentdetergent noun a cleaning substancewhich removes grease and bacteria fromthe surface of something (NOTE: The firstdetergents contained alkyl benzenesul-fonate which does not degrade on contactwith bacteria and so passed into sewage,creating large amounts of foam in sewersand rivers.)detergent foamdetergent foam noun a large mass offroth on the surface of rivers, canals andsewers, caused by detergent in effluentdetergent swansdetergent swans plural noun � deter-gent foamdeterioratedeteriorate verb to become worse � Thequality of the water in the river has deteri-orated since the construction of factorieson its banks. � The electrolyte in the cellsof a nickel-cadmium battery does not chem-ically react with the plates and so the platesdo not deteriorate.

deteriorationdeterioration noun the process of be-coming worse � The rapid deterioration ofthe peri-urban environment gives cause forconcern.determinedetermine verb 1. to discover somethingby observation, calculation or experiment� To determine the average age, divide thetotal number of years by the number of peo-ple. 2. to control or have an effect on some-thing � These characteristics are geneti-cally determined. � Health is significantlydetermined by diet.detinningdetinning noun the removal of a coatingof tin from somethingdetoxicationdetoxication, detoxification noun theremoval of harmful or poisonous substanc-esdetoxifydetoxify verb to remove harmful or poi-sonous substances from somethingdetrimentaldetrimental adjective harmful � Conser-vation groups have criticised the introduc-tion of red deer, a species which is highlydetrimental to local flora.detritaldetrital adjective 1. formed from detritus2. referring to a crystal which has been un-covered from weathered rockdetrital food chaindetrital food chain noun the link be-tween green plants and the decomposer or-ganisms which feed on themdetritivoredetritivore noun an organism whichfeeds on dead organic matter and breaks itdown into simple chemicals, e.g. a fungusor bacterium. Also called detrivore, scav-engerdetritivorousdetritivorous adjective referring to anorganism which feeds on dead organic mat-ter and breaks it down into simple chemi-calsdetritusdetritus noun waste matter which may beeither organic or mineraldetrivoredetrivore noun same as detritivoredeuterium oxidedeuterium oxide noun water containingdeuterium instead of the hydrogen atom,used as a coolant or moderator in sometypes of nuclear reactor. Formula: D2O.developdevelop verb 1. to come into being, orcause something to come into being � Theplant soon develops branches. 2. to growand change � During the day, light breezesmay develop into strong winds. � Theplants develop quickly in the right condi-tions. 3. to plan and produce something �The company is trying to develop a newpesticide to deal with the problem. 4. toplan and build on an area of land � They areplanning to develop the site as an industrialestate.


59 die downdeveloped countrydeveloped country noun a countrywhich has a high state of industrialisationdeveloperdeveloper noun a person or companythat plans and builds structures such asroads, airports, houses, factories or officebuildings � The land has been acquired bydevelopers for an industrial park.developing countrydeveloping country noun a countrywhich is not fully industrialiseddevelopmentdevelopment noun 1. growth andchange � To study weather and its develop-ment, the meteorologist has to be aware ofthe horizontal changes in atmosphericpressure both in space and time. 2. some-thing new, made as an improvement onsomething older � Satellite navigation aidsare a useful development. 3. planning andbuilding on an area of land � They areplanning large-scale development of thedocklands area.development areadevelopment area noun an area whichhas been given special help from a govern-ment to encourage business and factories tobe set up there. Also called developmentzonedevelopment ratedevelopment rate noun the rate atwhich a plant or animal growsdevelopment zonedevelopment zone noun same as de-velopment areadeviatedeviate verb to be different from the usualor expected pattern or to do something thatis different from the usual or expected pat-terndeviationdeviation noun 1. a difference from whatis usual or expected 2. the difference be-tween one value in a series and the averageof all the valuesdevicedevice noun a machine or piece of equip-ment � a device for controlling humiditydewdew noun drops of condensed moistureleft on surfaces overnight in cool placesdewaterdewater verb to remove or reduce the wa-ter content of something such as sludgedew ponddew pond noun a small pond of rainwa-ter which forms on high ground in chalkysoilDHWDHW abbr domestic hot waterdiagnosediagnose verb 1. to identify a diseasefrom symptoms 2. to use scientific methodsto discover the cause of a problem or faultdiagnosisdiagnosis noun the identification of adisease or problemdiagramdiagram noun an often simplified draw-ing showing the structure or workings ofsomething � a diagram illustrating a foodweb � The diagram shows the life cycle ofa fern.

dialysisdialysis noun the use of a semi-permea-ble membrane as a filter to separate solublewaste substances from a liquiddiameterdiameter noun the distance across thewidest part of a circle or a tube (NOTE: Thediameter passes through the centre.) � lessthan 0.5mm in diameter measuring lessthan 0.5 mm across the widest partdiapausediapause noun a period of reduced meta-bolic rate in some animals or insects duringwhich growth and development are tempo-rarily suspended, often linked to seasonalor environmental changesdiatomdiatom noun a type of single-celled algafound in fresh and sea water that has a cellwall containing silica which forms twooverlapping halvesdiatomaceous earthdiatomaceous earth noun a mineraldeposit formed from the bodies of diatoms,used in filters and in the manufacture ofpolishes. Also called kieselguhr. Abbr DEdiatomistdiatomist noun a scientist who studiesdiatomsdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanedichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanenoun full form of DDTdichotomous branchingdichotomous branching noun a pat-tern of plant growth that develops when agrowing point forks into two points that lat-er divide into twodichotomous keydichotomous key noun a series ofquestions leading to other questions used aspart of the process of identifying an organ-ismdicotdicot noun same as dicotyledon(informal)dicotyledenousdicotyledenous adjective referring todicotyledonsdicotyledondicotyledon noun a plant with seeds thathave a cotyledon with two parts � Dicoty-ledons form the largest group of plants.Compare monocotyledon. � cotyledondiedie verb to stop living � The fish in thelake died, poisoned by chemical dischargefrom the factory. � Scientists are trying tofind out what is making the trees die. � Sev-eral people died after eating the contami-nated shellfish.die backdie back verb (of plants) to be affected bythe death of a branch or shoot � Roses maydie back after pruning in frosty weather.diebackdieback noun 1. a fungal disease of someplants which kills shoots or branches 2. agradual dying of trees starting at the ends ofbranches � Half the trees in the forest areshowing signs of dieback.die downdie down verb 1. to become less strong �The strong winds eventually died down. �The food safety controversy shows no sign


diel 60of dying down. 2. to stop growing beforethe winter and keep only the parts belowground until spring (of a plant) � Herba-ceous plants die down in autumn.diel

diel adjective referring to a period of 24hours � The diel cycle was due to the inter-action of damage and repair processes.dieldrindieldrin noun an organochlorine insecti-cide which kills on contact (NOTE: It is verypersistent and can kill fish, birds and smallmammals when it enters the food chain. Itis banned in the European Union.)die off

die off verb to die one by one over a perioddie out

die out verb to become fewer in numbersand eventually cease to existdieseldiesel noun same as diesel oildiesel engine

diesel engine noun an engine in whichair is compressed in a cylinder causing arise in temperature before the introductionof oil which ignites on contact with the hotair

COMMENT: In a diesel engine, a quantity ofoil is pumped to each cylinder in turn. Die-sel-engined cars are usually more eco-nomical to run, but cause more pollution,especially particulates, than petrol-en-gined cars.

diesel-engined

diesel-engined adjective using a dieselengine to provide power. Also called die-sel-powereddiesel oildiesel oil, diesel fuel noun oil used asfuel in a diesel engine. Also called dieseldiesel-powered

diesel-powered adjective same as die-sel-engineddietdiet noun 1. the amount and type of foodeaten � to live on a diet of to eat � It liveson a diet of insects and roots. 2. a measuredamount of food eaten to maintain, gain orlose weight � to be or go on a diet Same asdiet � verb to reduce the quantity orchange the type of food eaten in order tomaintain a sensible weight and becomehealthierdietarydietary adjective referring to dietdietary fibredietary fibre noun same as roughage

COMMENT: Dietary fibre is found in cereals,nuts, fruit and some green vegetables. It isbelieved to be necessary to help digestionand to avoid developing constipation,obesity and appendicitis.

dietary reference valuesdietary reference values plural nounthe nutrients that are essential for health,published as a list by the UK governmentdietetic

dietetic adjective referring to dietdietetics

dietetics noun the study of food, nutri-tion and health, especially when applied tofood intake

differencedifference noun the way in which twothings are not the same � Describe the ma-jor differences between plants and animals.differentdifferent adjective not the same � Livingin the country is very different from livingin town. � The landscape looks quite differ-ent since the mine was opened.differentialdifferential adjective referring to thingswhich react differently when measuredagainst a norm or standarddifferential reproductiondifferential reproduction noun theability to produce more offspring with thesame adaptations as the parents, allowingthe species to survive under changed envi-ronmental conditionsdiffusediffuse adjective 1. spread out in every di-rection 2. widespread in effect and withouta single identifiable source � diffuse pollu-tion � non-point sourcediffusiondiffusion noun 1. the process of spread-ing out � Gas from the turbine enters theexhaust system at high velocities but, be-cause of high friction losses, the speed offlow is decreased by diffusion. 2. the mix-ing of a liquid with another liquid, or of agas with another gas 3. the passing of a liq-uid or gas through a membranedigestdigest verb 1. to break down food andconvert it into elements which can be ab-sorbed by the body 2. to use bacteria toprocess waste, especially organic wastesuch as manure, in order to produce biogas� 55% of UK sewage sludge is digested. �Wastes from food processing plants can beanaerobically digested.digesterdigester noun a device that produces gassuch as methane from refusedigestible organic matterdigestible organic matter noun an or-ganic substance which can be processed toproduce biogas, e.g. manure. Abbr DOMdigestiondigestion noun 1. the process by whichfood is broken down and converted into el-ements which can be absorbed by the body2. the conversion of organic matter intosimpler chemical compounds, as in the pro-duction of biogas from manuredigitdigit noun a finger or toe, or a similar bodypartdigitatedigitate adjective 1. having fingers ortoes, or body parts like fingers or toes 2.same as palmatedilationdilation noun an increase in volumediluentdiluent noun a substance which is used todilute a liquiddilutedilute verb to add water or solvent to a liq-uid to make it weaker. Opposite concen-trate � adjective with water or solvent add-ed


61 disintegrationdilute and dispersedilute and disperse noun a method ofusing landfill sites in which the waste is al-lowed to leak gradually into the surround-ing soildilutiondilution noun 1. the action of diluting aliquid 2. a liquid which has been diluteddilution effectdilution effect noun a strategy adoptedby prey to reduce the effect of predators, bywhich the prey congregates in large num-bers so that a predator can only remove asmall proportion of the totaldimethyl sulfidedimethyl sulfide, dimethyl sulphidenoun a gas given off by water which is richin sewage pollutiondiminisheddiminished adjective reduced � At high-er altitudes, ground objects are less easilyseen because of diminished size.diodediode noun an electronic component thatallows an electrical current to pass in onedirection and not the otherdioeciousdioecious adjective referring to a plantspecies in which male and female flowersoccur on different individuals. � monoe-ciousdioxindioxin noun an extremely poisonous gas.It is formed as a product of waste incinera-tion and some other combustion processesand is also a by-product of the manufactureof the herbicide 2,4,5-T. (NOTE: It is the gasthat escaped in the disaster at Seveso in1976.)diploiddiploid adjective referring to an organismthat has two matched sets of chromosomesin a cell nucleus, one set from each parent(NOTE: Each species has a characteristicdiploid number of chromosomes.)direct currentdirect current noun an electric currentof constant value that flows in one direc-tion. Abbr DCdisasterdisaster noun a serious event causingdeaths and/or great damage to the environ-ment. Disasters are often classified as ei-ther natural, e.g. earthquakes, or man-made, e.g. oil spills.disaster managementdisaster management noun the poli-cies developed and the actions undertakento deal with a disasterdisc floretdisc floret noun a small tubular partamong those on the central rounded part ofthe flower head of a plant belonging to theCompositae, such as a daisy or sunflower.Compare ray floretdischargedischarge noun 1. the action of releasingwaste material into the environment 2.waste material, such as that from an indus-trial process or in the form of sewage, thatis passed into the environment 3. the rate offlow of a liquid in a channel � verb 1. (of a

river) to flow into a lake or the sea � Theriver Rhine discharges into the North Sea.2. to pass waste material into the environ-ment � The factory discharges ten tonnesof toxic effluent per day into the river.disclimaxdisclimax noun a stable ecological statewhich has been caused by human interven-tion, e.g. a desert caused by deforestationdisclimax communitydisclimax community noun a stableplant community which is caused by hu-man action, e.g. felling a rainforest for tim-ber. Compare climaxdiscolorationdiscoloration, discolouration noun achange of colour, especially one caused bydeteriorationdiscolourdiscolour verb to change the colour ofsomething, especially through deteriora-tion, usually making it paler (NOTE: The USspelling is discolor.)discoloureddiscoloured adjective with a changedcolour, especially through deteriorationdiscontinuitydiscontinuity noun 1. a break in a layerof rock, caused by a fault or erosion 2. aband in the interior of the Earth which sep-arates two layers and through which seis-mic shocks do not passdiscountingdiscounting noun a method used byeconomists to calculate the cost in currentvalue of a project’s future costs and benefitsdiseasedisease noun an illness of people, ani-mals or plants � He caught a disease in thetropics. � He is a specialist in occupationaldiseases.diseaseddiseased adjective affected by a diseaseand so not functioning as usual or notwhole � To treat dieback, diseased branch-es should be cut back to healthy wood.disinfectdisinfect verb to make something orsomewhere free from microorganisms suchas bacteria � All utensils must be thorough-ly disinfected. (NOTE: Disinfect, disinfec-tion and disinfectant are used for sub-stances which destroy germs on instru-ments, objects or the skin.)disinfectantdisinfectant noun a substance used tokill microorganisms such as bacteriadisinfectiondisinfection noun the process of makingsomething or somewhere free from micro-organisms such as bacteriadisinfestdisinfest verb to remove insect or animalpests from a placedisintegratedisintegrate verb to break into pieces �In holocrine glands the cells disintegrate asthey secrete.disintegrationdisintegration noun the process ofbreaking into pieces � Electromagnetic ra-diations resulting from the disintegration of


disjunct 62radioactive materials are known as gammarays.disjunctdisjunct noun a distribution area for ananimal or plant which is split into geo-graphically different regionsdisorderdisorder noun a disruption of a system orbalanced statedispersaldispersal noun the moving of individualplants or animals into or from an area �seed dispersal by wind � Aphids breed inlarge numbers and spread by dispersal inwind currents.dispersedisperse verb 1. (of organisms) to sepa-rate and move away over a wide area 2. tosend something out over a wide area �Some seeds are dispersed by birds. � Pow-er stations have tall chimneys to dispersethe emissions of pollutants.dispersing agentdispersing agent noun a chemical sub-stance sprayed onto an oil slick to break upthe oil into smaller particlesdispersiondispersion noun the pattern in which an-imals or plants are found over a wide areadispersion modeldispersion model noun a mathematicalprediction of how pollutants from a sourcewill be distributed in the surrounding areaunder specific conditions of wind, temper-ature, humidity and other environmentalfactorsdisposabledisposable adjective thrown away afteruse � disposable syringesdisposaldisposal noun the process of getting ridof something � The disposal of raw sewageinto the sea contaminates shellfish. � finaldisposaldisposal sitedisposal site noun same as landfill sitedispose ofdispose of verb to get rid of something �The problem with nuclear reactors is howto dispose of the radioactive waste.disruptdisrupt verb to upset a system or balancedstate � The storm disrupted the electricitysupply.disruptiondisruption noun the process of upsettinga system or balanced statedisseminatedisseminate verb to make informationor knowledge available � The informationwas disseminated widely throughout the or-ganisation.disseminationdissemination noun the process ofmaking information about something avail-able � the dissemination of new technologydissolvabledissolvable, dissoluable adjective ableto be dissolveddissolvedissolve verb to become part of a liquidand form a solution � Sugar dissolves inwater. � There is a possibility that gas maybe dissolved into the fluid and thus intro-duced into the system.

dissolved oxygendissolved oxygen noun the amount ofgaseous oxygen present in water, expressedas either its presence in a volume of water(in milligrams per litre) or its percentage insaturated water. Abbr DOdistaldistal adjective away from the centre orpoint of attachment. Compare proximaldistildistil verb 1. to produce a pure liquid byheating a liquid and condensing the vapour,as in the production of alcohol or essentialoils 2. to produce by-products from coaldistillatedistillate noun a substance produced bydistillationdistillationdistillation noun the process of produc-ing a pure liquid by heating a liquid andcondensing the vapour, as in the productionof alcohol or essential oilsdistributarydistributary noun a stream or river flow-ing out from a larger river, as in a deltadistributedistribute verb to give something or sendsomething out � distribute electrical pow-erdistributiondistribution noun 1. the process of giv-ing or sending something out � power dis-tribution systems 2. the pattern in whichsomething is found in various areas, de-pending on factors such as climate or alti-tude � The distribution of crops in variousregions of the world is a result of thousandsof years of breeding and testing.distributional effectsdistributional effects plural noun thenet costs and benefits of a policy across thepopulation and economydistribution areadistribution area noun a number ofplaces in which a species is founddistrictdistrict noun a part of an area, especiallyfor administrative purposesdisturbdisturb verb to alter the usual condition ofsomething � Small hills can disturb theflow of air. � The building of the road hasdisturbed the balance of the ecosystem.disturbancedisturbance noun 1. an alteration in theusual condition of something � In general,the higher the mountain and the faster theair flow the greater is the resulting distur-bance. 2. a change in an ecosystem causedby an alteration of the environmental con-ditions, by a process such as drought, pol-lution or felling of woodlanddisturbance thresholddisturbance threshold noun the pointat which an alteration of the environmentalconditions causes change in an ecosystemditchditch noun a channel to take away rainwa-terdithiocarbamatesdithiocarbamates plural noun fungi-cides widely used on fruit, vegetables andarable crops


63 dominantdiurnaldiurnal adjective 1. referring to the 24-hour cycle of day and night � Diurnalchanges in surface temperature over thesea are small. 2. happening every day 3.happening in the daytimediurnal jetdiurnal jet noun a current of water in theocean created by the heat of the sun duringthe daytimediurondiuron noun a herbicide used as a groundspray around trees and bushes (NOTE: It isunder review for withdrawal from use in theEuropean Union.)divergencedivergence noun a difference � a diver-gence of opinion on the cloning issue � adivergence between the preliminary reportand the final resultsdivergentdivergent adjective differentdiversificationdiversification noun changing to a dif-ferent way of workingdiversifydiversify verb 1. to develop in differentways 2. to start doing several differentthings � Farmers are encouraged to diver-sify land use by using it for woodlands orfor recreational facilities.diversitydiversity noun the richness of the numberof speciesdividedivide verb to separate something intoparts, or become separated into parts � Airmasses are divided into two types accord-ing to source region and these are known aspolar and tropical air masses.divisiondivision noun 1. a separation into parts 2.a traditional category in the scientific clas-sification of plants, now replaced by phy-lumDMDM abbr dry matterDNADNA noun a nucleic acid chain carryinggenetic information that is a major constit-uent of chromosomes. Full form deoxyri-bonucleic acid. � RNADODO abbr dissolved oxygenDobson unitDobson unit noun a unit used in measur-ing the total amount of ozone present in avertical column of air above the surface ofthe Earth (NOTE: In a layer of ozone at at-mospheric pressure of 1013 hPa and tem-perature of 298 K which measures 1 mm inthickness, the ozone present is equivalentto 100 Dobson units.)dolinedoline, dolina noun a round or oval de-pression in the ground, found in limestoneregionsdolomitedolomite noun an alkaline carbonate ofmagnesium or calcium rockdolphindolphin noun a marine mammal belong-ing to the family which also includes killerwhales and pilot whales. Family: Delphini-dae.

DOMDOM abbr 1. digestible organic matter 2.dry organic matterdomaindomain noun a particular area of activity� The subject is controversial outside thescientific domain.domesticdomestic adjective 1. referring to thehome � domestic waste 2. not foreign �domestic politics 3. kept as a farm animalor petdomestic animaldomestic animal noun 1. an animalsuch as a dog or cat which lives with humanbeings as a pet 2. an animal such as a pig orgoat which is kept by human beings forfood or other usesdomesticateddomesticated adjective 1. referring to awild animal which has been trained to livenear a house and not be frightened of hu-man beings 2. referring to a species whichwas formerly wild but has been selectivelybred to fill human needsdomesticationdomestication noun the action of do-mesticating wild animals or plantsdomestic consumptiondomestic consumption noun same ashome consumptiondomestic green wastedomestic green waste noun the wasteproduced by a household that is from plantsor other materials that can be composteddomestic hot waterdomestic hot water noun hot waterused for washing in a house. Abbr DHWdomestic refusedomestic refuse noun waste materialfrom houses. Also called domestic waste,household refusedomestic sewagedomestic sewage noun the sewagefrom housesdomestic wastedomestic waste noun same as domes-tic refusedominancedominance noun 1. a state where onespecies in a community is more abundantthan others 2. the priority for food and re-productive mates that one animal has overanother in a group 3. the characteristic of agene form (allele) that leads to the traitwhich it controls being shown in any indi-vidual carrying it. Compare recessive-nessdominance hierarchydominance hierarchy noun the systemof priority given to specific individuals interms of access to food and reproductivemates � In many species a male is at thetop of the dominance hierarchy.dominantdominant adjective 1. important or pow-erful 2. (of an allele) having the characteris-tic that leads to the trait which it controlsbeing shown in any individual carrying it.Compare recessive 3. (of a species) beingmore abundant than others in a community� noun a plant or species which has mostinfluence on the composition and distribu-


dominant species 64tion of other species. � codominant, sub-dominantdominant speciesdominant species noun species whichhas most influence on the composition anddistribution of other speciesdormancydormancy noun an inactive period �seed dormancydormantdormant adjective 1. not active or devel-oping � Some seeds lie dormant in the soilfor many years. 2. referring to a volcanowhich is not erupting but is still able toerupt. Compare extinctdormitory suburbdormitory suburb, dormitory townnoun a suburb or town from which the res-idents travel to work somewhere elsedorsaldorsal adjective referring to the back of astructure such as the body of a leaf. Oppo-site ventraldosedose noun the amount of a drug or of ion-ising radiation received by an organism �The patients received more than the permit-ted dose of radiation.dosimeterdosimeter, dosemeter noun an instru-ment for measuring the amount of radiationdouble hulled tankerdouble hulled tanker noun an oil tank-er made with two hulls, one inside the oth-er, so as to prevent oil from spilling out ifthere is an accidentdoubling timedoubling time noun the time a popula-tion takes to double in numbersDouglas firDouglas fir noun a North American soft-wood tree widely planted throughout theworld, and producing strong timber. Latinname: Pseudotsuga menziesii.downdown noun 1. the small soft feathers of ayoung bird, or soft feathers below the outerfeathers in some adult birds 2. a grass-cov-ered chalky hill with low bushes and fewtrees � plural noun downs an area of grass-covered chalky hills with low bushes andfew treesdown draughtdown draught noun 1. the cool airwhich flows downwards as a rainstorm ap-proaches 2. the air which flows rapidlydown the lee side of a building or mountain3. the air which blows down a chimneydownlanddownland noun an area of grassy treelesshillsdownpipedownpipe noun a pipe carrying rainwaterfrom a roof into a drain or soakawaydownstreamdownstream adverb, adjective towardsthe mouth of a river � The silt is carrieddownstream and deposited in the delta. �Pollution is spreading downstream from thefactory. � Downstream communities havenot yet been affected. Compare upstreamdown-the-drain chemicaldown-the-drain chemical noun ahousehold chemical such as a product used

for cleaning that is disposed of through thepublic drainsdownwashdownwash noun the action which bringssmoke from a chimney down to the groundas it is caught in a downward moving cur-rent of airdraindrain noun 1. an underground pipe whichtakes waste water from buildings or fromfarmland 2. an open channel for takingaway waste water � verb 1. to remove liq-uid from somewhere 2. (of liquid) to flowinto something � The stream drains intothe main river.drainagedrainage noun 1. the removal of liquidfrom somewhere 2. the removal of liquidwaste and sewage from a buildingdrainage areadrainage area, drainage basin nounsame as catchment 1drainpipedrainpipe noun a pipe carrying rainwa-ter, sewage or other liquid into a drain orsoakawaydraught animaldraught animal noun an animal used topull vehicles or carry heavy loadsdredgedredge verb to remove silt and alluvialdeposits from a river bed or other watercourse or channeldriftdrift noun a slow movement or changedrift minedrift mine noun a mine used when thematerial to be extracted is visible on theside of a hill or mountain and can be duginto directlydriftnetdriftnet noun a very wide long net forcatching fish that a fishing boat allows todrift in the seadrilldrill verb to bore a hole or an oil well �They are hoping to start drilling for oil bythe end of the year.drillingdrilling noun the process of boring a holeor an oil welldrilling rigdrilling rig, drilling platform noun alarge metal construction containing thedrilling and pumping equipment for ex-tracting oil or gasdrinkabledrinkable adjective referring to water oranother liquid that is safe to drinkdrinking waterdrinking water noun water for drinking,especially water that is safe to drinkdrizzledrizzle noun a light persistent rain withdrops of less than 0.5mm in diameterdrizzlydrizzly adjective referring to weather witha lot of drizzledropdrop noun 1. a small amount of liquid thatfalls � a drop of water � a few drops of rain2. a lowering or reduction � The passage ofa cold front is usually followed by a drop intemperature. � A sudden drop in oil pres-sure is usually an indication of serious en-


65 dust veilgine trouble. 3. a fall of immature fruit �verb to fall or let something falldropletdroplet noun a small drop of liquid � Ex-periments show that smaller droplets ofrain can remain supercooled to much lowertemperatures than large droplets.droppingsdroppings plural noun excreta from ani-mals � The grass was covered with rabbitand sheep droppings.droughtdrought noun a long period without rainat a time when rain usually fallsdrought stressdrought stress noun a lack of growthcaused by droughtdrowned valleydrowned valley noun a valley which hasbeen submerged by the advance of the seaor a lakedrumlindrumlin noun a small oval hill formed bythe movement of a glacier, with one endsteep and the other slopingdrupedrupe noun a fruit with a single seed anda fleshy body (NOTE: Stone fruits such ascherries or plums are drupes.)drydry adjective with very little moisture �verb to remove moisture from somethingdry depositiondry deposition noun the fall of dry par-ticles from polluted air forming a harmfuldeposit on surfaces such as buildings or theleaves of treesdryfalldryfall noun the fall of polluting substanc-es as particulates. Compare wetfalldryingdrying noun removing moisture fromsomethingdrying outdrying out noun a process whereby wateris drained away from wetlandsdry landdry land noun 1. land contrasted with thesea or other body of water 2. dryland anarea that often has no rain for long periods(often plural) � adjective referring to areaswhere there is little raindry matterdry matter noun the matter remaining ina biological sample or in animal feed afterthe water content has been removed. AbbrDMdrynessdryness noun a state of not being wet �the dryness of the atmosphere on very highmountainsdry organic matterdry organic matter noun organic mat-ter such as sewage sludge or manure whichhas been dried out and may be used as a fer-tiliser. Abbr DOMdry seasondry season noun the time of year insome countries when very little rain fallsdry-stone walldry-stone wall noun a wall made ofstones carefully placed one on top of theother without using any mortardry updry up verb (of a river or lake) to becomedry � The river dries up completely in sum-mer.

ductduct noun a channel or tube throughwhich things such as fluids or cables canpass � Air-conditioning ducts need regularcleaning.dumpdump noun a place where waste, especial-ly solid waste, is thrown away � The mineis surrounded with dumps of excavatedwaste. � verb to throw away waste, espe-cially without being subject to environmen-tal controlsdumpingdumping noun 1. the disposal of waste �the dumping of nuclear waste into the sea �illegal dumping 2. the sale of agriculturalproducts at a price below the true cost, toget rid of excess produce cheaply, usuallyin an overseas marketdumping grounddumping ground noun a place wherewaste is thrown away, especially casuallydumpsitedumpsite noun a place on land or at seawhere waste is dumped � Sludge bacteriacan survive in seawater for long periodsand are widely dispersed from dumpsites.dunesdunes plural noun an area of sand blownby the wind into small hills and ridgeswhich may have plants growing on them �The village was threatened by encroachingdunes. � The dunes were colonised by mar-ram grass.dungdung noun solid waste excreta from ani-mals, especially cattle, often used as ferti-liserduplicationduplication noun a situation where twoor more things have the same purposeduramenduramen noun same as heartwooddurumdurum noun a type of wheat grown insouthern Europe and the USA and used inmaking semolina for processing into pasta.Latin name: Triticum durum.dustdust noun a fine powder made of particles,e.g. dry dirt or sanddustbindustbin noun a container into whichhousehold rubbish is placed to be collectedby municipal refuse collectorsdustcartdustcart noun a large vehicle that is usedfor collecting household wastedust devildust devil noun a rapidly turning columnof air which picks up sand over a desert orbeach, and things such as dust, leaves andlitter elsewheredust dischargedust discharge noun a release of dustinto the atmosphere, especially from an in-dustrial processdust stormdust storm noun a storm of wind whichblows dust and sand with it, common inNorth Africadust veildust veil noun a mass of dust in the at-mosphere created by volcanic eruptions,storms and burning fossil fuels, which cuts


Dutch elm disease 66off solar radiation and so reduces the tem-perature of the Earth’s surface. Comparegreenhouse effectDutch elm diseaseDutch elm disease noun a fungal dis-ease that kills elm trees, caused by Cerato-cystis ulmi and spread by a bark beetleduty of careduty of care noun a duty which everycitizen and organisation has not to act neg-ligently, especially the system for the safehandling of waste, introduced by the UKEnvironmental Protection Act 1990dwellingdwelling noun a place where a personlives, e.g. a house, apartment or flatdyedye noun a substance used to change thecolour of something � Minute surfacecracks which are difficult to detect by visualmeans may be highlighted by using pene-trant dyes.dykedyke noun 1. a long wall of earth built tokeep water out 2. a ditch for drainage �verb to build walls of earth to help preventwater from flooding landdynamic coastlinedynamic coastline noun a coastlinethat is changing naturally through wind and

wave action and may be increasing or erod-ing, either rapidly over a longer perioddynamic equilibriumdynamic equilibrium noun a situationwhich is fluctuating around an apparent av-erage state, where that average state is alsochanging through timedynamometerdynamometer noun a machine thatmeasures the output of an enginedysphoticdysphotic adjective referring to the areaof water in a lake or the sea between theaphotic zone at the bottom of the water andthe euphotic zone which sunlight can reachdystrophicdystrophic adjective referring to a pondor lake that contains very acidic brown wa-ter, lacks oxygen, and is unable to supportmuch plant or animal life because of exces-sive humus content. � eutrophic, mes-otrophic, oligotrophicdystrophydystrophy noun a condition in whichpond or lake water is unable to supportmuch plant or animal life because of exces-sive humus content. The dead vegetationdoes not decompose but settles at the bot-tom forming a peat bog.


EEAEA abbr Environment Agencyearear noun 1. an organ which is used forhearing 2. the flower head of a cereal plantsuch as wheat or maize where the grains de-velopearly successional plantearly successional plant noun a plantwhich grows rapidly and produces manyseeds, often not tolerating shade. Suchplants are the first to colonise new areas.earth

earth noun 1. soil 2. the ground or landsurface � verb to connect an electrical de-vice to the ground � All appliances must beearthed. (NOTE: The US term is ground.)Earth

Earth noun the planet on which human be-ings developed and live

COMMENT: Earth is the third planet of thesolar system and the only one known tosupport life. Earth is also remarkable for itsseas of liquid water, for its oxygen-contain-ing atmosphere and for being geologicallyvery active. Earth rotates on its axis in aday, orbits the Sun in a year and has a sat-ellite, the Moon, which orbits it once per lu-nar month. Earth can be divided into vari-ous zones: the lithosphere (solid rock andmolten interior), the hydrosphere (the wa-ter covering the surface), the atmosphere(the gaseous zone rising above Earth’ssurface) and the biosphere (those parts ofthe other zones in which living organismsexist).

earth closet

earth closet noun a toilet in which theexcreta are covered with earth instead ofbeing flushed away with water or treatedwith chemicalsearth damearth dam noun a dam made of piledearthearth flowearth flow noun the sliding of wet earthand rocks down the side of a slope or moun-tain, often after heavy rainfall or sometimescaused by excavationearthquake

earthquake noun a phenomenon inwhich the Earth’s crust or the mantle be-neath it shakes and the surface of theground moves because of movement insidethe crust along fault lines, often causingdamage to buildings. � epicentre, Modi-fied Mercalli scale, Richter scale, seis-micearth science

earth science noun any science con-cerned with the physical aspects of theplanet Earth, e.g. geochemistry, geodesy,

geography, geology, geomorphology, geo-physics or meteorology,Earth SummitEarth Summit noun the United NationsConference on Environment and Develop-ment held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June1992earthworksearthworks plural noun constructionssuch as walls or banks made from soilearthwormearthworm noun an invertebrate animalwith a long thin body divided into manysegments, living in large numbers in thesoil

COMMENT: Earthworms aerate the soil asthey tunnel. They also eat organic matterand help increase the soil’s fertility. Theyhelp stabilise the soil structure by com-pressing material and mixing it with organ-ic matter and calcium. It is believed thatthey also secrete a hormone which en-courages rooting by plants.

ebbebb verb (of the sea or water affected bytides) to move away from a shore, as thetide falls � noun the movement of the seaor water affected by tides away from ashore as the tide falls. Compare flowebb tideebb tide noun a tide which is going downor which is at its lowest � The plan is tobuild a barrage to generate electricity onthe ebb tide. Compare flood tideebonyebony noun a black tropical hardwoodtree, now becoming scarce. Genus: Diospy-ros.ecdysisecdysis noun the regular shedding of thehard outer layer (cuticle) of arthropods orthe skin of reptilesecesisecesis noun the successful establishmentof a plant or animal species in a new envi-ronmentechinodermechinoderm noun a marine invertebrateanimal with a radially symmetrical body,tube feet, and an internal skeleton of calcar-eous plates, e.g. a starfish, sea urchin, sealily or sea cucumber. Phylum: Echinoder-mata.echoecho noun the repetition of a sound by re-flection of sound waves from a surfaceecholocationecholocation noun the technique offinding the location of something by send-ing out a sound signal and listening to thereflection of the sound (NOTE: Bats andwhales navigate and find their food by us-ing echolocation.)


echosounder 68echosounderechosounder noun a device used to findthe depth of water by sending a sound sig-nal down to the bottom and calculating thedistance from the time taken for the reflect-ed sound to reach the surface againechosoundingechosounding noun the process of find-ing the depth of water using an echosound-ereclipseeclipse noun a situation when the Moonpasses between the Sun and the Earth orwhen the Earth passes between the Sun andthe Moon, in both cases cutting off the lightvisible from Earth. � solar eclipse, lunareclipseeco-eco- prefix ecology, ecologicalecoagricultureecoagriculture noun the practice of pro-ductive agriculture using methods designedto maintain natural resources, biodiversityand the landscapeeco-auditeco-audit noun same as environmentalauditecocatastropheecocatastrophe noun an event that re-sults in very severe damage to the environ-ment, especially one caused by human ac-tionecoclimateecoclimate noun the climate of a specifichabitat, regarded as an ecological factorecoclineecocline noun the changes which takeplace in a species as individuals live in dif-ferent habitatsecocompositeecocomposite noun a material madefrom a plant fibre such as hemp fixed in aresin based on a plant extract such as cash-ew-nut shell liquoreco-efficiencyeco-efficiency noun the efficient manu-facture of goods at competitive prices with-out harm to the environmenteco-engineeringeco-engineering noun the use of treesand traditional materials to protect areas ofland likely to suffer erosion or landslips,keeping hard construction to a minimumecol.ecol. abbr 1. ecological 2. ecologyecolabellingecolabelling noun the identification andlabelling of products and services that areconsidered less harmful to the environmentthan other similar products or servicesE. coliE. coli abbr Escherichia coliecologicalecological adjective referring to ecologyecological balanceecological balance noun the theoreti-cal concept of stability occurring when rel-ative numbers of different organisms livingin the same ecosystem remain more or lessconstant, although in practice there is al-ways fluctuationecological corridorecological corridor noun a strip ofvegetation allowing the movement of wild-life or other organisms between two areas

ecological damageecological damage noun the harmdone to an ecosystemecological disasterecological disaster noun an eventwhich seriously disturbs the balance of theenvironmentecological diversityecological diversity noun a variety ofbiological communities that interact withone another and with their physical andchemical environmentsecological efficiencyecological efficiency noun a measure-ment of how much energy is used at differ-ent stages in the food chain or at differenttrophic levelsecological engineeringecological engineering noun a designprocess that aims to integrate human activ-ities with the natural environment for thebenefit of both, taking ecological impactinto account in the construction of roads orharbours, the introduction of new plants oranimals, or other actionsecological factorecological factor noun a factor whichinfluences the growth and distribution of aplant species in a habitatecological fitnessecological fitness noun the number ofoffspring that survive to maturity and them-selves reproduceecological footprintecological footprint noun an area ofthe Earth that supplies the ecosystem re-sources for an organism to exist � Ecolog-ical footprints enable people to visualisethe impact of their consumption patternsand activities on ecosystems. � You can al-ter the size of your ecological footprint bymodifying your actions.ecological indicatorecological indicator noun a speciesthat has particular nutritional or climatic re-quirements and whose presence in an areaindicates that those requirements are satis-fiedecological justificationecological justification noun the rea-soning for nature conservation based on theidea that the environment provides specificfunctions necessary for human lifeecologicallyecologically adverb in an ecologicalwayecologically sustainable developmentecologically sustainable develop-ment noun development which limits thesize of the human population and the use ofresources, so as to protect the existing nat-ural resources for future generationsecological nicheecological niche noun the chemical,physical or biological characters that deter-mine the position of an organism or speciesin an ecosystem (NOTE: This is also referredto as the ‘role’ or ‘profession’ of an organ-ism, which may be described in terms of itsenvironment and type, e.g. as an aquaticpredator or a terrestrial herbivore.)


69 edaphic climaxecological pyramidecological pyramid noun same as biot-ic pyramidecological recoveryecological recovery noun the return ofan ecosystem to its former favourable con-ditionecological restorationecological restoration noun the proc-ess of renewing and maintaining the healthof an ecosystemecological structureecological structure noun the spatialand other arrangements of species in an ec-osystemecological successionecological succession noun the se-ries of stages by which a group of organ-isms living in a community reaches its finalstable state or climaxecologistecologist noun 1. a scientist who studiesecology 2. a person who is in favour ofmaintaining a balance between livingthings and the environment in which theylive in order to improve the life of all organ-ismsecologyecology noun the study of the relation-ships among organisms as well as the rela-tionships between them and their physicalenvironmentEco-Management and Audit SchemeEco-Management and AuditScheme noun full form of EMASecomovementecomovement noun a grouping of peo-ple and organisations dedicated to the pro-tection of the environmenteconomic conservationeconomic conservation noun themanagement of the natural environment tomaintain a regular yield of natural resourc-eseconomic developmenteconomic development noun theprocess of change from an economy basedon agriculture to one based on industryeconomic injury leveleconomic injury level noun the levelof an activity such as pest control at whichit is not longer profitable to continue. AbbrEILecoparasiteecoparasite noun a parasite which isadapted to a specific host. Compare ec-toparasite, endoparasiteecophysiologyecophysiology noun the study of organ-isms and their functions and how they existin their environmentecosphereecosphere noun the part of the Earth andits atmosphere where living organisms ex-ist, including parts of the lithosphere, thehydrosphere and the atmosphere. Alsocalled biosphereecosystemecosystem noun a complex of plant, an-imal and microorganism communities andtheir interactions with the environment inwhich they live � European wetlands areclassic examples of ecosystems that havebeen shaped by humans.

ecosystem approachecosystem approach noun a set of in-ternationally agreed principles guiding theway in which the natural environment andwildlife should be managedecosystem diversityecosystem diversity noun the varietyof habitats that exist in the biosphereecosystem servicesecosystem services plural noun serv-ices provided naturally by the ecosystem,which help humans to exist, e.g. reductionin atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, sta-bilising the climate and maintenance of theozone layerecotaxecotax noun a tax that is used to encour-age people to change from an activity thatdamages the environment or to encourageactivities with beneficial environmental ef-fects. Also called environmental taxecotoneecotone noun an area between two differ-ent types of vegetation which may share thecharacteristics of both, e.g. the border be-tween forest and moorlandecotourismecotourism noun a form of tourism thatincreases people’s understanding of naturalareas, without adversely affecting the envi-ronment, and gives local people financialbenefits from conserving natural resourcesecotoxicecotoxic adjective likely to cause severedamage to organisms and their environ-mentecotoxicityecotoxicity noun the degree to which achemical released into an environment byhuman activities affects the organisms thatlive or grow thereecotoxicologyecotoxicology noun the study of howchemicals associated with human activitiesaffect organisms and their environmentecotypeecotype noun a form within a species thathas special characteristics which allow it tolive in a specific habitatecowarriorecowarrior noun an activist who is pre-pared to take direct, sometimes illegal, ac-tion on environmental issues rather thanjust campaignecto-ecto- prefix outside. Compare endo-ectoparasiteectoparasite noun a parasite which liveson the skin or outer surface of its host butfeeds by piercing the skin. Compare en-doparasiteectothermectotherm noun an organism which islargely reliant on external sources of heat toraise its body temperature � Plants andreptiles are ectotherms. Compare endo-therm. Also called poikilothermedaphicedaphic adjective referring to soiledaphic climaxedaphic climax noun a climax commu-nity caused by the type of soil in an area


edaphic factors 70edaphic factorsedaphic factors plural noun the soilconditions that affect the organisms livingin a specific areaedaphonedaphon noun an organism living in soileddyeddy noun a whirlpool of air or of water ina currentEden ProjectEden Project noun a development by aconservation charity in a large disused claypit in Cornwall that explores human de-pendence on plants in a global context, il-lustrating economic, social and environ-mental impacts. Plants from tropical andother climates are housed in extremelylarge, domed glasshouses.edgelandedgeland noun land at the edge of a fieldor wood, or on the edge of an urban area(often plural) � The edgelands around bigcities often have blossoming wildlife.edibleedible adjective referring to somethingthat can be eatenEEAEEA abbr European Environment AgencyEEREER abbr energy efficiency ratioEFAEFA abbr essential fatty acideffecteffect noun something which happens asthe result of an action � Pressure patternshave an effect on weather. Compare affecteffectiveeffective adjective having an expectedand satisfactory result � effective controlmeasureseffective heighteffective height noun the height abovethe ground when a column of smoke from afactory chimney becomes horizontaleffectivenesseffectiveness noun an assessment ofhow effective an action is � Ice coveringreduces the effectiveness of an aerial.efficiencyefficiency noun the ability to act or pro-duce something with a minimum of waste,expense or unnecessary effortefficientefficient adjective referring to the abilityto act or produce something with a mini-mum of waste, expense or unnecessary ef-fort � Composting is an efficient method ofrecycling organic matter.effluenteffluent noun liquid, semisolid or gaswaste from industrial processes or materialsuch as slurry or silage effluent from a farmeffluent standardeffluent standard noun the amount ofsewage allowed to be discharged into a riv-er or the seaeggegg noun 1. a reproductive cell producedin a female mammal by the ovary which, iffertilised by male sperm, becomes an em-bryo 2. a fertilised ovum of an animal suchas a bird, fish, reptile, amphibian or insect,protected by a membrane layer in which theembryo continues developing outside themother’s body until it hatches

EHOEHO abbr Environmental Health OfficerEIAEIA abbr environmental impact assess-mentEILEIL abbr economic injury levelEINECSEINECS abbr European Inventory of Ex-isting Commercial Chemical SubstancesEISEIS abbr environmental impact statementejectaejecta plural noun the ash and lava thrownup by an erupting volcanoelectricelectric adjective worked by, chargedwith or producing electricityelectricalelectrical adjective referring to electrici-ty � an electrical faultelectrical conductivityelectrical conductivity noun a meas-urement of salt concentration in soilselectric carelectric car noun a car that is propelledby an electric battery so that it produces noharmful emissionselectric generatorelectric generator noun a device whichproduces electricityelectricityelectricity noun an electric current usedto provide light, heat or powerelectricity gridelectricity grid noun a system for carry-ing electricity round a country, using powerlines from power stations. Also called na-tional grid (NOTE: The electricity is at ahigh voltage, which is reduced by trans-formers to low voltage by the time the elec-tricity is brought into use.)electric meterelectric meter, electricity meter noun adevice which records how much electricityhas been usedelectric stormelectric storm noun a storm with thun-der and lightningelectrodialysiselectrodialysis noun the process bywhich ions dissolved in sea water are re-moved, making the water fit to drinkelectrolysiselectrolysis noun a chemical reactioncaused by the passage of electricity fromone electrode to anotherelectrolyteelectrolyte noun a chemical solution of asubstance which can conduct electricityelectromagnetelectromagnet noun a magnet madefrom a coil of wire through which an elec-tric current is passedelectromagneticelectromagnetic adjective 1. havingmagnetic properties caused by a flow ofelectricity 2. containing or worked by anelectromagnetelectromotive forceelectromotive force noun a source ofelectrical energy, from the movement ofelectrons, required to produce an electriccurrent, produced by devices such as batter-ies or generators and measured in volts.Abbr emfelectronelectron noun a negatively charged suba-tomic particle within an atom


71 emissionelectronegativeelectronegative adjective (of atoms)having negative electric charge and there-fore tending to move towards a positiveelectric poleelectronicelectronic adjective referring to, basedon, operated by or involving the controlledconduction of electrons, especially in avacuum, gas or semi-conducting materialelectron microscopeelectron microscope noun a micro-scope that uses a beam of electrons insteadof light. Abbr EMelectrostaticelectrostatic adjective referring to de-vices using the properties of static electri-cal chargeelectrostatic precipitatorelectrostatic precipitator noun a de-vice for collecting minute particles of dustsuspended in gas by charging the particlesas they pass through an electrostatic fieldelementelement noun a chemical substance thatcannot be broken down to a simpler sub-stance (NOTE: There are 110 named ele-ments.)elementalelemental adjective in the form of a pureelementelementary particleelementary particle noun a particlethat is smaller than an atom or forms part ofan atom, e.g. an electron. Also called fun-damental particle, subatomic particleelementselements plural noun the weather � pro-tected from the elementselephant grasselephant grass noun same as miscant-huselevatedelevated adjective 1. raised to a higherplace or position 2. increased � elevatedconcentrations of particles in the aireliminateeliminate verb 1. to get rid of or removesomething that is not wanted � Mosquitoeswere eliminated by spraying breedinggrounds with oil. 2. to rule out a possibility� Bacteria were eliminated as a possiblecause of the illness.eliminationelimination noun 1. the removal of aproblem 2. the removal of waste matterfrom the body 3. the process of ruling out apossibility � the elimination of possiblesources of contamination � by a process ofelimination by removing possibilities oneby one until only the most likely cause oranswer is leftELINCSELINCS abbr European List of NotifiedChemical Substanceselmelm noun a large hardwood tree that growsin temperate areas. Genus: Ulmus. � Dutchelm diseaseEl NiñoEl Niño noun a phenomenon occurringevery few years in the Pacific Ocean, wherea mass of warm water moves from west to

east, rising as it moves, giving very hightides along the Pacific coast of SouthAmerica and affecting the climateeluviationeluviation noun the action of particlesand chemicals leaching from the topsoildown into the subsoileluviumeluvium noun gravel formed as rocks arebroken down into fragments where they arelying. Compare alluviumELVELV abbr end-of-life vehicleEMEM abbr electron microscopeEMASEMAS noun a voluntary scheme of the Eu-ropean Union in which commercial andother organisations are encouraged to as-sess their approach to environmental mat-ters against a given set of criteria. Full formEco-Management and Audit Schemeembankmentembankment noun a wall made along ariver bank to prevent a river from overflow-ingembryoembryo noun an organism that developsfrom a fertilised egg or seed, e.g. an animalin the first weeks of gestation or a seedlingplant with cotyledons and a root (NOTE: Af-ter eight weeks an unborn baby is called afetus.)embryonicembryonic adjective 1. referring to anembryo 2. in the first stages of developmentemergenceemergence noun 1. a gradual upwardmovement of a land mass 2. the germina-tion of a seedemergencyemergency noun a dangerous situationin which immediate action needs to be tak-en � You should know the safety proce-dures to be taken in case of emergency. �After the earthquake, an emergency wasdeclared.emergentemergent adjective 1. referring to a plantthat is just starting to grow 2. referring to acountry that is starting to become devel-oped industriallyemerging diseaseemerging disease noun a new diseasewhich is beginning to appear and affect hu-man beings or wildlifeemfemf abbr electromotive forceemigrationemigration noun the movement of an in-dividual out of an area. Opposite immigra-tionemissionemission noun 1. the sending out of mat-ter, energy or signals � light emissions �One factor on which the operational rangeof a radio emission depends is the transmit-ted power. 2. a substance discharged intothe air by an internal combustion engine orother device � Exhaust emissions containpollutants. � Gas emissions can cause acidrain.


emission charge 72emission chargeemission charge noun a fee paid by acompany to be allowed to discharge wasteinto the environmentemission creditemission credit noun the amount bywhich an industrialised country can buyemission reductions in a less developedcountry, under the Kyoto agreement of1997. � Kyoto Protocolemission factoremission factor noun the ratio betweenthe pollution produced and the amount offuel burntemission rateemission rate noun the amount of pol-lutant produced over a specific periodemission standardemission standard noun the amount ofan effluent or pollutant that can legally bereleased into the environment, e.g. theamount of sewage which can be dischargedinto a river or the sea, or the amount of car-bon monoxide that can legally be releasedinto the atmosphere by petrol and diesel en-ginesemissions tradingemissions trading noun the system ofone country using some of another coun-try’s permitted emission amount as well asits own, as a result of the rule that any newsource of pollution must be offset by the re-duction of pollution from existing sourcesemission taxemission tax noun a tax levied on air orwater emissionsemitemit verb to send out matter, energy or asignal � radiation emitted by the sun � AnX-ray tube emits radiation. (NOTE: emitting– emitted)emulsifieremulsifier noun a substance added tomixtures of food such as water and oil tohold them together. � stabiliser. Alsocalled emulsifying agent (NOTE: Emulsifi-ers are used in sauces and added to meatto increase the water content so that themeat is heavier. In the European Union,emulsifiers and stabilisers have E numbersE322 to E495.)emulsifyemulsify verb to mix two liquids so thor-oughly that they will not separateemulsifying agentemulsifying agent noun same as emul-sifierENEN abbr 1. endangered species 2. EnglishNatureencapsulationencapsulation noun the enclosure ofsomething inside something else, especial-ly for protectionenclosureenclosure noun an area surrounded by afence, often to contain animals. Compareexclosureencroach onencroach on verb to come close to andgradually cover something � The town isspreading beyond the by-pass, encroachingon farming land. � Trees are spreading

down the mountain and encroaching on thelower more fertile land in the valleys.endangerendanger verb to put something in dan-ger � Pollution from the factory is endan-gering the aquatic life in the lakes.endangered speciesendangered species noun a speciesthat is facing a risk of extinction in the wild,usually taken to be when fewer than 250mature individuals exist. Abbr EN (NOTE:The plural is endangered species.)endemicendemic adjective 1. referring to an or-ganism that exists or originated from a spe-cific area � The isolation of the islands hasled to the evolution of endemic forms. �The northern part of the island is inhabitedby many endemic mammals and birds. 2.referring to a disease that occurs within aspecific area � This disease is endemic toMediterranean countries. � epidemic,pandemicendemic populationendemic population noun a group oforganisms existing in a specific geographicareaendemic speciesendemic species noun a species that isnative to a specific geographic areaendo-endo- prefix inside or within. Compareecto-endocarpendocarp noun the innermost of the lay-ers of the wall (pericarp) of a fruit (NOTE:Sometimes it is toughened or hardened, asin a cherry stone or peach stone.)endocrine disrupterendocrine disrupter, endocrine in-hibitor noun a substance that damages theactivity of the endocrine system, some-times causing reproductive or developmen-tal problems, sometimes because it has asimilar action to a natural hormoneend-of-life directiveend-of-life directive noun a set of reg-ulations about the disposal of somethingsuch as a vehicle or appliance at the end ofits useful serviceend-of-life vehicleend-of-life vehicle noun a vehicle thathas reached the end of its useful service andis subject to regulations for its disposal inorder to avoid pollutionendoparasiteendoparasite noun a parasite that livesinside its host. Compare ectoparasiteendospermendosperm noun a storage tissue inplant seeds that provides nourishment forthe developing embryoendothermendotherm noun an organism that is ableto generate heat internally in order to raiseits body temperature � Birds and mammalsare endotherms. Compare ectotherm. Alsocalled homoiothermendothermic reactionendothermic reaction noun a chemi-cal reaction in which heat is removed from


73 entero-the surroundings. Compare exothermic re-actionendotoxinendotoxin noun a poison from bacteriawhich passes into the body when contami-nated food is eatenenemy-free spaceenemy-free space noun an area intowhich a prey can escape from a predator,especially where two species of prey live inthe same environmentenergiseenergise verb to supply energy such aselectricity to a machine or system to makeit workenergostasisenergostasis noun energy balanceenergyenergy noun 1. the force or strength tocarry out activities � You need to eat carbo-hydrates to give you energy. 2. electricity orother fuel � We have to review our energyrequirements regularly.energy balanceenergy balance noun a series of meas-urements showing the movement of energybetween organisms and their environmentenergy budgetenergy budget noun the level of energyat different points in an ecosystem or an in-dustrial processenergy conservationenergy conservation noun the avoid-ance of wasting energy

COMMENT: Energy conservation is widelypractised to reduce excessive and costlyconsumption of energy. Reduction of heat-ing levels in houses and offices, insulatingbuildings against loss of heat, using solarpower instead of fossil fuels and increas-ing the efficiency of car engines are all ex-amples of energy conservation.

energy conservation lawenergy conservation law noun a lawwhich makes it illegal to waste energyenergy contentenergy content noun the amount of en-ergy available in a specific amount of fuelenergy cropenergy crop noun a crop which is grownto be used to provide energy, e.g. a fast-growing treeenergy efficiency ratioenergy efficiency ratio noun a meas-ure of the efficiency of a heating or coolingsystem such as a heat pump or an air-condi-tioning system, shown as the ratio of theoutput in Btu per hour to the input in watts.Abbr EERenergy-efficientenergy-efficient adjective referring tothe careful use of energy with minimumwaste � energy-efficient manufacturingprocessesenergy flowenergy flow noun the flow of energyfrom one trophic level to another in a foodchainenergy gainenergy gain noun an increase in theamount of energy or heat. Also called heatgainenergy recoveryenergy recovery noun the productionof energy from synthetic materials, e.g. us-

ing the heat from incineration of solidwaste to generate electricityenergy taxenergy tax noun a tax on an energysource intended to discourage the use of en-vironmentally damaging sources and en-courage energy conservation or use of al-ternative sourcesenergy valueenergy value noun the heat value of asubstance measured in joules. Also calledcalorific valueengineerengineer noun a person who works in en-gineering � verb to design and make some-thingengineeringengineering noun the application of theprinciples of science to the design, con-struction and use of machines or buildingsEnglish NatureEnglish Nature noun the UK govern-ment agency that is responsible for natureconservation in England. Abbr EN (NOTE: Itwas formerly part of the Nature Conservan-cy Council and is about to undergo anotherreorganisation.)enhanced greenhouse effectenhanced greenhouse effect nounthe warming influence on the climate pro-duced as human emissions of greenhousegases increase the natural greenhouse ef-fectenhancerenhancer noun an artificial substancethat increases the flavour of food or of arti-ficial flavouring that has been added tofood (NOTE: In the European Union, flavourenhancers added to food have the E num-bers E620 to E637.)enquireenquire, inquire verb to ask questionsabout somethingenquiryenquiry, inquiry noun 1. a question, orthe process of asking a question. � publicenquiry (NOTE: The plural is enquiries.) 2.a request for data or information from a de-vice or databaseenrichenrich verb 1. to make something richeror stronger, e.g. adding humus to enrich thesoil 2. to improve the nutritional quality offood � enrich with vitamins 3. to increasethe amount of uranium-235 in the fuel of anuclear reactor � Fuel is enriched to 15%with fissile material.enrichmentenrichment noun the increase in nitro-gen, phosphorous and carbon compoundsor other nutrients in water, especially as aresult of a sewage flow or agricultural run-off, which encourages the growth of algaeand other water plantsensilageensilage, ensiling noun the process ofmaking silage for cattle by cutting grassand other green plants and storing it in silosentericenteric adjective referring to the intestineentero-entero- prefix referring to the intestine


Enterobacteria 74EnterobacteriaEnterobacteria plural noun a family ofbacteria, including Salmonella and Es-cherichiaentireentire adjective referring to leaves that arenot divided into partsentityentity noun something which is distinctand separate from something else � The in-stitutes are closely connected but are sepa-rate legal entities.entomologicalentomological adjective referring to in-sectsentomologistentomologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of insectsentomologyentomology noun the study of insectsentrapentrap verb 1. to catch an animal bymeans of a trap 2. to catch and retain some-thing � Moisture is entrapped in the layers.� Up to 90% of sulfur emissions can be en-trapped.entropyentropy noun a measure of the degree ofdisorder in a closed systementry pointentry point noun a place where peoplecan enter or by which something can be ac-cessedenvironmentenvironment noun the surroundings ofany organism, including the physical worldand other organisms. � built environment,natural environment

COMMENT: The environment is anythingoutside an organism in which the organismlives. It can be a geographical region, a cli-matic condition, a pollutant or the noiseswhich surround an organism. The humanenvironment includes the country or regionor town or house or room in which a per-son lives. A parasite’s environment in-cludes the body of the host. A plant’s envi-ronment includes the type of soil at a spe-cific altitude.

Environment ActEnvironment Act noun a piece of UKlegislation passed in 1995 that created theEnvironment Agency and set out measuresfor dealing with contaminated landEnvironment AgencyEnvironment Agency noun in Englandand Wales, the government agency respon-sible for protection of the environment, in-cluding flood and sea defences. Abbr EAenvironmentalenvironmental adjective referring to theenvironmentenvironmental accountingenvironmental accounting nounsame as full-cost accountingenvironmental assessmentenvironmental assessment noun theidentification of the expected environmen-tal effects of a proposed actionenvironmental auditenvironmental audit noun an assess-ment made by a company or organisation ofthe financial benefits and disadvantages ofadopting an environmentally sound policy.Also called eco-audit

‘Environmental audits can alert an organisationto areas in which it does not meet current or pro-posed legislative requirements. Such audits canalso encourage more efficient techniques andwaste reduction measures.’ [EnvironmentalConservation]

environmental biologyenvironmental biology noun the studyof living organisms in relationship to theirenvironmentenvironmental conditionalityenvironmental conditionality nounsame as cross-complianceenvironmental controlenvironmental control noun themeans of maintaining an environmentenvironmental damageenvironmental damage noun harmdone to the environment, e.g. pollution ofriversenvironmental degradationenvironmental degradation noun areduction in the quality of the environmentenvironmental directiveenvironmental directive noun an EUpolicy statement on the appropriate ways ofdealing with a specific environmental issueenvironmental disorderenvironmental disorder noun a dis-ruption of the usual condition of an envi-ronmentenvironmental equityenvironmental equity noun the princi-ple that no section of the population re-ceives a greater effect of environmentalpollution or disruption than any other. Alsocalled environmental justiceenvironmental ethicsenvironmental ethics noun the exami-nation and discussion of people’s obliga-tions towards the environmentenvironmental fluctuationenvironmental fluctuation noun along- or short-term change in the environ-ment, which may have a large effect on thepopulations living thereenvironmental forecastingenvironmental forecasting noun theprediction of the effects on the surroundingenvironment of new construction pro-grammesenvironmental healthenvironmental health noun the localgovernment functions concerned with min-imising risks to public health and the localenvironment, including water and air qual-ity, hygiene in restaurants and shops, andpest controlEnvironmental Health OfficerEnvironmental Health Officer nounan official of a local authority who exam-ines the environment and tests for hazardssuch as bad sanitation or noise pollution.Abbr EHOenvironmental hygieneenvironmental hygiene noun themeasures undertaken to keep the human en-vironment safe and healthy to live in, in-cluding waste disposal, clean water sup-plies, food safety controls and good hous-ingenvironmental impactenvironmental impact noun the effectupon the environment of actions or events


75 environment protectionsuch as large construction programmes orthe draining of marshesenvironmental impact assessmentenvironmental impact assessmentnoun an evaluation of the effect upon theenvironment of an action such as a largeconstruction programme. Abbr EIAenvironmental impact statementenvironmental impact statementnoun a statement required under US law forany major federal project, evaluating the ef-fect of the project on the environment.Abbr EISenvironmental indicatorenvironmental indicator noun an or-ganism that increases or decreases in spe-cific environmental conditions and whosepresence indicates the state of an environ-ment or a change in an environment, e.g. alichen sensitive to industrial pollution be-coming rare in a polluted area, or a speciesof fish returning to a formerly polluted riverenvironmentalismenvironmentalism noun concern forthe protection of the environmentenvironmentalistenvironmentalist noun a person who isconcerned with protecting the environmentenvironmentalist groupenvironmentalist group noun an as-sociation or society concerned with theprotection of the environment and increas-ing awareness of environmental issuesenvironmentalist lobbyenvironmentalist lobby noun a groupof people who try to persuade politiciansthat the environment must be protected andthat pollution must be controlledenvironmental justiceenvironmental justice noun same asenvironmental equityenvironmental labellingenvironmental labelling noun same asecolabellingenvironmentallyenvironmentally adverb with regard tothe natural world and its vulnerability todamageenvironmentally friendlyenvironmentally friendly adjective in-tended to minimise harm to the environ-ment, e.g. by using biodegradable ingredi-ents. Also called environment-friendlyEnvironmentally Sensitive AreaEnvironmentally Sensitive Areanoun in the UK, a rural area designated byDefra as needing special protection frommodern farming practices. Abbr ESA

‘The Defra-funded Countryside Stewardship andEnvironmentally Sensitive Areas schemes helpto maintain and enhance the biodiversity andlandscape value of farmed land, protect historicfeatures and promote public access. (Deliveringthe evidence. Defra’s Science and InnovationStrategy, 2003–06)’

environmental policyenvironmental policy noun a plan fordealing with all matters affecting the envi-ronment on a national or local scaleenvironmental pollutionenvironmental pollution noun thepollution of the environment by human ac-tivities

environmental protectionenvironmental protection noun theactivity of protecting the environment byregulating the discharge of waste, the emis-sion of pollutants and other human activi-ties. Also called environment protectionEnvironmental Protection Act 1990Environmental Protection Act1990 noun a UK regulation to allow the in-troduction of integrated pollution control,regulations for the disposal of waste andother provisions. Abbr EPAEnvironmental Protection AgencyEnvironmental Protection Agencynoun US an administrative body in theUSA which deals with pollution. Abbr EPAenvironmental protection associationenvironmental protection associa-tion noun an organisation concerned withprotecting the environment from damageand pollutionenvironmental quality standardenvironmental quality standardnoun a limit for the concentration of an ef-fluent or pollutant which is accepted in aspecific environment, e.g. the concentra-tion of trace elements in drinking water orof additives in foodenvironmental radioactivityenvironmental radioactivity nounthe energy in the form of radiation that isemitted into the environment by radioactivesubstancesenvironmental resistanceenvironmental resistance noun theability to withstand pressures such as com-petition, weather conditions or food availa-bility, which restrict the potential growth ofa populationenvironmental scienceenvironmental science noun thestudy of the relationship between humansand the environment, the problems causedby pollution or loss of habitats, and pro-posed solutionsenvironmental set-asideenvironmental set-aside noun ascheme of suspending cultivation of foodcrops for a period with clearly defined en-vironmental aims and designed appropri-ately for local conditionsenvironmental studiesenvironmental studies noun a courseof study that includes a range of disciplinesfocusing on the natural environmentenvironmental taxenvironmental tax noun same as eco-taxenvironmental variationenvironmental variation noun thecontinual changes in the environment overa periodEnvironment CouncilEnvironment Council noun the forumof environment ministers of member coun-tries of the European Union that agrees leg-islation on environmental mattersenvironment-friendlyenvironment-friendly adjective sameas environmentally friendlyenvironment protectionenvironment protection noun same asenvironmental protection


Envirowise 76EnvirowiseEnvirowise noun a government pro-gramme providing advice to businesses inindustry and commerce on improving effi-ciency in the use of resources and reducingwasteenzymaticenzymatic adjective referring to en-zymesenzymeenzyme noun a protein substance pro-duced by living cells which promotes a bi-ochemical reaction in living organisms(NOTE: The names of enzymes mostly endwith the suffix -ase.)eolianeolian adjective caused by wind � eoliandepositsEPAEPA abbr 1. Environmental Protection Act1990 2. Environmental Protection Agencyephemeralephemeral noun a plant or insect that hasa short life cycle and may complete severallife cycles within a year � Many weeds areephemerals.epibiontepibiont noun an organism that lives onthe surface of another without being a par-asiteepibiosisepibiosis noun a state where an organismlives on the surface of another, but is not aparasiteepicentreepicentre noun a point on the surface ofthe Earth above the focus of an earthquakeor in the centre of a nuclear explosion. Alsocalled focusepidemicepidemic noun a rapidly spreading infec-tion or disease. � endemic, pandemicepidemiologicalepidemiological adjective referring toepidemiologyepidemiologistepidemiologist noun a person whostudies the factors involved in the inci-dence, distribution and control of disease ina populationepidemiologyepidemiology noun the study of diseas-es in a population, how they spread andhow they can be controlledepidermisepidermis noun an outer layer of cells ofa plant or animalepigealepigeal adjective occurring or developingabove ground � epigeal germination Com-pare hypogealepigenousepigenous adjective developing orgrowing on a surfaceepilimnionepilimnion noun the top layer of water ina lake, which contains more oxygen and iswarmer than the water below. � hypolimni-on, metalimnionepilithicepilithic adjective growing on or attachedto the surface of rocks or stonesepiphyteepiphyte noun a plant that lives on anoth-er plant for physical support, but is not aparasite of it (NOTE: Many orchids are epi-phytes.)

epiphyticepiphytic adjective attached to anotherplant for support, but not parasiticepisodeepisode noun an event, or a group of re-lated eventsepisodicepisodic adjective happening sometimesbut not regularlyepithelialepithelial adjective referring to the epi-theliumepixylousepixylous adjective growing on woodepizoiteepizoite noun an animal that lives on thesurface of another, without being a parasiteepochepoch noun � geological epochequatorequator noun an imaginary circle aroundthe Earth’s surface, equidistant from thepoles and perpendicular to the axis of rota-tion, which divides the Earth into the north-ern and southern hemispheres � Everypoint on the equator is equidistant from thepoles.equatorialequatorial adjective referring to theequatorequilibriumequilibrium noun a state of balanceequineequine adjective relating to horsesequinoxequinox noun either of the two occasionsin the year, spring and autumn, when thesun crosses the celestial equator and nightand day are each 12 hours longequipequip verb to provide a person, organisa-tion or place with machinery or equipment� The laboratory has been recentlyequipped with new microscopes.equipmentequipment noun the devices, systems ormachines that are needed for a particularpurpose � drilling equipment (NOTE: noplural: for one item say a piece of equip-ment.)equivalentequivalent adjective being the same, oreffectively the same � A metal part couldbe as much as 25 times heavier than anequivalent plastic part. � The electricity ituses is equivalent to the amount needed topower a small radio.eraera noun � geological eraeradicateeradicate verb to remove somethingcompletely � action to eradicate an infes-tation of woodwormeradicationeradication noun 1. the complete remov-al of something 2. the total extinction of aspeciesergotergot noun a fungus that grows on cereals,especially rye, producing a mycotoxinwhich causes hallucinations and sometimesdeath if eaten. Genus: Claviceps.ergotamineergotamine noun the toxin that causesergotismergotismergotism noun poisoning by eating cere-als or bread contaminated by ergot


77 ethno-ericaceousericaceous adjective belonging to thegroup of plants such as heather and azaleathat grow on acid soilserodeerode verb to wear away gradually, or towear something away � The hills havebeen eroded by wind and rain.erosionerosion noun the wearing away of soil orrock by rain, wind, sea or rivers or by theaction of toxic substances � Grass coverprovides some protection against soil ero-sion.

COMMENT: Accelerated erosion is causedby human activity in addition to the naturalrate of erosion. Cleared land in drought-stricken areas can produce dry soil whichmay blow away. Felling trees removes theroots which bind the soil particles togetherand so exposes the soil to erosion by rain-water. Ploughing up and down slopes asopposed to contour ploughing, can lead tothe formation of rills and serious soil ero-sion.

erupterupt verb (of a volcano) to become activeand produce lava, smoke and hot asheruptioneruption noun a sudden violent ejectionof lava, smoke and ash by a volcano � Sev-eral villages were destroyed in the recentvolcanic eruption.eruptiveeruptive adjective 1. referring to a volca-no that produces lava, smoke and hot ash 2.referring to rock formed by the solidifica-tion of magmaESAESA abbr Environmentally Sensitive Areaescapeescape noun 1. the action of allowingtoxic substances to leave a container � Thearea around the reprocessing plant wasevacuated because of an escape of radioac-tive coolant. 2. a cultivated plant that nowreproduces in the wild. Compare feral 3. adomesticated animal that has become wild.Compare feral � verb 1. to move out of acontainer � Steam was escaping from holesin the pipes. 2. to move from a domestic orcultivated area and live or grow wild 3. toget out of captivity � The monkey had es-caped from a wildlife park.escarpmentescarpment noun a steep slope at theedge of a plateauEscherichia coli noun a Gram-negativebacterium commonly found in faeces andassociated with acute gastroenteritis if itenters the digestive systemeskeresker noun a long winding ridge formedof gravelessenceessence noun a concentrated oil extract-ed from a plant, used in food, cosmetics,analgesics and antiseptics � vanilla es-senceessentialessential adjective extremely importantor necessary

essential fatty acidessential fatty acid noun an unsaturat-ed fatty acid essential for growth but whichcannot be synthesised by the body and hasto be obtained from the food supply. AbbrEFA (NOTE: The two essential fatty acidsare linoleic acid and linolenic acid.)essential oilessential oil noun an oil from a plant,used in cosmetics, analgesics or antiseptics,e.g. peppermint oil. Also called volatile oilestablishestablish verb 1. to work out or calculatesomething � to establish a position to findout where something is 2. to start or set upsomething � We established routine proce-dures very quickly. � to establish commu-nication to make contact � to establishcontrol to get control 3. to settle or growpermanently � The starling has become es-tablished in all parts of the USA. � Evenestablished trees have been attacked by thedisease.estateestate noun 1. a rural property consistingof a large area of land and a big house 2.same as plantation � a tea estate 3. an areaspecially designed and constructed for res-idential or industrial use � a housing estateestimateestimate noun an approximate calcula-tion of size, weight or extent � verb tomake an approximate calculation of size,weight or extentestivationestivation noun US spelling of aestiva-tionestrogenestrogen noun US spelling of oestrogenestuarineestuarine adjective referring to estuariesestuarine plantestuarine plant noun a plant which livesin an estuary, where the water is alternatelyfresh and salty as the tide comes in andgoes outestuaryestuary noun a part of a river where itmeets the sea and is partly composed of saltwaterethanolethanol noun a colourless inflammableliquid, produced by the fermentation ofsugars. It is used as an ingredient of organicchemicals, intoxicating drinks and medi-cines. Formula: C2H5OH. Also called ethylalcoholetheneethene noun same as ethyleneethicalethical adjective concerning acceptedstandards of behaviour and practiceethicsethics noun 1. a set of moral standards bywhich people behave 2. a code of practicewhich shows how a group of professionalsshould interact with each otherEthiopian RegionEthiopian Region noun a biogeograph-ical region, part of Arctogea, comprisingAfrica south of the Saharaethno-ethno- prefix human


ethnobotany 78ethnobotanyethnobotany noun the study of the wayplants are used by humansethnopharmacologyethnopharmacology noun the study ofthe medicines used by people in traditionalcommunitiesethologyethology noun the study of the behaviourof living organismsethyl alcoholethyl alcohol noun same as ethanolethyleneethylene noun a hydrocarbon occurringin natural gas and ripening fruits. It is usedin the production of polythene and as an an-aesthetic. Also called etheneetiolationetiolation noun the process by which agreen plant grown in insufficient light be-comes yellow and grows long shootsetiologyetiology noun another spelling of aetiol-ogy-etum-etum suffix area containing a particulartype of plant � arboretum � pinetumEUEU abbr European Unioneucalypteucalypt, eucalyptus noun a quick-growing Australian hardwood tree withstrong-smelling resin. Genus: Eucalyptus.EuglenophytaEuglenophyta noun a division of uni-cellular algaeeukaryoteeukaryote, eucaryote noun an organismthat has a cell or cells with nuclei and or-ganelles. Compare prokaryoteeukaryoticeukaryotic, eucaryotic adjective refer-ring to eukaryotes. Compare prokaryoticEUNISEUNIS noun a database of publicly avail-able data on species, habitat types and des-ignated sites in Europe, maintained by theEuropean Union Nature Information Sys-temeuphoticeuphotic adjective relating to the upperlayer of a body of water that allows the pen-etration of enough light to support plantswhich photosynthesiseeuphotic zoneeuphotic zone noun the top layer of wa-ter in the sea or a lake, which sunlight canpenetrate and in which photosynthesistakes place. Also called photic zone. Com-pare aphotic zoneEurobeachEurobeach noun a beach in any of thecountries of the European Union that meetsthe EU regulations on the content of bacte-ria in the water, making it safe for swim-mingEuroparcEuroparc noun a group of governmentand non-government organisations con-cerned with the management of protectedareasEuropean Environment AgencyEuropean Environment Agencynoun an EU organisation with responsibili-ty for environmental matters. Abbr EEA

European UnionEuropean Union noun an alliance of 25European countries, originally establishedwith six members in 1957 by the Treaty ofRome. Among its powers are those for en-vironmental and agricultural policy in itsmember states. Abbr EU (NOTE: formerlycalled the European Community or Euro-pean Economic Community)

‘NOTE: formerly called the European Commis-sion or European Economic Community or com-mon market; in 2004 there will be ? States in theEU…???’

European Union Nature Information ServiceEuropean Union Nature Informa-tion Service noun a source of informa-tion on environmentally important mattersin Europe, which also aims to encouragethe use of terms referring to the environ-ment in a standard wayEurositeEurosite noun a group of European gov-ernment and non-government organisationsconcerned with the management of wildlifesites, currently with 75 members in 17countrieseuryhalineeuryhaline adjective referring to an or-ganism which can survive a wide range ofsalt concentrations in its environment.Compare stenohalineeuryphagouseuryphagous adjective referring to or-ganisms that consume a variety of differentfoodseurythermouseurythermous adjective referring to anorganism which can survive a wide rangeof temperatures in its environment. Com-pare stenothermouseurytopiceurytopic adjective referring to organ-isms that tolerate a wide range of environ-mental conditionseusocialityeusociality noun a situation in which aeusocial society existseusocial societyeusocial society noun a group of ani-mals such as ants, bees and wasps in whichsome individuals are workers and do not re-produce, while others are fertileeustatic changeeustatic change noun a change result-ing from worldwide variations in sea level,as distinct from regional change caused byground movements in a particular areaeutectic pointeutectic point noun the temperature atwhich a eutectic mixture freezes, which isthe lowest freezing point of any constituentof the mixtureeutherianeutherian noun a mammal whose youngdevelop within the womb attached to ma-ternal tissues by a placenta. Subclass: Euth-eria. Also called placental mammaleutrophiceutrophic adjective referring to waterwhich is high in dissolved mineral nutri-ents. � dystrophic, mesotrophic, oligo-trophic


79 exosphereeutrophicationeutrophication, eutrophy noun theprocess by which water becomes full ofphosphates and other mineral nutrientswhich encourage the growth of algae andkill other organismsevaporateevaporate verb to change from being aliquid to being a vapour, or to change a liq-uid into a vapour � In the heat of the day,water evaporates from the surface of theearth. � The sun evaporated all the waterin the puddle. Opposite condenseevaporationevaporation noun the process of chang-ing from a liquid into a vapourevaporativeevaporative adjective able to evaporateevaporative emissionevaporative emission noun a pollut-ant emitted through the evaporation of asubstance, e.g. from petrol when filling atankevapotranspirationevapotranspiration noun the move-ment of water from soil through a plant un-til it is released into the atmosphere fromleaf surfacesevapotranspireevapotranspire verb to lose water intothe atmosphere by evaporation and transpi-rationeventevent noun 1. an action or activity 2. a cat-astrophic event such as an earthquake oreruptionevergreenevergreen adjective referring to a plantwhich has leaves all year round � noun atree or shrub which has leaves all yearround (NOTE: Yew trees and holly are ever-greens.) � compare (all senses) decidu-ousevolutionevolution noun heritable changes in or-ganisms which take place over a period oftime involving several generations (NOTE:Significant evolutionary changes can occurin a species in relatively few generations.)evolutionaryevolutionary adjective referring to evo-lution � Evolutionary changes have takenplace over millions of years.evolutionary ecologyevolutionary ecology noun the studyof the impact of evolution on current eco-logical patternsevolveevolve verb 1. to develop gradually � Thestrategy is still evolving. 2. to change anddevelop gradually over millions of yearsfrom primitive forms into the range of plantand animal species known on Earthexaminationexamination noun the activity of look-ing at someone or something carefully �They carried out an examination of theproblem.exceedexceed verb to be more than expected,needed or allowed � The concentration ofradioactive material in the waste exceededthe government limits.

exceedanceexceedance noun the degree to whichthe concentration of a pollutant is morethan a standard or permissible limit � expo-sure of the population to exceedances of airquality standardsexcessexcess noun an amount or quantity great-er than what is expected, needed or allowed� adjective more than is expected, neededor allowedexcessiveexcessive adjective more than expected,needed or allowed � Excessive ultravioletradiation can cause skin cancer.exchangeexchange noun the act of taking onething and putting another in its place � gasexchangeexclosureexclosure noun an area fenced to preventanimals from entering. Compare enclo-sureexclusion zoneexclusion zone noun an area that peo-ple may not enter because a hazardous sub-stance has been releasedexcrementexcrement noun faecesexcretaexcreta plural noun the waste material ex-creted from the body of an animal, e.g. fae-ces, urine, droppings or sweatexcreteexcrete verb to pass waste matter out ofthe body � The urinary system separateswaste liquids from the blood and excretesthem as urine. Compare secreteexcretionexcretion noun the passing of the wasteproducts of metabolism such as faeces,urine, sweat or carbon dioxide out of thebody. Compare secretionexhaustexhaust verb to use something up com-pletely � The supplies are exhausted. �noun 1. waste gases from an engine 2. thepart of an engine through which waste gas-es pass � Fumes from vehicle exhausts con-tribute a large percentage of air pollutionin towns.exhaustionexhaustion noun the complete using upof something � the exhaustion of the area’snatural resourcesexhaustiveexhaustive adjective complete and thor-ough � an exhaustive reply to the safetyconcerns � an exhaustive search for the in-formationexisting chemicalsexisting chemicals plural noun thechemicals listed in the European Inventoryof Existing Commercial Chemical Sub-stances between January 1971 and Septem-ber 1981, a total of over 100,000. Comparenew chemicalsexosphereexosphere noun the highest layers ofEarth’s atmosphere, more than 650kmabove the surface and composed almost en-tirely of hydrogen


exothermic reaction 80exothermic reactionexothermic reaction noun a chemicalreaction in which heat is given out to thesurroundings. Compare endothermic re-actionexoticexotic adjective referring to an organismor species that is not native and has been in-troduced from another place or region �noun an organism or species that is not na-tive to its current environment � also called(all senses) alienexotoxinexotoxin noun a poison produced by bac-teria which affects parts of the body awayfrom the place of infectionexpandedexpanded adjective referring to plastic orpolystyrene made into a hard lightweightfoam by blowing air or gas into itexpenditureexpenditure noun 1. the spending ofmoney � agreed the expenditure of publicfunds for this project 2. the amount of mon-ey spentexperimentexperiment noun a scientific test undercontrolled conditions that is made to dem-onstrate or discover something � Experi-ments have shown that time to flowering isaffected by daylength. � verb to carry out ascientific test under controlled conditionsin order to demonstrate or discover some-thing � to experiment with something totry something to see how it performs or af-fects you � experimenting with plantingdensity � to experiment on someone orsomething to use someone or something inan experiment � experimented on labora-tory miceexperimentalexperimental adjective referring tosomething still at an early stage of develop-ment � the experimental and testing stagesof a new techniqueexperimentallyexperimentally adverb by carrying outexperimentsexplodeexplode verb 1. to burst, or to makesomething burst, violently 2. to increaserapidly � Population numbers have explod-ed.exploitexploit verb 1. to take advantage of some-thing � Ladybirds have exploited the sud-den increase in the numbers of insects. 2. touse a natural resource � exploiting the nat-ural wealth of the forest 3. to treat some-thing or someone unfairly for personal ben-efitexploitationexploitation noun 1. the action of takingadvantage of something 2. the utilisation ofnatural resources � Further exploitation ofthe coal deposits is not economic. 3. the un-fair use of something or treatment of some-one for personal benefit

explosionexplosion noun 1. a release of energy ina sudden and often violent way � an explo-sion caused by a bomb 2. a sudden increase� An explosion in cases of the virus diseaseis predicted.explosiveexplosive adjective 1. able to or designedto burst or explode � an explosive device �an explosive mechanism of seed dispersal2. causing a rapid increase � explosivegrowthexponentialexponential adjective increasing moreand more rapidlyexponential growthexponential growth noun a type ofgrowth rate of a population which varies inproportion to the number of individualspresent: at first the growth rate is slow, thenit rapidly increases, theoretically to infinity,but in practice it falls off as the populationexhausts its food, accumulates poisonouswaste, etc.exponentiallyexponentially adverb more and morerapidly � We can expect this population toincrease exponentially over the next fewyears.exposeexpose verb to subject something orsomeone to an action or an effect � Whenthe slope of a hill is exposed to solar radia-tion, wind currents are set up. � She hadbeen exposed to the contaminant at work.exposedexposed adjective 1. referring to some-thing or someone not covered or hidden �painted all the exposed surfaces 2. not pro-tected from environmental effects � left inan exposed position on the hillsideexposureexposure noun 1. the act or process ofbeing exposed to an agent � exposure to ra-diation 2. the harmful effect of having noprotection from the weather � sufferingfrom exposure after spending a night in thesnowexposure assessmentexposure assessment noun an as-sessment of the amount of exposure to achemical or other hazard to which a popu-lation has been subjectedexposure doseexposure dose noun the amount of ra-diation to which someone has been exposedex-situex-situ adjective referring to the study,maintenance or conservation of an organ-ism away from its natural surroundings.Compare in-situextant speciesextant species noun a species whichstill exists and is not extinctextensificationextensification noun the use of less in-tensive farming methods. Compare inten-sificationextensive agricultureextensive agriculture, extensivefarming noun a way of farming which ischaracterised by a low level of inputs per


81 eyesoreunit of land. Compare intensive agricul-tureextensive systemextensive system noun a farming sys-tem which uses a large amount of land perunit of stock or output � an extensive sys-tem of pig farmingexternalexternal adjective referring to the outsideof something � external appearance Oppo-site internalextinctextinct adjective 1. referring to a specieswhich has died out and no longer exists �Several native species have become extinctsince sailors in the nineteenth century in-troduced dogs to the island. 2. referring toa volcano which is no longer erupts. Com-pare dormantextinctionextinction noun the process of a speciesdying outextinction rateextinction rate noun the rate at whichspecies become extinctextinction vortexextinction vortex noun a situationwhere genetic traits and environmentalconditions combine to make a species grad-ually become extinctextinguishing agentextinguishing agent noun 1. a chemi-cal substance which makes another sub-stance react 2. a substance or organismwhich causes a disease or condition

extract

extract noun a preparation made by re-moving water or alcohol from a substance,leaving only the essence � verb 1. to takesomething out of somewhere � Vanilla es-sence is extracted from an orchid. 2. to ob-tain something such as information or datafrom a source 3. to take something such asa mineral out of the groundextraction

extraction noun the act or process of re-moving something � The extraction of coalfrom the mine is becoming too costly.extractor

extractor noun a device that extractssomething, e.g. a machine which removesfumes or gasextrusive

extrusive adjective referring to rockformed from molten lava which has pushedup through the Earth’s crustexurbia

exurbia noun the area outside a city ortowneyeeye noun 1. a sense organ that is used forseeing 2. the central point of a tropicalstorm, where pressure is lowest (NOTE: Theeye can be several kilometres wide andmay take some minutes to pass.)eyesore

eyesore noun something which is un-pleasant to look at � The lake full of oldbottles and cans is an eyesore.


FFF symbol 1. Fahrenheit 2. fluorineFF1 noun (in breeding experiments) the firstgeneration of offspring from a cross be-tween two plants or animalsFF1 hybrid noun an animal or plant that isthe result of a cross between two differentplants or animals (NOTE: F1 hybrids can becrossbred to produce F2 hybrids and theprocess can be continued for many gener-ations.)faciesfacies noun the characteristic appearanceof something such as an animal or plantfacilitationfacilitation noun a situation in which adeveloping community changes an envi-ronment allowing other species to invadefacilityfacility noun a building or site with a par-ticular function � a processing facility � arecycling facility � plural noun facilitiesthe building, equipment or resources whichcan be used to do something � laboratoryfacilities � leisure facilitiesfactorfactor noun 1. something that has an in-fluence on something else � Annual rain-fall is an important factor in affecting plantgrowth. 2. the amount by which somethingis multiplied � by a factor of indicating aquantity by which a stated quantity is mul-tiplied or divided, so as to indicate an in-crease or decrease in a measurement � Thenumber of plants in the quadrat had in-creased by a factor of 10.factoryfactory noun a building where productsare manufactured � a chemical factoryfactory farmfactory farm noun a farm that uses inten-sive methods of rearing animalsfactory farmingfactory farming noun a highly intensivemethod of rearing animals characterised bykeeping large numbers of animals indoorsin confined spaces and feeding them proc-essed foods, with the use of drugs to controldiseasesfacultativefacultative adjective describing an or-ganism that usually exists in a particular setof circumstances but is also able to do so indifferent circumstances � a facultativeanaerobe � A facultative parasite can alsolive as a saprophyte. Compare obligatefaecalfaecal adjective referring to faeces (NOTE:The US spelling is fecal.)faecesfaeces plural noun solid waste matterpassed from the bowels of a human or other

animal after food has been eaten and di-gested (NOTE: The US spelling is feces.)FahrenheitFahrenheit noun a scale of temperatureson which the freezing and boiling points ofwater are 32° and 212°, respectively. Com-pare Celsius. Symbol F (NOTE: The Fahr-enheit scale is still commonly used in theUSA.)failfail verb to be unsuccessful � Attempts toreach agreement on the environmentalagenda failed.fallfall noun 1. a reduction � a fall in pressure2. the amount of rain or snow which comesdown at any one time � an overnight fall ofsnow 3. US autumn � verb 1. to becomeless in amount � atmospheric pressure isfalling 2. to be included within the range ofsomething � Design methods fall into fourgroups. 3. to come down freely because ofgravity � Light rain may fall occasionally.4. to occur at a particular time � The vernalequinox falls in March. (NOTE: falling – fell– fallen)falloutfallout noun the radioactive matter whichfalls from the atmosphere as particles, ei-ther in rain or as dustfallout shelterfallout shelter noun a building wherepeople are protected from radioactive mate-rial which falls from the atmosphere after anuclear explosionfallowfallow noun a period when land is not be-ing used for growing crops for a period sothat nutrients can build up again in the soilor to control weeds � Shifting cultivation ischaracterised by short cropping periodsand long fallows. � adjective referring toland that is not being used for growingcrops for a period � to let land lie fallow toallow land to remain without being cultivat-ed for a periodfallsfalls plural noun a large waterfall (NOTE:often used in names: Niagara Falls, VictoriaFalls)fallspeedfallspeed noun the speed at which rain-drops or dry particles fall through the airfallstreakfallstreak noun a column of ice particleswhich are falling through a cloudfamilyfamily noun 1. a group of people, or ofsome other animals, composed of parentsand offspring 2. a group of genera whichhave some characteristics in common � the


83 faunaplant family Orchidaceae � Tigers andleopards are members of the cat family.(NOTE: Scientific names of families of ani-mals end in -idae and those of families ofplants end in -ae.)faminefamine noun a period of severe shortageof food � When the monsoon failed for thesecond year, the threat of famine becamemore likely.famine foodfamine food noun a plant that is regardedas suitable for eating only when other foodis scarcefamine relieffamine relief noun the supplies of basicfood sent to help people who are starvingfanningfanning noun the spreading out of a hori-zontal layer of smoke and other pollutantsfrom a chimneyfan outfan out verb to spread out from a centralpointFAOFAO abbr Food and Agriculture Organiza-tionfarmfarm noun an area of land used for grow-ing crops and keeping animals to providefood and the buildings associated with it �verb to run a farmFarm AssuredFarm Assured noun a UK governmentscheme to inform the public that farm pro-duce is of good quality according to a set ofstandards. It is symbolised by a little redtractor on the packaging.farmedfarmed adjective grown or produced com-mercially and not in the wild � farmedsalmonfarmerfarmer noun someone who runs or owns afarmfarmingfarming noun running a farm, includingactivities such as keeping animals for saleor for their products and growing cropsfarming communityfarming community noun a group offamilies living near to each other and hav-ing farming as their main source of incomefarmlandfarmland noun land on a farm which isused for growing crops or rearing animalsfor foodfarmland birdfarmland bird noun a bird that nests inan agricultural environment. Many are de-clining in numbers because of changes inagricultural practices.farmland bird indicatorfarmland bird indicator noun a stand-ard way of measuring the frequency ofbirds found in agricultural areas

‘The farmland bird indicator is calculated on thebreeding populations of 20 species (includingskylark, grey partridge and goldfinch), whichhave collectively declined by 40% since the mid-1970s. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Scienceand Innovation Strategy 2003–06)’

farmsteadfarmstead noun a farmhouse and thefarm buildings around itfarmworkerfarmworker noun a person who works ona farmfarmyardfarmyard noun the area around farmbuildingsfarmyard manurefarmyard manure noun manure formedof cattle excreta mixed with straw, used asa fertiliser. Abbr FYMfast breeder reactorfast breeder reactor, fast breedernoun a nuclear reactor which producesmore fissile material than it consumes, us-ing fast-moving neutrons and making plu-tonium-239 from uranium-238, thereby in-creasing the reactor’s efficiency. Abbr FBRfatfat noun 1. a compound of fatty acids andglycerol. � lipid 2. a white oily substance inthe body of mammals, which stores energyand protects the body against cold (NOTE:Fat has no plural when it means the sub-stance in the body of mammals; the pluralfats is used to mean different types of fat.)� adjective 1. describing the body of alarge person or animal (NOTE: fat – fatter –fattest) 2. referring to an animal which hasbeen reared for meat production and whichhas reached the correct standard for sale ina marketfatalfatal adjective causing death � a fatal ac-cident � a fatal dosefat-solublefat-soluble adjective referring to a sub-stance that can be dissolved in fat � Vita-min D is fat-soluble. � Polychlorinated bi-phenyls are fat-soluble and collect in theblubber of seals.fatstockfatstock noun livestock which has beenfattened for meat productionfattenfatten verb to give animals food so as toprepare them for slaughterfattyfatty adjective containing a lot of fat �Fatty foods contribute to the risk of obesity.faultfault noun 1. a feature that spoils the over-all quality of something � a design fault 2.an error, especially in a calculation 3. achange in the position of the rock layers ofthe Earth’s crust in response to stress, lead-ing to earthquakesfault linefault line noun a line of cracks in theEarth’s crust occurring where changes inthe position of rock layers have taken placeand along which earthquakes are likely tooccurfault planefault plane noun the face of the rock at afault where one mass of rock has slippedagainst anotherfaunafauna noun the wild animals and birdswhich live naturally in a specific area.Compare flora


favourable condition 84favourable conditionfavourable condition noun a categoryindicating a good state of conservation ofan area of the environmentFBCFBC abbr fluidised-bed combustionFBRFBR abbr fast breeder reactorFDAFDA abbr Food and Drug AdministrationFeFe symbol ironfeasibilityfeasibility noun the practical likelihoodof being able to do something � a report onthe feasibility of introducing restricted caraccessfecalfecal adjective US spelling of faecalfecesfeces plural noun US spelling of faecesfecundityfecundity noun the fertility of a plant oranimalfecundity schedulefecundity schedule noun a chart show-ing the number of eggs or offspring pro-duced by a group during a specific period,indicating whether the population of thegroup has increased or decreasedfeedfeed verb 1. to take food � The herd feedshere at dusk. 2. to give food to a person oran animal 3. to provide fertiliser for plantsor soil 4. to supply or add to something 5.to lead into and so make larger � Severalsmall streams feed into the river. � noun 1.food given to animals and birds � Traces ofpesticide were found in the cattle feed. 2.fertiliser for plants or soil � Tomato plantsneed liquid feed twice a week at this time ofyear.feed additivefeed additive noun a supplement addedto the feed of farm livestock, particularlypigs and poultry, to promote growth, e.g. anantibiotic or hormonefeed concentratefeed concentrate noun an animal feedwhich has a high food value relative to vol-umefeederfeeder noun 1. an animal that eats partic-ular food or eats in a particular way � anight feeder 2. a device which suppliessomething � a bird feeder 3. somethingwhich supplies or adds to something else ofthe same typefeed grainfeed grain noun a cereal which is fed toanimals and birds, e.g. wheat or maizefeeding groundfeeding ground noun an area where an-imals come to feed � Estuaries are the win-ter feeding grounds for thousands of migra-tory birds.feeding strategyfeeding strategy noun the tactics usedby an animal to obtain foodfeedingstufffeedingstuff noun same as feedstufffeedlotfeedlot noun a field with small pens inwhich cattle are fattenedfeedstufffeedstuff noun food for farm animals.Also called feedingstuff

feldsparfeldspar, feldspath noun a common typeof crystal rock formed of silicatesfellfell noun a high area of open moorland inthe north of England � verb to cut down atree. � clearfellfemalefemale adjective 1. referring to an animalthat produces ova and bears young 2. refer-ring to a flower which has carpels but notstamens, or a plant that produces such flow-ersfenfen noun an area of flat marshy land, withplants such as reeds and mosses growing inalkaline waterfencefence noun a barrier put round a field, ei-ther to mark the boundary or to prevent an-imals entering or leaving � verb to put afence round an area of landfenlandfenland noun a large area of flat marshyland with alkaline waterferalferal adjective referring to an animalwhich was formerly domesticated and hassince reverted to living wild � The nativepopulation of rabbits was exterminated byferal cats.fermentationfermentation noun the process by whichorganic compounds such as carbohydratesare broken down by enzymes from micro-organisms such as yeasts to produce energyfernfern noun a type of green flowerless plantwith large leaves (fronds) that propagatesby spores. � pteridophyte (NOTE: Fernsgrow in damp rocky places and wood-lands.)ferric oxideferric oxide noun a red insoluble oxideof iron. Formula: Fe2O3.ferro-ferro- prefix referring to or containing ironferrousferrous adjective referring to or contain-ing ironferruginousferruginous adjective referring to rockor water which contains ironfertilefertile adjective 1. referring to an animalor plant that is able to produce offspring bysexual reproduction. Opposite sterile 2. re-ferring to soil with a high concentration ofnutrients that is able to produce good cropsfertilisationfertilisation noun the joining of an ovumand a sperm to form a zygote and so startthe development of an embryofertilisefertilise verb 1. (of a sperm) to join withan ovum 2. (of a male) to make a femalepregnant 3. to put fertiliser on crops or soilfertiliserfertiliser noun a chemical or natural sub-stance spread and mixed with soil to stimu-late plant growth

COMMENT: Organic materials used as fer-tilisers include manure, slurry, rotted vege-table waste, bonemeal, fishmeal and sea-weed. Inorganic fertilisers such as pow-


85 fire climaxdered lime or sulfur are also used. Incommercial agriculture, artificially pre-pared fertilisers (manufactured com-pounds containing nitrogen, potassiumand other chemicals) are most often used,but if excessive use of them is made, allthe chemicals are not taken up by plantsand the excess is leached out of the soilinto ground water or rivers where it maycause algal bloom.

fertilityfertility noun 1. the state of being fertile 2.the proportion of eggs which develop intoyoungfertility ratefertility rate noun the number of birthsper year, shown, in humans, per thousandfemales aged between 15 and 44fetusfetus, foetus noun an unborn animal inthe womb at the stage when all the structur-al features are visible, i.e. after eight weeksin humans (NOTE: The usual scientific spell-ing is ‘fetus’, although ‘foetus’ is common innon-technical British English usage.)fibrefibre noun 1. a natural filament such ascotton or a synthetic filament such as nylon2. a long narrow plant cell with thickenedwalls that forms part of a plant’s supportingtissue, especially in the outer region of astem (NOTE: [all senses] The US spelling isfiber.)fibrousfibrous adjective made of a mass of fibresfieldfield noun 1. an area of land, usually sur-rounded by a fence or hedge, used forgrowing crops or for pasture 2. an area overwhich something such as snow, ice or lavais found 3. an area of natural resources, e.g.an oilfield or coalfield 4. an area of interestor activity � He specialises in the field ofenvironmental health.field marginfield margin noun the edge of a fieldfield observationfield observation noun an examinationmade in the open air, looking at organismsin their natural habitat, as opposed to in alaboratoryfield researchfield research noun a programme of sci-entific studies carried out at a geographicallocation as opposed to in a laboratoryfield stationfield station noun a scientific researchcentre located in the area being researchedfield studyfield study noun an investigation carriedout at a geographical location as opposed toin a laboratoryfield trialfield trial noun a trial that tests the abilityof a crop variety to perform under normalcultivation conditionsfieldworkfieldwork noun scientific studies carriedout somewhere other than in a laboratoryfilamentfilament noun the stalk of a stamen, car-rying an anther

filmfilm noun a thin layer, covering or coating� a thin film of oil on the surface of the lake� An electrical element made of gold film issandwiched between the layers of glass.filterfilter noun a material or device throughwhich a liquid or a gas is passed in order toseparate the fluid from solid matter or to re-move unwanted substances � a fuel filter �an oil filterfilter basinfilter basin noun a large tank throughwhich drinking water is passed to be fil-teredfilter bedfilter bed noun a layer of charcoal, gravelor similar material through which liquidsewage is passed to clean itfilter cakefilter cake noun a deposit of semisolidsor solids that separates out between layersof filtering materialfilter feederfilter feeder noun an animal that lives inwater and feeds on small particles that it fil-ters out of the water it takes in, e.g. a clam,sponge, or baleen whalefiltratefiltrate noun a liquid which has passedthrough a filterfiltrationfiltration noun the process of passing aliquid through a filter to remove solid sub-stancesfinfin noun a thin flat projection on the bodyof a fishfinal disposalfinal disposal noun the last stage in get-ting rid of waste, e.g. incineration or plac-ing in a landfillfinefine adjective 1. describing something thatis very small in size, thickness or weight 2.referring to weather that is warm and sun-ny, with few clouds and no rain or fogfinitefinite adjective referring to something thathas an end � Coal supplies are finite andare forecast to run out in 2020.finite resourcefinite resource plural noun a natural re-source that is does not renew itself andwhich will potentially be completely usedup, e.g. coal or oil. Opposite renewable re-sourcefiordfiord noun another spelling of fjordfirfir noun a common evergreen coniferoustree. Genus: Abies.fir conefir cone noun a hard oval or round struc-ture on a fir tree containing the seeds (NOTE:The term is sometimes applied to thecones of other trees such as pines.)firefire noun the process, or an area, of burn-ingfirebreakfirebreak noun an area kept free of vege-tation, so that a fire cannot pass across andspread to other parts of the forest or heathfire climaxfire climax noun the condition by whichan ecosystem is maintained by fire


-fired 86-fired-fired suffix burning as a fuel � coal-firedpower station � gas-fired central heatingfiredampfiredamp noun same as methanefire hazardfire hazard noun something that increas-es the risk of fire � These piles of paper area fire hazard.fire managementfire management noun the practice ofburning in a controlled and selective waygrasses, brush, undergrowth and trees in anarea, to maintain an ecological balance ofspecies and prevent uncontrolled firesfire-pronefire-prone adjective liable to catch firefire-prone ecosystemfire-prone ecosystem noun an ecosys-tem such as fynbos or a eucalypt forest thatis likely to be frequently affected by firesfireprooffireproof adjective referring to a materialor structure designed to resist the effect offire � A fireproof fence surrounds the for-est.fire-retardantfire-retardant adjective referring to asubstance which slows down the rate atwhich a material burnsfirewoodfirewood noun wood which is burnt toprovide heatfirnfirn noun the spring snow on high moun-tains which becomes harder during thesummerfishfish noun a cold-blooded vertebrate thatlives in water (NOTE: Some species are eat-en for food. Fish are high in protein, phos-phorus, iodine and vitamins A and D. Whitefish have very little oil.) � verb to try tocatch fishfishermanfisherman noun a man who catches fishas an occupation or as a leisure activityfisheryfishery noun 1. the commercial activity ofcatching fish 2. an area of sea where fishare caught � The boats go each year to therich fisheries off the north coast.fish farmfish farm noun a place where edible fishare bred or reared in special pools for saleas foodfish farmingfish farming noun the commercial activ-ity of keeping fish in ponds or fenced areasof the sea for sale as food. Also calledaquaculture, aquafarming, aquiculturefishingfishing noun the activity of catching fishas an occupation or a leisure activity � Heenjoys fishing in trout streams.fishing quotafishing quota noun the amount of a spe-cies of fish that it is permitted to catch with-in a period of timefish killfish kill noun an instance of a lot of fishbeing killed � Aluminium is a critical fac-tor in fish kills.fish ladderfish ladder noun a series of pools at dif-ferent levels, specially built to allow fish

such as salmon to swim up or down a riveron migrationfishless lakefishless lake noun a lake containing nofishfishmealfishmeal noun a powder of dried fish,used as an animal feed or as a fertiliserfish passfish pass noun a channel near a dam,built to allow migrating fish to swim pastthe dam. Also called fishway. � fish ladderfish stockfish stock noun the fish population fromwhich catches are taken, usually within aspecific fisheryfishwayfishway noun same as fish passfissilefissile adjective 1. referring to rock whichcan split or be split 2. referring to an isotopewhich can split on impact with a neutronfissionfission noun 1. � atomic fission 2. theprocess of splitting 3. a process of repro-duction, in which an organism splits in twoand two complete new organisms grow, asin corals � verb (in nuclear fission) to splitan atomic nucleus � When the plutonium isfissioned, fast neutrons are produced.fissurefissure noun a crack or groovefitfit adjective 1. referring to something thatis suitable for its purpose � This food is fitto eat. � fit-for-purpose a standard for as-sessing the suitability of something for aparticular use 2. referring to an organismthat is well adapted or evolutionarily suc-cessful � survival of the fittest � Only thefit individuals will survive. (NOTE: fitter-fit-test)fitnessfitness noun a measure of the evolution-ary success of genes, traits, organisms orpopulationsfixationfixation noun the act of fixing something.� nitrogen fixationfjordfjord, fiord noun a long inlet of the seaamong mountains in temperate or arctic re-gionsflagellumflagellum noun a long thin tapering out-growth of some cells that waves or rotatesto propel the cell (NOTE: Flagella are foundin some bacteria and protozoa, and insperm cells.)flakeflake noun 1. a small piece of a solid � aflake of rock 2. a small piece of snow whichfalls from the sky. Also called snowflakeflammabilityflammability noun the ability of a mate-rial to catch fireflammableflammable adjective easily set on fire andcapable of burning fiercely and rapidly �Aviation gasoline is a flammable liquid.(NOTE: Flammable and inflammablemean the same thing. To avoid confusion, itis recommended to use flammable.)


87 floretflareflare noun a device that burns surplus gas-es to prevent them from being released intothe environment, usually found on top oftall chimneysflashflash noun a sudden or periodic burst oflight � Lightning is accompanied by a bril-liant flash. � verb to switch a light on andoff � He flashed his torch as a signal.flash floodflash flood noun a sudden rush of waterin a stream or narrow river, often causingdamageflashyflashy adjective referring to a river whosewater level is rising rapidly after it hasrained a lotflatfishflatfish noun a type of fish with a flat-tened back that lives on the bed of the seaor of a lake and has both eyes on the top ofits body, e.g. plaice (NOTE: The body of aflatfish is flattened in such a way that thefish is lying on its side. As the young fishgrows, the eye underneath moves round itshead to join the one on top.)flatwormflatworm noun a worm with a flat body, asingle gut opening, and no circulatory sys-tem. Phylum: Platyhelminthes. (NOTE: Flat-worms include both free-living species andparasites such as flukes and tapeworms.)flawflaw noun a fault or errorfleaflea noun a small jumping insect whichlives as a parasite on animals, sucking theirblood and possibly spreading disease. Or-der: Siphonaptera. (NOTE: Historically, bu-bonic plague was spread by fleas.)flexibleflexible adjective 1. not rigid or stiff 2. ca-pable of responding to a variety of condi-tions or situations � AC electrical energy ismore flexible and more efficient than DC.flightless birdflightless bird noun a bird which hassmall wings and cannot fly, e.g. an ostrichor a penguinflocculantflocculant noun a substance added to wa-ter as it is treated to encourage impurities tosettleflocculationflocculation noun the gathering togetherof particles into lumps � flocculation ofyeast in brewing � The flocculation of par-ticles is very important in making clay soilseasy to work.flockflock noun a large group of birds or somefarm animals such as sheep and goats � aflock of geese � a flock of sheep (NOTE: Theword used for a group of cattle, deer or pigsis herd.)floodflood noun a large amount of water cover-ing land that is usually dry, caused by phe-nomena such as melting snow, heavy rain,high tides or storms � verb to cover dryland with a large amount of water � The

river bursts its banks and floods the wholevalley twice a year in the rainy season.flood alleviationflood alleviation, flood control nounthe avoidance of the possibility of floodingby controlling the flow of water in riverswith structures such as dams and embank-mentsflood control measuresflood control measures noun ways ofmanaging water flow to reduce the possi-bility of flooding by rivers or the seaflood damageflood damage noun the damage causedby floodwaterflood defenceflood defence noun the measures takento protect low-lying areas from flooding byrivers or the seaflood forecastingflood forecasting noun the process ofestablishing when an area is at risk of beingflooded, taking into account local features,climate change, the likelihood of extremeweather, and socio-economic factorsfloodgatefloodgate noun a gate in a weir or dyke,designed to control water flowfloodingflooding noun the uncontrolled spread ofa large amount of water onto land that isusually dry � Severe flooding has been re-ported after the heavy rain overnight.(NOTE: About 10% of the land area of Eng-land is at risk of flooding.)flood plainflood plain noun a wide flat part of thebottom of a valley which is usually coveredwith water when the river floodsflood storageflood storage noun the measures takento control and retain the large amount ofwater produced in a flood until it can dis-perse naturallyflood tideflood tide noun a tide that is rising. Com-pare ebb tideflood warningflood warning noun an alert that there islikely to be a floodfloodwaterfloodwater noun water that spreads un-controlled onto land that is usually dry �After the floodwater receded the centre ofthe town was left buried in mud.floorfloor noun the ground beneath something� fish that live on the floor of the ocean �The forest floor is covered with decayingvegetation.floraflora noun the wild plants that grow natu-rally in a specific area. Compare faunaFloraFlora, flora noun a book or list describingthe plants of a specific area � a Flora of theBritish Islesfloralfloral adjective referring to plants or flow-ersfloretfloret noun a little flower that forms partof a larger flower head


flourish 88flourish

flourish verb to live or grow well and in-crease in numbers � The colony of rabbitsflourished in the absence of any predators.flow

flow verb to move or run smoothly withcontinuity � Water flows down the outersurface, cooling the interior. � noun 1.continuous movement of a fluid in a partic-ular direction � the flow of water down-stream 2. the rate at which a substance ismoving � The meter measures the flow ofwater through the pipe. 3. the movement ofthe sea or water affected by tides towards ashore as the tide rises. Compare ebb 4. anarea of peat bog, especially in Scotland �the flow countryflower

flower noun the reproductive part of aseed-bearing plant (NOTE: Some flowersare brightly coloured to attract pollinatinginsects and birds and usually consist ofprotective sepals and bright petals sur-rounding the stamens and stigma. Manyare cultivated for their colour and perfume.)flowerlessflowerless adjective without flowersflowmeter

flowmeter noun a meter attached to apipe to measure the speed at which a liquidor gas moves through the pipefluctuate

fluctuate verb to vary or change irregu-larly � The magnetic field will fluctuate atthe supply frequency.fluctuation

fluctuation noun an irregular variation orchange � Fluctuations in the water tableaffect the growth of plants.flue

flue noun a chimney or other structurethrough which gas or smoke is releasedfrom a furnace or stove � Gases are passeddirectly from the flue into the atmosphere.flue gasflue gas noun a gas produced by a burn-ing substance that is released into the at-mosphere from a chimneyfluidfluid noun a substance whose moleculesmove freely past one another and that takesthe shape of its container (NOTE: Both liq-uids and gases are fluids.)fluidise

fluidise verb to make a solid move in themanner of a fluid (NOTE: One way to do thisis by pulverising it into a fine powder andpassing a gas through to induce flow.)fluidised-bed combustionfluidised-bed combustion noun amethod of burning fluidised low-grade fuelwhile keeping the emission of pollutantgases to a minimum. Abbr FBCfluke

fluke noun a parasitic flatworm (NOTE:Flukes may settle inside the liver, blood-stream or in other parts of the body.)fluoridatefluoridate verb to add sodium fluoride todrinking water to help prevent tooth decay

fluoridationfluoridation noun the addition of sodiumfluoride to drinking water to help preventtooth decayfluoridefluoride noun a chemical compound offluorine, usually with sodium, potassium ortinfluorinefluorine noun a yellowish gas (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is F; the atomic number is9 and the atomic weight is 19.00.)fluorocarbonfluorocarbon noun an inert compoundof fluorine and carbon, with high tempera-ture stability. � chlorofluorocarbonfluorosisfluorosis noun a condition caused by ex-cessive fluoride in drinking water or food(NOTE: It causes discoloration of teeth andaffects the milk yields of cattle.)flushflush verb 1. to clear a tube such as a sew-er by sending water through it 2. to passwater through a tube or system in order toremove something and clean itflush toiletflush toilet noun a toilet in which the ex-creta are washed into the sewage system bya flow of water. Compare chemical toilet,earth closetfluvialfluvial, fluviatile adjective referring toriversfluxflux noun the rate at which heat, energy orradiation flowsflyfly noun a small insect with two wings. Or-der: Diptera. � verb to move through the air(NOTE: fly – flew – flown)fly ashfly ash noun solid particles in the air thathave come from burning coal or anothersolid fuel � The cloud contained particlesof fly ash. (NOTE: Fly ash can be collectedand used to make bricks.)fly-tipperfly-tipper noun a person who dumps rub-bish somewhere other than at an officialrubbish dumpfly-tippingfly-tipping noun the dumping of rubbishsomewhere other than at an official site

‘A quarter of all farms in England and Waleshave experienced fly-tipping on their land in re-cent years. The total quantity of waste tipped in2001 was estimated at 600000 tons. (Agricultur-al Waste: Opportunities for Change. Informationfrom the Agricultural Waste Stakeholders’ Fo-rum)’

foamfoam noun a mass of bubbles of air or gasin a liquid film � detergent foam on the riv-er � foam fire extinguishersfoam plasticfoam plastic noun plastic with bubblesblown into it to make a light material usedfor packing. Also called plastic foamfodderfodder, fodder crop noun plant materialor a crop which is grown to give to animalsas food, e.g. grass or clover � winter fodderFoEFoE abbr Friends of the Earthfoehnfoehn noun another spelling of föhn


89 forecastfoetusfoetus noun another spelling of fetus(NOTE: The usual scientific spelling is ‘fe-tus’, although ‘foetus’ is common in non-technical British English usage.)fogfog noun a thick mist made up of tinydrops of waterfoggyfoggy adjective referring to weather con-ditions when there is fogföhnföhn, foehn noun a warm dry wind whichblows down the side of a mountain awayfrom the prevailing wind. It occurs whenmoist air rises up the mountain on the wind-ward side, loses its moisture as rain or snowand then flows down the other side as a drywind. Compare chinookfoliagefoliage noun the leaves on plants � In aforest, animals are hard to see through thethick foliage on the trees.foliarfoliar adjective referring to leavesfoliar sprayfoliar spray noun 1. a method of apply-ing pesticides or liquid nutrients as dropletsto plant leaves � needs weekly foliar sprays2. a pesticide or liquid nutrient applied toplant leaves as dropletsfolic acidfolic acid noun a vitamin in the vitamin Bcomplex found in milk, liver, yeast andgreen plants such as spinachfolliclefollicle noun 1. a fruit in the form of a drycase that splits along one side to release theseeds 2. the small structure in the skin fromwhich each hair develops 3. one of manysmall structures in the ovaries where eggcells developfoodfood noun 1. the nutrient material eaten byanimals for energy and growth 2. the nutri-ent material applied to plants as fertiliserFood and Agriculture OrganizationFood and Agriculture Organiza-tion noun an international organisationthat is an agency of the United Nations es-tablished with the purpose of improvingstandards of nutrition and eradicating mal-nutrition and hunger. Abbr FAOFood and Drug AdministrationFood and Drug Administrationnoun a US government department thatprotects the public against unsafe foods,drugs and cosmetics. Abbr FDAfood balancefood balance noun the balance betweenfood supply and the demand for food froma populationfood chainfood chain noun a series of organismsthat pass energy and minerals from one toanother as each provides food for the next(NOTE: The first organism in the food chainis the producer and the rest are consum-ers.)

COMMENT: Two basic types of food chainexist: the grazing food chain and the detri-tal food chain, based on plant-eaters and

detritus-eaters respectively. In practice,food chains are interconnected, making upfood webs.

food colouringfood colouring noun a substance usedto colour foodfood grainfood grain noun a cereal crop used asfood for humans, e.g. wheat, barley or ryefood milefood mile noun a measure of the distancethat food is transported from its place of or-igin to the consumerfood pyramidfood pyramid noun a chart of a foodchain showing the number of organisms ateach levelfood safetyfood safety noun the issues surroundingthe production, handling, storage and cook-ing of food that determine whether or not itis safe to eatfood scarefood scare noun a situation when food isbelieved to be unsafe or contaminated, of-ten leading to many people refusing to buyitfood securityfood security noun the situation that ex-ists when people have both physical accessto, and the economic means to buy, suffi-cient food of a quality that meets their nu-tritional needs and food preferencesFood Standards AgencyFood Standards Agency noun a Brit-ish government agency set up in 2000 to of-fer advice on food safety and quality. AbbrFSAfoodstufffoodstuff noun something that can beused as food � cereals, vegetables and oth-er foodstuffsfood supplyfood supply noun 1. the production offood and the way in which it gets to theconsumer 2. a stock of food � The ants willvigorously defend their food supply.food webfood web noun a series of food chainsthat are linked together in an ecosystemfootpathfootpath noun a route along which peo-ple walk on foot but along which vehiclesare not permitted � Long-distance foot-paths have been created through the moun-tain regions.footprintfootprint noun the resources that an indi-vidual or organisation consumes � the eco-logical footprint of the buildingforageforage noun a crop planted for animals toeat in the field � verb to look for food �The woodpecker forages in the forest cano-py for insects.force of gravityforce of gravity noun same as gravityforecastforecast noun a description of what it isthought will happen in the future on the ba-sis of current knowledge � the weatherforecast � population forecasts � a fore-cast of the requirements for new homes


forecasting 90forecastingforecasting noun the activity of usingcurrent knowledge to describe what mighthappen in the futureforeignforeign adjective belonging to or comingfrom another countryforeshockforeshock noun a small shock that comesbefore a main earthquake. � aftershockforeshoreforeshore noun an area of sand or peb-bles which is only covered by the sea whenthere are very high tidesforestforest noun 1. an area of land (more than0.5 ha), 10% of which is occupied by trees2. same as plantation � verb to manage aforest, by cutting wood as necessary, andplanting new treesforest conservationforest conservation noun the activemaintenance of forests by controlled fellingand plantingforest degradationforest degradation noun the loss of thenatural resources in areas covered by for-ests, whether permanent or reversibleforest diebackforest dieback noun a disease affectingpine trees in which the pine needles turnyellow. Also called Waldsterbenforesterforester noun a person who manageswoodland and plantations of treesforest fireforest fire noun a sudden intense fire thatspreads rapidly and often destroys a verylarge wooded area (NOTE: Some trees suchas eucalyptus grow again from their black-ened stumps and some seeds only germi-nate after experiencing the intense heat ofsuch a fire.)forest floorforest floor noun the ground at the baseof the trees in a forestforest managementforest management noun the conser-vation and regeneration of the ecologicalresources of a forest while maintaining itsproductivityforest regenerationforest regeneration noun the processof new trees growing again on land that wasformerly wooded, whether naturally or as aresult of planting schemesforestryforestry noun the management of forests,woodlands and plantations of treesForest Stewardship CertificationForest Stewardship Certificationnoun a mark of recognition by the ForestStewardship Council, based in the USA,that a forest is being managed in an envi-ronmentally responsible, socially benefi-cial and economically viable way. AbbrFSCforest treeforest tree noun a large tree of the typethat grows in a forestformationformation noun 1. the way in whichsomething is formed, shaped or arranged �a formation of flower buds 2. the shape orstructure that something has � The geese

flew in a V formation. 3. a structure formedof layers of rock � an unusual rock forma-tionforwardforward verb to improve or send on some-thingfossilfossil noun the remains of an ancient ani-mal or plant found preserved in rockfossil fuelfossil fuel noun a substance containingcarbon formed from the decomposed re-mains of prehistoric plants, e.g. oil, naturalgas or peatfossilisedfossilised adjective referring to an ani-mal or plant that has become a fossilfossil recordfossil record noun the information aboutancient climate and species preserved infossilsfossil waterfossil water noun water that has accumu-lated in underground strata over millions ofyears and is therefore not a renewable re-sourcefoul waterfoul water noun water containing wasteor sewagefounder cropfounder crop noun a crop that was oneof the earliest to be used and developed byhumans, e.g. wheat, barley, lentils andchickpeasfounder effectfounder effect noun the existence of lowlevels of genetic variation due to a newpopulation being established by only a feworiginal individuals. � genetic bottleneckfowlfowl noun a bird, especially a hen, raisedon a farm for food. � waterfowlFrFr symbol franciumfractionfraction noun a part of a whole unit, ex-pressed as one figure above another, e.g. ¼or ½fractional distillationfractional distillation noun a distilla-tion process in which different fractions ofa mixture of liquids are collected at differ-ent points during the processfractional processfractional process noun a process thatseparates out the components of a mixturefragilefragile adjective referring to somethingthat is easily broken or damaged � a fragileglass tube � The desert is a fragile environ-ment.fragmentfragment noun 1. a small piece of some-thing � a fragment of rock 2. a piece ofDNA, especially one cut by an enzyme � arestriction fragment � verb to break intopiecesframeworkframework noun 1. the supporting struc-ture round which something is made orbuilt � This house has a timber framework.2. a set of ideas or principles that form thebasis of something that will be developedmore at a later stage � The draft report willprovide a framework for our discussions.


91 fruticoseFramework Convention on Climate ChangeFramework Convention on ClimateChange noun a treaty agreed at the EarthSummit requiring states to take steps tolimit the emission of greenhouse gases, es-pecially carbon dioxide, believed to be re-sponsible for global warmingfranciumfrancium noun a naturally radioactive el-ement (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Fr;the atomic number is 87 and the atomicweight is 223.)freefree adjective 1. not attached, confined orcontrolled 2. chemically uncombined �verb to release something or someone fromconstraintfreedom to roamfreedom to roam phrase � Country-side and Rights of Way Actfree-living animalfree-living animal noun an animal thatexists in its environment without being aparasite on anotherfree radicalfree radical noun an atom or group of at-oms that is highly reactive due to the pres-ence of an unpaired electronfree-range eggsfree-range eggs noun eggs from hensthat are allowed to run about in the openand eat more natural foodfree-swimmingfree-swimming adjective same as pe-lagicfree temperature risefree temperature rise noun the differ-ence between the temperature outside abuilding and the free heat inside it (NOTE: Ifa building is well insulated, the differencecan be as much as 10K.)freezefreeze verb 1. (of liquid) to become solidas a result of a drop in temperature 2. topreserve something such as food by keep-ing it at a very low temperature it 3. (ofweather ) to be so cold that water turns toice � It will freeze tomorrow. Oppositemelt 4. to become or remain motionless toavoid the attention of predators � Thesesmall birds freeze if a hawk passes over-head. (NOTE: freeze – froze – frozen)freeze dryingfreeze drying noun a method of preserv-ing food or tissue specimens by freezingrapidly and drying in a vacuumfreezerfreezer noun an appliance for preservingperishable items by keeping them at a verylow temperaturefrequencyfrequency noun 1. the number of timessomething happens in a given period oftime 2. the probability of a item occurringin a sample 3. the percentage occurrence ofa single species in a set of samplesfreshfresh adjective 1. not used, not dirty 2. nottinned or frozen � Fresh fish is less fattythan tinned fish. � Fresh vegetables are ex-pensive in winter.

fresh airfresh air noun the air outside buildings orother structures � They came out of the of-fice into the fresh air.fresh waterfresh water noun water in rivers andlakes which contains almost no salt. Com-pare salt waterfreshwaterfreshwater adjective 1. containing freshwater � freshwater lakes 2. living in freshwater � freshwater fish such as pikefriablefriable adjective referring to soil which islight and crumbles easily into fragmentsfridge mountainfridge mountain noun the unexpectedresult of an EU decision that required CFCsto be recovered from fridges that were be-ing thrown away, because there was notenough special equipment to do the job andthe fridges had to be storedFriends of the EarthFriends of the Earth noun a pressuregroup formed to influence local and centralgovernments on environmental matters.Abbr FoEfrondfrond noun a large compound leaf, divid-ed into many sections, such as that foundon ferns and palm treesfrontfront noun 1. the forward part or surface �The entrance is at the front. 2. same asweather frontfrontalfrontal adjective referring to the forwardpart or surface area of something � thefrontal areafrostfrost noun the deposit of ice that forms onsurfaces when the temperature is below thefreezing point of water � frost on the win-dowpanesfrostyfrosty adjective referring to an air temper-ature below 0°C � a frosty nightfructosefructose noun a sugar with six carbon at-oms, which together with glucose forms su-crose. Also called fruit sugarfrugivorefrugivore noun an animal that mainlyeats fruit (NOTE: Many bats and birds arefrugivores.)fruitfruit noun the structure of a plant formedafter flowering and usually containingseeds. Many fruits are eaten as food. � adiet of fresh fruit and vegetables � A peachis a fleshy fruit. � verb (of a plant) to pro-duce fruit � Some varieties of apple fruitvery early.fruit farmingfruit farming noun the activity of grow-ing fruit for salefruit sugarfruit sugar noun same as fructosefruitwoodfruitwood noun the wood from a fruittree such as apple or cherry, which may beused to make furniturefruticosefruticose adjective (of some lichens)with upright branches, like a small shrubbyplant


FSA 92FSAFSA abbr Food Standards AgencyFSCFSC abbr Forest Stewardship Certificatefuelfuel noun a substance that can be burnt toprovide heat or power, e.g. wood, gas or oilfuel efficiencyfuel efficiency noun the percentage ofthe heat from burning a fuel that is convert-ed into energyfuel-efficientfuel-efficient adjective referring to anengine or process that uses fuel efficientlyfuel-savingfuel-saving adjective using less fuel thanothers of the same typefuel switchingfuel switching noun the act of changingfrom a fuel with a high sulfur content to onesuch as natural gas that contains a relativelylow amount of sulfurfuelwoodfuelwood noun wood that is grown to beused as fuelfugitive dustfugitive dust noun dust caused by an ac-tivity that makes it blow in the air, as occurswhen tractors are ploughing dry fieldsfugitive emissionsfugitive emissions plural noun pollut-ing substances released into the atmosphereas a result of leaks, evaporation or wind ef-fectsfull-cost accountingfull-cost accounting noun the practiceof including the less obvious costs of aproduct or activity, such as its effects on theenvironment or health, together with its di-rect costs when making decisions. Alsocalled green accounting, environmentalaccountingfumarolefumarole noun a small hole in the Earth’scrust near a volcano from which gases,smoke or steam are releasedfumesfumes plural noun 1. gas or vapour 2. thesolid particles produced by a chemical re-action which pass into the air as smokefumigantfumigant noun a chemical compoundthat becomes a gas or smoke when heatedand is used to kill insectsfumigatefumigate verb to kill microorganisms orinsects by using a fumigantfumigationfumigation noun 1. the use of a fumigantto kill microorganisms or insects 2. a highamount of air pollution near the ground,caused when the morning sun heats the airand forces polluted air down from higherlevelsfunctionfunction noun the use or purpose ofsomething or how it works � The functionof a wing is to provide lift.functional foodfunctional food noun a food designed tobe medically beneficial, helping to protectagainst serious conditions such as diabetes,cancer or heart diseasefunctionalityfunctionality noun the purpose thatsomething is designed to fulfil, or the rangeof functions that something has

functional responsefunctional response noun the re-sponse of a predator to an increase in pop-ulation of its prey. Either the predator in-creases its consumption as the populationof the prey increases, or it reduces its con-sumption because it has enough to eat.fundamentalfundamental adjective referring to orforming the foundation or base � the fun-damental characteristics of cellsfundamental nichefundamental niche noun the full rangeof physical, chemical and biological factorseach species could use if there were nocompetition from other species. � interspe-cific competitionfundamental particlefundamental particle noun same as el-ementary particlefungalfungal adjective referring to fungi � Pow-dery mildew is a fungal disease.fungifungi plural of fungusfungicidalfungicidal adjective referring to a sub-stance which kills fungi � fungicidal prop-ertiesfungicidefungicide noun a substance used to killfungifungoidfungoid adjective referring to somethingshaped like a fungus � a fungoid growth onthe skinfungusfungus noun an organism that has thread-like cells with walls made of chitin and nogreen chlorophyll (NOTE: The plural is fun-gi. For other terms referring to fungi, seewords beginning with myc-.)

COMMENT: Fungi grow in almost every envi-ronment and are vital in nutrient cycling asthey can digest the cellulose in dead plants.Mushrooms are the spore-producing struc-tures of a large group of otherwise threadlikefungi; many are edible although some aredeadly poisonous. Fungi are used in brew-ing, cheese-making and the production ofantibiotics such as penicillin. Some fungi cancause diseases of animals and plants.

funnel cloudfunnel cloud noun a rotating, visible ex-tension of a cloud, with the top attached tothe cloud but without the bottom tip touch-ing the ground � When a funnel cloudtouches the ground it becomes a tornado.furfur noun 1. a coat of hair covering an ani-mal � The rabbit has a thick coat of winterfur. 2. skin and hair removed from an ani-mal, used to make clothesfurlingfurling noun a way of preventing damageto horizontal-axis wind turbines by auto-matically turning them out of the windfurrowfurrow noun a long trench cut in the soilby a ploughFYMFYM abbr farmyard manurefynbosfynbos noun the scrubland typical of theWestern Cape area of South America, con-sisting of low bushes with hard leaves


Gg symbol gramGaGa symbol galliumGaia hypothesisGaia hypothesis, Gaia theory noun atheory that the biosphere is like a single or-ganism where the living fauna and flora ofEarth, its climate and geology, all functiontogether and are interrelated, influencingthe development of the whole environmentgaingain noun an increase � a gain in altitude� There is a gain of heat by the Earth dueto solar radiation.galegale noun a very strong wind usuallyblowing from a single direction (NOTE: Agale is force 8 on the Beaufort scale.)galenagalena noun a shiny blue-grey mineralconsisting of lead sulfide. Symbol PbS(NOTE: It is a source of lead and silver.)gallgall noun a hard growth on a plant causedby a parasitic insectgalliumgallium noun a rare blue-grey metal ele-ment used in semiconductors, high-temper-ature thermometers and alloys (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Ga; the atomic numberis 31 and the atomic weight is 69.72.)gallongallon noun a unit of liquid volume in theImperial System, approximately equal to4.5 litresgalvanised irongalvanised iron noun iron that has beencoated with zinc to prevent it from rusting(NOTE: Sheets of galvanised iron are widelyused for roofs.)gamegame noun animals that are hunted andkilled for sport or food or bothgame reservegame reserve noun an area of landwhere wild animals are kept to be huntedand killed for sportgametegamete noun a sex cell (NOTE: In animalsthe male and female gametes are a sper-matozoon and an ovum respectively, inplants they are a pollen grain and an ovule.)gametocidegametocide noun a drug that kills game-tocytesgametocytegametocyte noun a cell that developsinto a gametegametophytegametophyte noun the part of a plant’slife cycle when sex organs and sex cells(gametes) are producedgardengarden noun an area of land cultivated asa hobby or for pleasure, rather than to pro-duce an income. � market garden

garden citygarden city noun a large town planned inthe early 20th century on farmland near alarge town, with both public parks and aprivate garden for each house. The aim wasto mix the urban and rural environments. �garden suburbgardenergardener noun a person who looks aftera gardengardeninggardening noun the activity of lookingafter a gardengarden suburbgarden suburb noun an area of a cityplanned in the early 20th century to includelarge open public spaces and many privategardens. � garden citygarriguegarrigue, garigue noun in the Mediterra-nean area, low-growing vegetation ofdrought-resistant prickly shrubs and herbsgasgas noun 1. a substance that is not a liquidor a solid, which will completely fill thecontainer it occupies, and which becomesliquid when it is cooled � Heating turnedthe liquid into a gas. 2. a substance foundunderground, or produced from coal, andused to cook or heat � gas central heating� We heat our house by gas. 3. US same asgasoline (NOTE: The UK term is petrol.)gas cleaninggas cleaning noun the removal of pol-lutants from gas, especially from emissionsfrom factories and power stationsgaseousgaseous adjective referring to a sub-stance formed or in the form of gas � waterin the gaseous state steamgaseous pollutantgaseous pollutant noun a pollutant inthe form of a gasgas exchangegas exchange noun the transfer of gasesbetween an organism and its environmentgasolinegasoline noun US a liquid made from pe-troleum, used as a fuel in internal combus-tion engines (NOTE: The UK term is petrol.)gastropodgastropod noun a mollusc that has ahead with eyes, tongue and tentacles, alarge flattened muscular foot and often asingle shell. Class: Gastropoda. (NOTE: Lim-pets, snails and slugs are gastropods.)gathergather verb to collect things together �The children gathered sea shells on thebeach. � We gathered information fromseveral reports and reviews.gatherersgatherers plural noun people who collecttheir food and materials, rather than grow-ing them


Gause’s principle 94Gause’s principleGause’s principle noun a theory thatsuggests that two similar and competitivespecies cannot occupy the same ecologicalniche at the same timeGCVGCV abbr gross calorific valueGEGE abbr genetic engineeringGeiger counterGeiger counter, Geiger-Muller detec-tor noun an instrument for the detectionand measurement of radiationgenegene noun a unit of DNA on a chromo-some which governs the synthesis of oneprotein and may combine with other genesto determine a particular characteristicgene bankgene bank noun a collection of seedsfrom potentially useful wild plants, whichmay be used in the future for breeding newvarietiesgene flowgene flow noun a movement of genesamong populations through interbreeding,dispersal and migrationgene frequencygene frequency noun the ratio of a spe-cific variant form (allele) of a gene to thetotal number of alleles in a specific popula-tiongene mutationgene mutation noun a change in a sin-gle base or base pair in the DNA sequenceof a genegene poolgene pool noun the total of all the genescarried by the individual organisms in apopulationgeneragenera plural of genusgeneral circulation modelgeneral circulation model noun acomplex computer simulation of climateand its various components � General cir-culation models are used by researchersand policy analysts to predict climatechange.generalistgeneralist noun 1. a species which canlive in many different environments 2. aperson who studies many different sub-jects, rather than specialising in onegenerategenerate verb to make something exist �Carbon monoxide is generated by car en-gines. � The nuclear reaction generates ahuge amount of heat.generationgeneration noun 1. the act or process ofmaking or creating something � the gener-ation of electricity � the generation of ide-as 2. a group of individual organisms de-rived from the same parentsgeneratorgenerator noun a device that generateselectricity � The centre has its own inde-pendent generator, in case of mains powerfailure.genericgeneric adjective 1. relating to or suitablefor a broad range of things or situations 2.referring to a genus

generic namegeneric name noun the scientific nameof a genus. Compare specific name (NOTE:It is the first name in the binomial classifica-tion system, the second being the namewhich identifies the species. It is writtenwith a capital letter.)genetgenet noun 1. an individual organismwhich is genetically different from others2. a clone from a genetically distinct organ-ismgeneticgenetic, genetical adjective referring togenes or geneticsgenetically modifiedgenetically modified adjective refer-ring to an organism that has received genet-ic material from another in a laboratoryprocedure, leading to a permanent changein one or more of its characteristics. AbbrGMgenetically modified organismgenetically modified organismnoun a plant or animal produced by thetechnique of genetic modification. AbbrGMOgenetic bottleneckgenetic bottleneck noun a change ingene frequencies and decline in total genet-ic variation where there is a sharp decreasein population numbersgenetic codegenetic code noun the information car-ried by an organism’s DNA which deter-mines the synthesis of proteins by cells andwhich is passed on when the cell divides.Also called genetic informationgenetic damagegenetic damage noun damage to an or-ganism’s genes by external agents such asradiation or chemicalsgenetic diversitygenetic diversity noun the richness ofthe variety and range of genesgenetic driftgenetic drift noun a random change ingene frequencygenetic engineeringgenetic engineering noun same as ge-netic modification. Abbr GEgenetic informationgenetic information noun same as ge-netic codegenetic manipulationgenetic manipulation noun same asgenetic modificationgenetic markergenetic marker noun a known, usuallydominant, gene that is used in the identifi-cation of genes, chromosomes and charac-teristics already known to be associatedwith that genegenetic materialgenetic material noun the parts of a cellthat carry information that can be inherited,e.g. DNA, genes or chromosomesgenetic materialsgenetic materials plural noun same asgermplasmgenetic modificationgenetic modification noun the altera-tion and recombination of genetic materialunder laboratory conditions, resulting intransgenic organisms. Abbr GM. Also


95 geoscientistcalled genetic manipulation, genetic en-gineeringgenetic resourcesgenetic resources plural noun thegenes found in plants and animals that havevalue to humans � Modern plant varietieshave been developed from genetic resourc-es from South America.geneticsgenetics noun the study of the way inwhich the characteristics of an organismare inheritedgenetic variationgenetic variation noun the inheriteddifferences between the members of a spe-cies-genic-genic suffix produced by or producinggenomegenome noun 1. the set of all the genes inan individual 2. all the genes in a speciesgenomicgenomic adjective relating to a genomegenotypegenotype noun 1. the genetic constitu-tion of an organism. � phenotype 2. an in-dividual organismgenotypicgenotypic adjective relating to a geno-typegenusgenus noun a group of closely relatedspecies (NOTE: The plural is genera.)geo-geo- prefix Earthgeochemicalgeochemical adjective relating to geo-chemistrygeochemistgeochemist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of geochemistrygeochemistrygeochemistry noun the scientific studyof the chemical composition of the Earthgeoclinegeocline noun the set of changes that takeplace in a species across different geo-graphical environmentsgeodesygeodesy noun the science of the meas-urement of the Earth or of very large sec-tions of it to determine the exact location ofpoints on the Earth’s surface through pre-cise observation of distances and anglesgeodeticgeodetic, geodesic adjective referring togeodesygeographergeographer noun a person who special-ises in the study of geographygeographicgeographic, geographical adjective re-ferring to geography � a specific geo-graphical area � the north geographic polegeographical barriergeographical barrier noun a naturalfeature such as a mountain range or a wideriver that prevents easy movement fromone area to another and separates differenthabitatsgeographic information systemgeographic information systemnoun a computer system for capturing, ma-nipulating, analysing and displaying allforms of geographic information. Abbr GISgeographic isolationgeographic isolation noun the state ofbeing separated from other members of the

same species by the sea or a range of moun-tainsgeographygeography noun the scientific study ofthe Earth’s surface, climate and physicalfeaturesgeologicalgeological adjective referring to geologygeological aeongeological aeon noun a unit of geolog-ical time, lasting millions of years and con-taining several eras, during which Earth’ssurface and its underlying strata underwentparticular changesgeological epochgeological epoch noun a unit of geo-logical time, a subdivision of a geologicalperiodgeological erageological era noun a unit of geologicaltime containing several geological periodsgeological periodgeological period noun a unit of geo-logical time, shorter than an era and longerthan an epochgeological timescalegeological timescale noun the timeduring which the Earth has existed, i.e.many millions of yearsgeologistgeologist noun a scientist who specialis-es in the study of geologygeologygeology noun the scientific study of thecomposition of the Earth’s surface and itsunderlying stratageomagneticgeomagnetic adjective referring to theEarth’s magnetic fieldgeomagnetic polegeomagnetic pole noun same as mag-netic polegeomagnetismgeomagnetism noun the study of theEarth’s magnetic fieldgeomorphologygeomorphology noun the study of thephysical features of the Earth’s surface,their development and how they are relatedto the core beneathgeophonegeophone noun a sensitive device whichrecords sounds of seismic movements be-low the Earth’s surfacegeophysicistgeophysicist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of geophysicsgeophysicsgeophysics noun the scientific study ofthe physical properties of the Earthgeophytegeophyte noun a perennial herbaceousplant that lives through the winter as an un-derground structure such as a bulb or cormgeopoliticsgeopolitics noun the influence of geo-graphical factors on the politics of a coun-trygeosciencegeoscience noun a science concernedwith the physical aspects of the Earth, e.g.geochemistry, geodesy, geography, geolo-gy, geomorphology, geophysics or meteor-ologygeoscientistgeoscientist noun a person who special-ises in one or several of the geosciences


geosphere 96geospheregeosphere noun the central part of theEarth, which contains no living organismsgeostrophic windgeostrophic wind noun a wind whichblows horizontally along the isobars, acrossthe surface of the Earthgeosynclinegeosyncline noun a long fold in theEarth’s crust, forming a basin filled with asediment of volcanic rocksgeothermalgeothermal adjective referring to heatfrom the interior of the Earthgeothermal depositgeothermal deposit noun the heat-pro-ducing matter inside the Earthgeothermal energygeothermal energy noun the energy orelectricity generated from the heat insidethe Earth, e.g. in hot springs. Also calledgeothermal power

COMMENT: Apart from channelling waterfrom hot springs, geothermal energy canalso be created by pumping cold water intodeep holes in the ground at points wherehot rocks lie close to the surface. The wa-ter is heated and becomes steam whichreturns to the surface and is used for do-mestic heating.

geothermallygeothermally adverb from geothermalsources � Geothermally heated water canbe used for domestic heating.geothermal powergeothermal power noun same as geo-thermal energygeotropismgeotropism noun the growth or move-ment of a plant in response to gravity(NOTE: Stems and other parts that grow up-wards against gravity show negative geot-ropism. The downwards growth of roots ispositive geotropism.)germgerm noun 1. a microorganism that causesa disease, e.g. a virus or bacterium(informal) 2. a part of an organism that de-velops into a new organismgerm cellgerm cell noun a cell which is capable ofdeveloping into a spermatozoon or ovumgermicidegermicide adjective, noun a substancethat can kill germsgerminategerminate verb (of a seed or spore) tostart to growgerminationgermination noun the process of a seedor spore developing into a plantgermplasmgermplasm noun the genetic materialthat is transmitted from one generation ofan organism to anothergeysergeyser noun a natural feature occurringwhen hot water and steam rise out of a holein the ground at regular intervalsGHGGHG abbr greenhouse gasgibberellingibberellin noun a plant hormone thatstimulates growth and seed germinationgiga-giga- prefix one thousand million, or 109.Symbol G

gigawattgigawatt noun a unit of one thousand mil-lion watts � Air-conditioning accounts forone-third of the 500 gigawatt peak demandin the USA. Abbr GWgigawatt-hourgigawatt-hour noun a unit of one thou-sand million watts of electricity used forone hour. Abbr GWhgillnetgillnet noun a type of net which is at-tached to the seabed, in which fish arecaught by their gillsgillsgills plural noun 1. the breathing apparatusof fish and other animals living in water,consisting of a series of layers of tissuewhich extract oxygen from water as it pass-es over them 2. a series of thin structures onthe underside of the cap of a fungus, carry-ing the sporesGISGIS abbr geographic information systemglabrousglabrous adjective smooth and withouthairsglacialglacial adjective referring to a glacier �The rocks are marked by glacial action.glacial driftglacial drift noun the material left behindby a glacier, e.g. sand, soil or gravelglaciationglaciation noun 1. the formation of gla-ciers 2. the formation of ice crystals at thetop of a rain cloudglacierglacier noun 1. a mass of ice movingslowly across land, like a frozen river 2. alarge amount of stationary ice coveringland in the Arctic regions

COMMENT: During the Ice Ages, glacierscovered large parts of the northern hemi-sphere, depositing sand in the form of gla-cial moraines and boulder clay. Glaciersare still found in the highest mountain are-as and in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.

glaciologistglaciologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of glaciersglaciologyglaciology noun the study of glaciersglandgland noun (in animals and plants) a cellor group of cells that secrete a specific sub-stanceglandularglandular adjective referring to glandsglassglass noun a substance made from sandand soda or lime, usually transparent andused for making windows, bottles and otherobjectsglasshouseglasshouse noun a large structure madeof glass inside which plants are grown, es-pecially commercially or for scientific pur-posesglauconiteglauconite noun a green mineral com-posed of iron, potassium, aluminium andmagnesiumglaucousglaucous adjective blue-green, or with awaxy blue-green covering


97 graftglenglen noun (in Scotland ) a long narrowmountain valley with a stream runningalong itgleygley noun a thick rich soil found in water-logged groundgleyed soilgleyed soil noun soil which is water-loggedgleyinggleying noun a set of properties of soilwhich indicate poor drainage and lack ofoxygen (NOTE: The signs are a blue-greycolour, rusty patches and standing surfacewater.)globalglobal adjective referring to the wholeEarth � global biodiversity � Global tem-peratures will rise over the next fifty years.global distillationglobal distillation noun the movementof persistent organic pollutants from warmtropical and subtropical regions to coolerhigher latitudes via evaporation and con-densationglobal ecologyglobal ecology noun the study of the re-lationship of organisms to each other and totheir environment throughout the worldglobalisationglobalisation noun the development of asimilar culture and economy across thewhole world as a result of technological ad-vances in communicationsglobal positioning systemglobal positioning system noun anextremely accurate method of locating aposition using satellite signals. Abbr GPSglobal solar radiationglobal solar radiation noun the raysemitted by the Sun which fall on the Earth.Abbr GSRglobal stabilityglobal stability noun the ability of anecological or taxonomic unit to be unaffect-ed by large disturbancesglobal temperatureglobal temperature noun the tempera-ture over the Earth as a wholeglobal warmingglobal warming noun a gradual rise intemperature over the whole of the Earth’ssurface, caused by the greenhouse effectglobal warming potentialglobal warming potential noun a con-cept that takes into account the differingtimes that gases remain in the atmosphere,in order to find out the potential climate ef-fects of equal emissions of each of thegreenhouse gases. Abbr GWPglobeglobe noun 1. a spherical object 2. theEarthglobuleglobule noun a round drop of liquidgloomgloom noun 1. low light intensity 2. darkand miserable weatherglowwormglowworm noun a beetle of which the fe-males and larvae produce a greenish lightglucoseglucose noun a simple sugar found insome fruit

glufosinate ammoniumglufosinate ammonium noun a sys-temic herbicide acting against a wide rangeof species. Some crops have been geneti-cally modified to tolerate it.glumeglume noun one of a pair of dry leaves(bracts) that occur at the base of a spikeletin grasses and cereals or at the base of aninflorescence in reedsglutengluten noun a protein found in some cere-als which makes a sticky paste when wateris added (NOTE: The gluten content of flouraffects the quality of the bread made fromit.)glycogenglycogen noun a type of starch that isconverted from glucose by the action of in-sulin and stored in the liver as a source ofenergyglycoproteinglycoprotein noun a protein that islinked to a carbohydrateglyphosateglyphosate noun a systemic herbicideacting against a wide range of species.Some crops have been genetically modifiedto tolerate it.GMGM abbr 1. genetically modified 2. geneticmodificationGMOGMO abbr genetically modified organismgneissgneiss noun a rough rock with layers ofdifferent mineralsgoatgoat noun a small animal with horns, keptfor its milk and meatgoldgold noun a heavy yellow metal that is rel-atively rare. It is used to make jewellery andprecious objects. (NOTE: The chemical sym-bol is Au; the atomic number is 79 and theatomic weight is 196.97.)gold minegold mine noun a hole dug in the groundto extract goldgorgegorge noun a narrow valley with steepsidesgovernment agencygovernment agency, governmentbody noun an organisation set up by a gov-ernment to deal with a specific area of spe-cialist responsibilityGPSGPS abbr global positioning systemgrabengraben noun a type of rift valley, formedwhere land between fault lines has sunkgrab samplegrab sample noun a single sample ofsoil or water taken without considering fac-tors such as time or flowgradientgradient noun 1. the angle of a slope �Plant roots cannot retain the soil on verysteep gradients. 2. the rate of increase ordecrease of a measurementgraftgraft noun a piece of plant or animal tissuetransferred onto another plant or animaland growing there � verb to transfer a pieceof tissue from one plant or animal to anoth-er


grain 98graingrain noun 1. the seed (technically a fruit)of a cereal crop such as wheat or maize 2. acereal crop such as wheat of which theseeds are dried and eaten � grain farmers3. the size of crystals in a rock or the size ofparticles of sandgrain cropgrain crop noun a cereal crop such aswheat of which the seeds are dried and eat-engrain reservesgrain reserves plural noun the amountof cereal grain held in a store by a countrywhich is estimated to be above the coun-try’s requirements for one yeargramgram noun 1. a metric measure of weightequal to one thousandth of a kilogram.Abbr g 2. same as chickpea-gram-gram suffix a record of information in theform of a pictureGramineaeGramineae plural noun former name forPoaceaeGram’s stainGram’s stain, Gram’s method noun amethod of staining bacteria that allows twomain types to be distinguishedgranitegranite noun a hard grey rock with piecesof quartz, feldspar and other minerals in itgrantgrant noun an amount of money given tosupport a specific person or projectgranulargranular adjective in the form of granulesgranulegranule noun 1. a small particle � gran-ules of sand 2. a small artificially made par-ticle of a substance � Fertilisers are pro-duced in granule form, which is easier tohandle and distribute than powder.graphgraph noun a diagram that shows a rela-tionship between two sets of numbers as aseries of points often joined by a line � Thegraph shows the relationship between sul-fur in the atmosphere and lichen numbers.-graph-graph suffix a machine which records bydrawing-grapher-grapher suffix 1. a person skilled in asubject 2. a technician who operates a ma-chine which records informationgraphitegraphite noun a mineral form of carbonoccurring naturally as crystals or as a softblack deposit (NOTE: It is used as a moder-ator in some types of nuclear reactor and ismixed with clay to make lead pencils.)-graphy-graphy suffix the process of making animagegrassgrass noun a monocotyledonous plant inthe Poaceae family. There are many genera.(NOTE: Grasses include cereals and are im-portant as food for herbivores and hu-mans.)grasslandgrassland noun land covered mainly bygrasses. � acid grassland, calcareousgrassland � plural noun grasslands wide

areas of land covered mainly by grasses,e.g. the prairies of North America and thepampas of South Americagravelgravel noun sand and small pebbles oc-curring as deposits (NOTE: On the Went-worth-Udden scale, gravel has a diameterof 2–4 millimetres.)graveyardgraveyard noun a place where nuclearwaste is buried, or where unwanted ma-chines or vehicles are left (informal)gravitationalgravitational adjective referring to grav-itygravitygravity noun a natural force of attractionwhich pulls bodies towards each other andwhich pulls objects on the Earth towards itscentre � In order for a bird to fly, lift mustovercome gravity. Also called force ofgravitygraygray noun an SI unit of measurement ofabsorbed radiation equal to 100 rads. Sym-bol Gygrazegraze verb (of animals) to feed on low-growing plantsgrazergrazer noun a grazing animalgrazer systemgrazer system noun the section of acommunity where animals feed on plantsgraziergrazier noun a farmer who looks aftergrazing animalsgrazinggrazing noun 1. the action of animalsfeeding on growing grass, legumes or otherplants � Spine on plants may be a protec-tion against grazing. 2. the action of ani-mals eating plankton or other very smallanimals 3. an area of land covered withlow-growing plants suitable for animals tofeed on � There is good grazing on themountain pastures.grazing food chaingrazing food chain noun a cycle inwhich vegetation is eaten by animals, di-gested, then passed into the soil as dungand so taken up again by plants which areeaten by animalsGreat Barrier ReefGreat Barrier Reef noun a coral reefabout 200km long that lies parallel to thecoast of north-east Australiagreengreen adjective 1. referring to a colourlike that of grass � The green colour inplants is provided by chlorophyll. 2. refer-ring to an interest in ecological and envi-ronmental problems � green policies �noun 1. a colour like that of grass 2. alsoGreen a person with a concern for ecolog-ical and environmental problemsgreen accountinggreen accounting noun same as full-cost accountinggreen area indexgreen area index noun the total area ofleaves, green fruits and green stems per unit


99 greenwashof ground area covered by a plant. AbbrGAIgreen auditgreen audit noun same as environmen-tal auditGreen BeltGreen Belt noun an area of agriculturalland, woodland or parkland which sur-rounds an urban areagreen burialgreen burial noun an act of burial de-signed to have low environmental impact,typically placing a corpse that has not beenembalmed in a biodegradable coffin or bagand burying it in a grave marked with a sap-ling. � woodland burialgreen certificategreen certificate noun a official recordconfirming that a specific percentage ofelectricity has been produced from renewa-ble energy sourcesgreen chemistrygreen chemistry noun the developmentof chemical products that do not cause pol-lution or environmental and human healthrisksgreen consumerismgreen consumerism noun a move-ment to encourage people to buy food andother products such as organic foods orlead-free petrol which are regarded as envi-ronmentally goodgreen electricitygreen electricity noun same as greentariff electricitygreenfield sitegreenfield site noun a place in the coun-tryside, not previously built on, that is cho-sen as the site for a new housing develop-ment or factory � Urban fringe sites areless attractive to developers than greenfieldsites. Compare brownfield sitegreenhousegreenhouse noun a structure made ofglass inside which plants are growngreenhouse effectgreenhouse effect noun the effect pro-duced by the accumulation of carbon diox-ide crystals and water vapour in the upperatmosphere, which insulates the Earth andraises the atmospheric temperature by pre-venting heat loss

COMMENT: Carbon dioxide particles allowsolar radiation to pass through and reachthe Earth, but prevent heat from radiatingback into the atmosphere. This results in arise in the Earth’s atmospheric tempera-ture, as if the atmosphere were a green-house protecting the Earth. Even a smallrise of less than 1°C in the atmospherictemperature could have serious effects onthe climate of the Earth as a whole. Thepolar ice caps would melt, causing sea lev-els to rise everywhere with consequentflooding. Temperate areas in Asia andAmerica would experience hotter and drierconditions, causing crop failures. Carbondioxide is largely formed from burning fos-sil fuels. Other gases contribute to thegreenhouse effect, for instance methane isincreasingly produced by rotting vegeta-

tion in swamps, from paddy fields, fromtermites’ excreta and even from the stom-achs of cows. Chlorofluorocarbons alsohelp create the greenhouse effect.

greenhouse gasgreenhouse gas noun a gas that occursnaturally in the atmosphere or is producedby burning fossil fuels and rises into the at-mosphere, forming a barrier which pre-vents heat loss � planning to introduce atax to inhibit greenhouse gas emissions.Abbr GHG

COMMENT: The six greenhouse gases witha direct effect are carbon dioxide, meth-ane, nitrous oxide (all of which occur natu-rally), hydrofluorocarbons and perfluoro-carbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Indirectgreenhouses gases are nitrogen oxides,which produce ozone during their break-down in the atmosphere, carbon monoxideand non-methane volatile compounds.

greeninggreening noun 1. the process of plantingtrees and other vegetation in an area 2. theprocess of becoming more aware, or in-creasing others’ awareness, of the environ-ment and environmental issuesgreen manuregreen manure noun fast-growing greenvegetation such as mustard or rape which isgrown and ploughed into the soil to rot andact as manureGreen PartyGreen Party noun a political party whichis mainly concerned with environmental is-suesGreenpeaceGreenpeace noun an international pres-sure group that takes action to publicise en-vironmental issuesgreen petrolgreen petrol noun a type of petrol con-taining fewer pollutants than ordinary pet-rolgreen politicsgreen politics noun the kind of politicalproposals put forward by environmentalistsgreen pricinggreen pricing noun the choice offered tocustomers of energy companies to pay ex-tra on their bills to cover the costs of re-searching and using renewable resourcesGreen RevolutionGreen Revolution noun the develop-ment in the 1960s of new forms of widelygrown cereal plants such as wheat and rice,which gave high yields and increased foodproduction especially in tropical countriesgreen spacegreen space noun an area of land whichhas not been built on, containing grass,plants and treesgreenstripgreenstrip noun a firebreak on opengrassland, planted with vegetation that doesnot burn easilygreen tariff electricitygreen tariff electricity noun electricityproduced from renewable resources such aswind. Also called green electricitygreenwashgreenwash noun a public relations initi-ative such as advertising or public consulta-


green waste 100tion, that is designed to show the concern ofa business or organisation for the environ-mental impact of its activities but which isoften regarded as propagandagreen wastegreen waste noun leaves, grass cuttingsand other plant material that is to be dis-posed ofgreenwaygreenway noun 1. a grass track 2. a sys-tem of linked open spaces such as parks andprivately owned natural areas, often in anurban areagreen woodgreen wood noun new shoots on a tree,which have not ripened fullygrey watergrey water, greywater noun the relative-ly clean waste water from sinks, baths, andkitchen appliancesgridgrid noun a pattern of equally spaced ver-tical and horizontal linesgrid referencegrid reference noun a set of numberswhich refer to a point on a map, used for ac-curate location of a placegrindgrind verb to reduce a substance to fineparticles by crushinggrindergrinder noun a device or machine whichreduces a substance to fine particles bycrushinggrindinggrinding noun the process of reducing ofa substance to fine particles by crushinggritgrit noun 1. sharp-grained sand 2. a tinysolid particle in the air, larger than dustgroovegroove noun a long shallow depression ina surfacegross calorific valuegross calorific value noun the totalnumber of calories which a specific amountof a substance contains. Abbr GCVgross primary productiongross primary production noun therate at which a biomass assimilates organicmattergross primary productivitygross primary productivity noun therate at which producers in an ecosystemcapture and store chemical energy as bio-mass. � net primary productivitygroundground noun 1. the solid surface of theEarth 2. a surface layer of soil or earth �stony ground 3. an area of land � a stretchof open ground before you reach the treesground clearanceground clearance noun the removal oftrees and undergrowth in preparation for anactivity such as ploughing or buildingground coverground cover noun plants that growdensely close to the ground, either in natu-ral conditions or planted to prevent soil ero-sion or the spread of weedsground-level concentrationground-level concentration noun theamount of a pollutant measured at theheight of the ground, just above it or justbelow it

ground-nestingground-nesting adjective (of birds)building nests on the groundground pollutionground pollution noun the presence ofunusually high concentrations of harmfulsubstances in the soilground source heat pumpground source heat pump noun aheat pump used to extract heat from theground at several metres deep and transferit to a building where heat is requiredground waterground water noun water that stays inthe top layers of soil or in porous rocks andcan collect pollution. Compare surfacewatergroundwater rechargegroundwater recharge noun the proc-ess by which water from above the surfaceis added to the saturated zone of an aquifer,either directly or indirectlygroupgroup noun a number of individual itemsor people brought together � verb to bringseveral things togethergrovegrove noun a small group of treesgrowgrow verb 1. (of plants) to exist and devel-op well � Bananas grow only in warm hu-mid conditions. 2. (of plants and animals)to increase in size � The tree grows slowly.� A sunflower can grow 3 cm in one day. 3.to cultivate plants � Farmers here grow twocrops in a year. � He grows peas for the lo-cal canning factory. 4. to become � It’sgrowing colder at night now. � She grewweak with hunger.growthgrowth noun 1. an increase in size � thegrowth in the population since 1960 � Thedisease stunts the conifers’ growth. 2. theamount by which something increases insize � The rings show the annual growth ofthe tree.growth hormonegrowth hormone noun a natural or arti-ficial chemical that makes an organismgrowgrowth rategrowth rate noun the amount or speed ofincrease in sizegrowth ringgrowth ring noun same as annual ringgroynegroyne noun a structure that is built outfrom the shore into the sea to help holdback material moving along the shorelineby the force of waves and so prevent ero-siongrubgrub noun a small caterpillar or larva �verb � to grub up to dig up a plant with itsroots � Miles of hedgerows have beengrubbed up to make larger fields.GSRGSR abbr global solar radiationguanoguano noun a mass of accumulated birddroppings, found especially on small is-lands and used as organic fertiliserguard cellguard cell noun either of a pair of cellsthat border a leaf pore and control its size


101 gyre(NOTE: The guard cells and pore are calleda stoma, and are most common on the un-derside of leaves.)guerrillaguerrilla noun a plant species that invadesa community as isolated individuals. Com-pare phalanxguidelineguideline noun a piece of advice thatsuggests the best way for something to bedone � guidelines for the conduct of exper-imentsguildguild noun a group of plants or animals ofdifferent species which live in the sametype of environmentgulfgulf noun a very large area of sea enclosedpartly by landGulf StreamGulf Stream noun a current of warm wa-ter in the Atlantic Ocean, which flows northalong the east coast of the USA, then cross-es the Atlantic to northern Europe, passingclose to the west coast of Scotland and giv-ing the British Isles and European coast amild winter climate compared with coun-tries at the same latitude such as easternCanadagulfweedgulfweed noun floating seaweed thatgrows in the Sargasso Seagullgull noun a seabird, with a large body, usu-ally white or grey feathers, a hooked beakand webbed feet. There are several differ-ent species.

gullygully noun 1. a deep channel formed bysoil erosion and unable to be filled in bycultivation 2. a small channel for water, e.g.an artificial channel dug at the edge of afield or a natural channel in rockgully cleaninggully cleaning noun the clearance ofrubbish from drainage gullies at the edge ofroadsgumgum noun a liquid substance in the trunksand branches of some trees, which hardenson contact with air. It is used in confection-ery, pharmacy and stationery.gustgust noun a strong sudden rush of wind �Strong gusts blew dust off the fields into theair.gustygusty adjective referring to wind blowingin sudden strong burstsGWGW, gW abbr gigawattGWhGWh abbr gigawatt-hourGWPGWP abbr global warming potentialGyGy abbr graygymnospermgymnosperm noun a seed-bearing plantin which the seeds are carried naked on thescales of a cone rather than being inside afruit, e.g. a conifer, cycad or ginkgo. � an-giospermgynoeciumgynoecium noun the female sex organs(carpels) of a plantgyregyre noun a circular or spiral motion ofocean water


Hhaha symbol hectarehaarhaar noun a sea mist occurring during thesummer in the north of the British Isleshabithabit noun the characteristic way in whicha specific plant grows � a bush with anerect habit � a plant with a creeping habithabitathabitat noun the type of environment inwhich a specific organism liveshabitat action planhabitat action plan noun a detailed de-scription of a specific habitat together withthe detailed actions and targets proposedfor conserving it. Abbr HAPhabitat diversityhabitat diversity noun a variety of hab-itats within an area. The larger the area, themore diverse the habitats.habitat islandhabitat island noun an area suitable fora species that is surrounded by other lesssuitable areas such as urban areashabitat losshabitat loss noun a permanent disap-pearance of or decrease in the amount ofsuitable environment available to an organ-ism. Also called habitat reductionhabitat managementhabitat management noun same asnature managementhabitat reductionhabitat reduction noun same as habitatlosshabitat restorationhabitat restoration noun activity car-ried out to return an area to a former morefavourable condition for wildlifehaboobhaboob noun a violent dust storm or sandstorm of a type found in North Africa, espe-cially in Sudan (NOTE: Such dust stormsare associated with cumulonimbus clouds.)HACCPHACCP noun a process for identifyingand controlling hazards within a process,e.g. in the food industry. Full form HazardAnalysis Critical Control Pointshadal zonehadal zone noun a zone of the ocean atdepths greater than the abyssal zone, i.e.below 6000mhaematitehaematite noun iron oxide, the mostcommon form of iron ore. Formula: Fe2O3.hailhail noun water falling from clouds in theform of small round pieces of ice � verb tofall as small pieces of icehailstonehailstone noun a piece of ice which fallsfrom clouds like rainhailstormhailstorm noun a storm in which the pre-cipitation is hail and not rain

hairhair noun 1. a slender outgrowth on thesurface of a plant or animal 2. a mass ofoutgrowths on an animal’s skin or a per-son’s head or bodyhalf-hardyhalf-hardy adjective referring to a plantthat is able to tolerate cold weather down toabout 5C. � hardyhalf-lifehalf-life, half-life period noun 1. the timetaken for half the atoms in a radioactive iso-tope to decay. Also called half-value peri-od 2. the time required for an organism toeliminate naturally half the amount of asubstance that has entered its bodyhalo-halo- prefix salthalobiotichalobiotic adjective referring to organ-isms which live in salt waterhalocarbonhalocarbon noun a chemical consistingof carbon, sometimes hydrogen, and a hal-ogen such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine oriodine. Also called halogenated carbonhaloclinehalocline noun a salinity gradient wheretwo masses of water such as fresh waterand the sea meethalogenhalogen noun a non-metallic element be-longing to a series of chemically relatednon-metallic elements that includes fluo-rine, chlorine, iodine, bromine and astatinehalogenatedhalogenated adjective referring to achemical compound that contains one ofthe halogenshalogenated carbonhalogenated carbon noun same ashalocarbonhalogen lamphalogen lamp noun a light bulb contain-ing a halogen that runs at a much highertemperature than a conventional incandes-cent lamphalogenoushalogenous adjective referring to orcontaining a halogenhalomorphic soilhalomorphic soil noun soil that con-tains large amounts of salthalonhalon noun a chemical compound thatcontains bromine and resembles a chlo-rofluorocarbonhalophilehalophile noun a species that can live insalty conditionshalophytehalophyte noun a plant that is able togrow in salty soil, as in estuarieshands-onhands-on adjective referring to being ac-tively involved in something � hands-onexperience


103 Health and Safety Executivehanging valleyhanging valley noun a valley highabove the side of another valley, formedwhen the main valley was cut deeper by alarger glacier, leaving the smaller valley tojoin it at a cliff (NOTE: This is one of theways in which waterfalls are formed.)HAPHAP abbr Habitat Action Planhardhard adjective (of water ) containing calci-um and magnesium in solutionhardenharden verb to make something hard, orbecome hard � to harden off to makeplants become gradually more used to cold� After seedlings have been grown in thegreenhouse, they need to be hardened offbefore planting outside in the open ground.hardnesshardness noun 1. an indication of thepercentage of calcium in water 2. a meas-urement of how hard a mineral ishardpanhardpan noun a hard soil surface, usuallyformed of dried clayhardwoodhardwood noun 1. a slow-growingbroad-leaved tree, e.g. oak, teak or mahog-any 2. the fine-grained, dense wood pro-duced by a tree such as oak, teak or mahog-any. Compare softwoodhardyhardy adjective referring to a plant able totolerate cold weather, especially below 5°C. � half-hardyharmattanharmattan noun a hot dry winter windthat blows from the northeast and causesdust storms in the Saharaharnessharness verb to control a natural phe-nomenon and make it produce energy � Atidal power station harnesses the power ofthe tides.harvestharvest noun 1. the time when a crop isgathered 2. a crop that is gathered � verb 1.to gather a crop that is ripe � They are har-vesting the rice crop. 2. to gather a naturalresourcehatchhatch verb (of an animal) to break out ofan egghatcheryhatchery noun a place where eggs arekept warm artificially until the animal in-side becomes mature enough to break outhayhay noun grass mowed and dried before ithas flowered, used for feeding animalshay feverhay fever noun same as pollinosishaymakinghaymaking noun the cutting of grass infields to make hayhazardhazard noun something with the potentialto cause injury, damage or loss � a fire haz-ard � a health hazard � Thundercloudsmay pose hazards to aircraft. Compare riskhazard assessmenthazard assessment noun a formal as-sessment of the potential of something toharm humans or the environment

hazardous

hazardous adjective referring to the dan-ger that something might present � hazard-ous chemicals � Climbing mountains canbe hazardous.hazardous substancehazardous substance noun a sub-stance that is toxic, persistent and likely toaccumulate in organismshazardous wastehazardous waste noun a by-product ofmanufacturing processes or nuclearprocessing that is toxic and can damagepeople’s health or the environment if nottreated correctlyhazard profilehazard profile noun data on the physicaland chemical characteristics, toxicity, bio-accumulation, persistence and mobility inenvironmental media and other propertiesof a chemical, used together with informa-tion on exposure to assess riskhaze

haze noun dust or smoke in the atmos-phere � Haze can seriously reduce air-to-ground visibility.HD polythene

HD polythene noun same as high-den-sity polytheneHeHe symbol heliumhead

head noun 1. a point where a river starts toflow 2. pressure shown as the vertical dis-tance that water falls from the inlet of thecollection pipe to the water turbine in a hy-droelectric power system 3. pressure shownas the vertical distance of a water tankabove the taps in a house � verb 1. to be incharge of an organisation or group of peo-ple 2. to move or move something in a par-ticular directionheadland

headland noun 1. a high mass of landprotruding into the sea 2. an uncultivatedarea of soil at the edge of a field, where atractor turns when ploughing. � conserva-tion headlandheadstreamheadstream noun a stream that flowsinto a river near the river’s sourceheadwatersheadwaters plural noun the area inwhich tributary streams feed into a rivernear the river’s sourcehealthhealth noun the state of a plant, animal orperson being well and free from disease �Fumes from the factory were a danger topublic health. � plant healthHealth and Safety at Work Act

Health and Safety at Work Act nounan Act of Parliament which indicates howthe health of workers should be protectedby the companies they work forHealth and Safety ExecutiveHealth and Safety Executive noun aUK government organisation responsiblefor checking people’s working environ-ment. Abbr HSE


health assessment 104health assessment

health assessment noun an assess-ment of the dangers to the health of thepopulation involved in a contaminated areahealth food

health food noun a food that is regardedas contributing to good health, especiallyone with no artificial additives (NOTE:Health foods include natural cereals, driedfruit and nuts.)health hazard

health hazard noun something that islikely to harm someone’s healthhealth risk assessment

health risk assessment noun a pre-diction of the potential health effects of be-ing exposed to hazardous substanceshealthy

healthy adjective 1. not ill, or not showingsigns of diseases or disorders 2. likely tokeep or make you well � a healthy dietheart

heart noun the compact central part of avegetable such as lettuce, cabbage or cel-ery, where new leaves or stalks formheartwood

heartwood noun the hard dead wood inthe centre of a tree trunk which helps sup-port the tree. Compare sapwood. Alsocalled duramenheat

heat noun 1. energy that is moving from asource to another point � The heat of theSun made the surface of the road melt. 2.the period when a female animal will allowmating � an animal on heat a female ani-mal in the period when she will accept amate � verb to make something hot � Thesolution should be heated to 25 °C.heat accumulator

heat accumulator noun a vessel forstoring hot liquid, allowing even heat distri-bution or distribution over a period of time.Also called thermal accumulatorheat discharge

heat discharge noun a release of wasteheat into the atmosphere, especially froman industrial process. Also called thermaldischargeheat engine

heat engine noun a phenomenon thatproduces the Earth’s climatic pattern,caused by the difference in temperature be-tween the hot equatorial zone and the coldpolar regions, making warm water and airfrom the tropics move towards the polesheat gain

heat gain noun same as energy gainheath

heath noun an area of acid soil where lowshrubs such as heather and gorse grow andwhich are treeless as a result of grazing byanimals

COMMENT: Lowland heaths are found ondry sandy soils or gravel below 300 m. Up-land heaths are found on mineral soils orshallow peat and may be dry or wet, withmosses growing in wetter conditions.

heathland

heathland noun a wide area of heath

heatingheating noun 1. the process of makingsomething hot 2. a system that suppliesheatheat islandheat island noun an increase in tempera-ture experienced in the centre of a large ur-ban area, caused by the release of heat frombuildingsheat-proofheat-proof adjective referring to a mate-rial or something made from a materialthrough which heat cannot passheat reclamationheat reclamation, heat recovery nounthe process of collecting heat from sub-stances heated during a process and using itto heat further substances, so as to avoidheat lossheat storageheat storage noun the storage of heatproduced during a period of low consump-tion until a peak period when it is needed.Also called thermal storageheavyheavy adjective 1. weighing a lot 2. se-vere, difficult or unpleasant 3. involving alot of effortheavy industryheavy industry noun an industry thatextracts raw materials such as coalhectarehectare noun an area of land measuring100 by 100 metres, i.e. 10000 square me-tres or 2.47 acres. Symbol hahedgehedge noun a row of bushes planted andregularly cut to provide a barrier around afield or gardenhedgebankhedgebank noun a raised strip of earthon which a hedge is planted � primrosesgrowing on the hedgebankhedgelayinghedgelaying noun a traditional methodof cultivating hedges, where tall saplingsare cut through halfway and then bent overso that they lie horizontally and make athick barrierhedgerowhedgerow noun a line of bushes forminga hedgehedginghedging noun the skill of cultivatinghedgeshelio-helio- prefix Sunheliophyteheliophyte noun a plant that is adapted togrow in strong lightheliotropicheliotropic adjective referring to a plantthat grows or turns towards a light sourceheliumhelium noun a light inert gas, used in bal-loons and as a coolant in some types of nu-clear reactor (NOTE: The chemical symbol isHe; the atomic number is 2 and the atomicweight is 4.00.)helophytehelophyte noun a plant that typicallygrows in marshy or lake-edge environ-mentshemispherehemisphere noun 1. one half of a sphere2. one half of the Earth north or south of theequator � the northern hemisphere


105 hibernatehemlockhemlock noun 1. a North American soft-wood tree. Genus: Tsuga. 2. a poisonousplant. Latin name: Conium maculatum.herbherb noun 1. a plant that is used to add fla-vour in cooking 2. a plant that has medici-nal properties 3. a non-woody floweringplant that has no perennial stem above theground in winterherb-herb- prefix referring to plants or vegeta-tionherbaceousherbaceous adjective referring to plantswith soft non-woody tissue that die downabove ground to survive through the winterherbageherbage noun the green plants, especiallygrass, eaten by grazing animalsherbalherbal adjective referring to plantsherbalismherbalism noun the treatment of illness-es or disorders by the use of herbs or bymedicines extracted from herbsherbariumherbarium noun a collection of pre-served plant or fungal specimens, especial-ly one that is used for scientific study andclassificationherbicideherbicide noun a chemical that killsplants, especially used to control weedsherbivoreherbivore noun an animal that feeds onlyon plants. � carnivore, detritivore, frugi-vore, omnivoreherbivorousherbivorous adjective referring to an an-imal that feeds only on plantsherdherd noun a group of herbivorous animalsthat live together � a herd of cows (NOTE:The word herd is usually used for cattle; forsheep, goats, and birds such as hens orgeese, the word to use is flock.) � verb 1.to tend a herd of animals 2. to gather ani-mals together � herding the cows into theyardherdsmanherdsman noun someone who looks af-ter a herd of animalshereditaryhereditary adjective referring to a genet-ically controlled characteristic that ispassed from parent to offspringhereditary factorhereditary factor noun a geneticallycontrolled characteristic that is passed fromparent to offspringheredityheredity noun the transfer of geneticallycontrolled characteristics from parent tooffspringheritableheritable adjective able to be passed fromparent to offspringheritageheritage noun the environment, includingthe countryside, biodiversity of species,and historic buildings and sites, seen assomething to be passed on in good condi-tion to future generations

heritage coastheritage coast noun an area of coastlinethat is protected because of its special sce-nic or environmental valuehermaphroditehermaphrodite noun an animal, plant orflower that has both male and female sexualorganshertzhertz noun the SI unit of frequency. Sym-bol Hz (NOTE: One hertz is equal to one cy-cle per second.)hetero-hetero- prefix different. Compare homo-heterogeneousheterogeneous adjective having differ-ent characteristics or qualities (NOTE: Donot confuse with heterogenous.)heterogenousheterogenous adjective coming from adifferent source (NOTE: Do not confuse withheterogeneous.)heterologousheterologous adjective differing instructural features or originheterophyteheterophyte noun 1. a plant that growsin a wide range of habitats 2. a plant thatlacks chlorophyll and is parasiticheterosisheterosis noun an increase in size or rateof growth, fertility or resistance to diseasefound in offspring of a cross between or-ganisms with different genotypes. Alsocalled hybrid vigour. Compare inbreed-ing depressionheterotrophheterotroph noun an organism that re-quires carbon in organic form and cannotmanufacture it (NOTE: Animals, fungi andsome algae and bacteria are heterotrophs.)heterotrophicheterotrophic adjective referring to aheterotroph � a heterotrophic organismheterozygosityheterozygosity noun the state of beingheterozygousheterozygousheterozygous adjective relating to a cellor organism that has two or more variantforms (alleles) of at least one of its genes(NOTE: The offspring of such an organismmay differ with regard to the characteristicsdetermined by the gene or genes involved,depending on which version of the genethey inherit.)hexachlorocyclohexanehexachlorocyclohexane noun sameas lindaneHFCHFC abbr hydrofluorocarbonHgHg symbol mercuryHGCAHGCA noun an organisation established toimprove the production and marketing ofUK cereal crops and oilseeds, and to pro-mote research. Full form Home-GrownCereals Authorityhibernaculumhibernaculum noun a place where ananimal hibernates, e.g. a nest (NOTE: Theplural is hibernacula.)hibernatehibernate verb (of an animal) to survivethe cold winter months by a big reduction


hibernation 106in metabolic rate and activity, and by usingup stored body fat for foodhibernationhibernation noun a big reduction in met-abolic rate and activity, and the using up ofstored body fat to survive the cold wintermonths. Compare aestivationhickoryhickory noun a North American hard-wood tree. Genus: Carya.hidehide noun 1. the skin of a large animal 2.a shelter where humans can stay hiddenwhile watching birds or animalshighhigh adjective 1. reaching far from groundlevel � Altocumulus clouds form at higherlevels than cumulus. 2. of greater than aver-age amount � The sample gave a highreading of radioactivity. � The soil is redand high in aluminium and iron oxide. �noun an area of high atmospheric pressurehigh-densityhigh-density adjective 1. having a largemass per unit of volume 2. having a lot ofpeople or organisms living closely together� high-density housinghigh-density polythenehigh-density polythene noun verythick strong plastic. Abbr HD polythenehigh-energy foodhigh-energy food noun a kind of foodwhich gives a lot of energy when brokendown by the digestive system, e.g. fats orcarbohydrateshigher plantshigher plants plural noun plants thathave a vascular system. Compare lowerplantshigh-gradehigh-grade adjective of very high qualityhighlandhighland noun an area of high land ormountains. Opposite lowland � adjectivereferring to a hilly or mountainous area �Highland vegetation is mainly grass,heather and herbs.high-level wastehigh-level waste, high-level nuclearwaste, high-level radioactive waste nounwaste that is hot and emits strong radiationhigh-performancehigh-performance adjective designedto operate very efficientlyhigh production volume chemicalhigh production volume chemicalnoun a chemical of which more than 1000tonnes is sold per year per manufacturer orimporterhigh-riskhigh-risk adjective having a strong likeli-hood of damage or injury � high-risk occu-pationshigh-techhigh-tech adjective technologically ad-vanced (informal)high-tensionhigh-tension adjective (of electricity ca-ble) carrying a high voltageHighways DepartmentHighways Department noun a localgovernment office dealing with all mattersaffecting the planning, construction andmaintenance of roads in an area

high-yieldinghigh-yielding adjective producing alarge crop � They have started to growhigh-yielding varieties of wheat.hillhill noun an area of ground higher than thesurrounding areas but not as high as amountainhill farmhill farm noun a farm in mountainouscountry, with 95% or more of its land clas-sified as rough grazing, mainly for sheephillsidehillside noun the sloping side of a hillhinterlandhinterland noun an area of land lying be-hind the shore of the sea or of a riverhistaminichistaminic adjective referring to hista-minehisto-histo- prefix biological tissuehistochemistryhistochemistry noun the study of thechemical constituents of cells and tissuesand their function and distributionhistologyhistology noun the study of the anatomyof tissue cells and minute cellular struc-tures, using a microscope after the cellshave been stainedhistoryhistory noun 1. the study of what hap-pened in the past � the history of science 2.a record of past events and experiences �the history of the discovery of DNA � thelife history of a froghoar frosthoar frost noun the frozen dew thatforms on outside surfaces when the temper-ature falls below freezing pointhoehoe noun a garden implement, with asmall sharp blade, used to break up the sur-face of soil or cut off weeds � verb to cul-tivate land with a hoeHolarctic regionHolarctic region noun a biogeographi-cal region which includes the Nearctic, i.e.North America, and the Palaearctic, i.e. Eu-rope, North Africa and North Asiaholiday homeholiday home noun a house where a per-son only lives for part of the time, such asat weekends or during a holiday. Alsocalled second homeholisticholistic adjective referring to an approachthat deals with a subject as a whole ratherthan looking at just one aspecthollowhollow adjective referring to an objectwith a space inside it � hollow plant stemsholophyticholophytic adjective referring to organ-isms such as plants that can make complexorganic molecules by photosynthesisholoplanktonholoplankton plural noun organismswhich remain as plankton throughout theirentire life cycle, e.g. algaeholozoicholozoic adjective referring to organismssuch as animals that feed on other organ-isms or organic matter


107 househomehome noun 1. a place where a person oranimal lives 2. an environment or habitathome consumptionhome consumption noun the eating,drinking or use of something in the homerather than in a public place � Home con-sumption of alcohol has increased greatlyover the last twenty years.Home Grown Cereals AuthorityHome Grown Cereals Authoritynoun full form of HGCAhomeo-homeo- prefix similarhomeostasishomeostasis noun 1. the tendency of asystem to resist change and maintain itselfin a state of equilibrium 2. the process bywhich the functions and chemistry of a cellor organism are kept stable, even when ex-ternal conditions vary greatlyhomeothermhomeotherm noun another spelling ofhomoiothermhome rangehome range noun the area that an animalmoves about in during its day-to-day activ-ities (NOTE: Do not confuse with territory,which is a defended area and may be partor all of the home range.)home zonehome zone noun a street or group ofstreets organised to be suitable for theneeds of pedestrians and cyclists ratherthan motorists (NOTE: There are traffic-calming measure to encourage motorists todrive slowly and sometimes play areas orsitting areas.)hominghoming noun an animal’s return to a spe-cific site which is used for sleeping orbreedinghominidhominid noun any member of the familyof humans, especially humans early in theirhistoryhomo-homo- prefix same. Compare hetero-homoeo-homoeo- prefix same as homeo-homoiothermhomoiotherm, homoeotherm nounsame as endothermhomologoushomologous adjective having the samestructural featureshomologous pairhomologous pair noun a pair of chro-mosomes in a diploid organism that arestructurally similar and have the same ar-rangement of genes, although they maycarry different alleles (NOTE: One memberof each pair is inherited from each parent.)homospherehomosphere noun the zone of theEarth’s atmosphere, including the tropo-sphere, the stratosphere and the meso-sphere, where the composition of the at-mosphere remains relatively constanthomozygosityhomozygosity noun the state of beinghomozygoushomozygoushomozygous adjective relating to a cellor organism that has two identical forms(alleles) of a gene

honeypot sitehoneypot site noun a place that attractslarge numbers of visitors because of its rep-utation or positionhookwormhookworm noun a parasitic worm in theintestine which holds onto the wall of theintestine with its teeth and lives on theblood and protein of the carrierhorizonhorizon noun 1. the line where the skyand the ground appear to join 2. a layer ofsoil which is of a different colour or texturefrom the resthorizontal-axis wind turbinehorizontal-axis wind turbine noun awind turbine with two or three blades at-tached to a central hub that drives a gener-ator and where the main shaft is parallelwith the surface of the ground � Horizon-tal-axis wind turbines are the most commonform of wind turbine.hormonalhormonal adjective referring to hor-moneshormonehormone noun 1. a substance producedin animals in one part of the body whichhas a particular effect in another part of thebody 2. a plant growth factorhorticulturalhorticultural adjective referring to horti-culturehorticulturehorticulture noun the cultivation offlowers, fruit and vegetables in gardens,nurseries or glasshouses, as a science, oc-cupation or leisure activity. � botanicalhorticulturehorticulturisthorticulturist noun a person who spe-cialises in horticulturehosthost noun a plant or animal on which aparasite lives � adjective referring to aplant or animal on which a parasite liveshost–parasite interactionhost–parasite interaction noun a re-lationship between a host and a parasitehothot adjective 1. having a high temperature� hot weather � hot water 2. dangerouslyradioactive (informal) 3. electricallycharged 4. extremely infectioushot deserthot desert noun a desert situated in thetropics, e.g. the Sahara Desert or the Arabi-an Desert. Also called tropical deserthot rockhot rock noun a rock with a high temper-ature beneath the Earth’s surface (NOTE: Hotrocks can be used to create geothermal en-ergy by pumping down cold water and mak-ing use of the rising hot water which therocks have heated.)hotspothotspot noun a place where backgroundradiation is particularly highhousehouse noun 1. a building where a personlives 2. a structure where animals or ma-chinery are kept � the reptile house � theengine house


housefly 108houseflyhousefly noun a common fly living inhouses, which can spread disease by layingits eggs in decaying meat and vegetableshouseholdhousehold noun a group of people livingtogether in a single home � adjective 1. re-ferring to or used in houses where peoplelive � household appliances such as fridg-es and ovens 2. familiar � householdknowledgehousehold refusehousehold refuse, household wastenoun same as domestic refusehousinghousing noun the buildings where peoplelivehousing estatehousing estate noun an area of landwith buildings specially designed and con-structed for residential useHSEHSE abbr Health and Safety Executivehumanhuman adjective referring to a man,woman or child � noun same as humanbeing � Most animals are afraid of hu-mans.human beinghuman being noun a man, woman orchildhuman capitalhuman capital noun the informationand skills of individual people which formthe basis of knowledge can be increased bytraininghuman-causedhuman-caused adjective referring to adisaster or event which has been broughtabout by human beingshuman ecologyhuman ecology noun the study of com-munities of people, the place that they oc-cupy in the natural world and the ways inwhich they adapt to or change the environ-menthuman geographyhuman geography noun the study ofthe distribution of human populations withreference to their geographical environ-menthuman-induced stresshuman-induced stress noun stress inanimals caused by interactions with hu-manshumankindhumankind noun all human beings con-sidered as a wholehuman racehuman race noun same as humankindhuman settlementhuman settlement noun a place such asa village or city where humans livehuman timescalehuman timescale noun the time duringwhich humans have existed on earth, i.e.several thousand yearshumatehumate noun a salt that is derived fromhumushumidhumid adjective relating to air that con-tains moisture vapour � Decomposition oforganic matter is rapid in hot and humidconditions.

humidifierhumidifier noun a device for making dryair moist, especially in air conditioning orheating systemshumidifyhumidify noun to make something moisthumidityhumidity noun a measurement of howmuch water vapour is contained in the airhumificationhumification noun the breakdown of rot-ting organic waste to form humushumifyhumify verb to break down rotting organ-ic waste to form humushumushumus noun 1. the fibrous organic matterin soil, formed from decomposed plantsand animal remains, which makes the soildark and binds it together 2. a dark organicresidue left after sewage has been treated insewage workshunthunt verb to follow and kill wild animalsfor sport � noun 1. an organised event dur-ing which a group of people and often dogshunt a wild animal for sport � a fox hunt �a deer hunt 2. also Hunt a group of peoplewho regularly hunt togetherhunterhunter noun a person who follows andkills wild animals for sport � plural nounhunters people who kill wild animals forfood. Compare gatherershuntinghunting noun the activity of followingand killing wild animals for sporthunting seasonhunting season noun the time of yearwhen people hunt animals for sporthunt saboteurhunt saboteur noun a person who ob-jects to hunting and tries to prevent huntstaking placehurricanehurricane noun a tropical storm with ex-tremely strong windshusbandhusband verb to use a resource carefullyhusbandinghusbanding noun the activity of using aresource carefully � a policy of husbandingscarce natural resourceshusbandryhusbandry noun the activity of lookingafter farm animals and crops � a new sys-tem of intensive cattle husbandryhybridhybrid noun a new form of plant or animalresulting from a cross between organismsthat have different genotypes � high-yield-ing maize hybrids � adjective being the re-sult of a cross between organisms that havedifferent genotypeshybridisationhybridisation, hybridization noun theproduction of hybridshybrid vigourhybrid vigour noun same as heterosishydr-hydr- prefix same as hydro- (NOTE: usedbefore vowels)hydrarchhydrarch adjective relating to the se-quence of ecological stages that begins in afreshwater habitat such as a pond


109 hyperparasitehydraulic gradienthydraulic gradient noun the directionof ground water flow due to changes in thedepth of the water tablehydrichydric adjective referring to an environ-ment that is wet. Compare xerichydro-hydro- prefix waterhydrocarbonhydrocarbon noun a compound formedof hydrogen and carbon

COMMENT: Hydrocarbons are found in fos-sil fuels such as coal, oil, petroleum andnatural gas. They form a large part of ex-haust fumes from cars and contribute tothe formation of smog. When released intothe air from burning coal or oil they react inthe sunlight with nitrogen dioxide to formozone. Hydrocarbons are divided intoaliphatic hydrocarbons (paraffins, acety-lenes and olefins) and aromatic hydrocar-bons (benzenes).

hydroelectrichydroelectric adjective relating to hy-droelectricity � The valley was flooded toconstruct the hydroelectric scheme.hydroelectricityhydroelectricity noun the electricityproduced by water powerhydroelectric powerhydroelectric power noun the electric-ity produced by using a flow of water todrive turbines. Also called hydropowerhydrofluorocarbonhydrofluorocarbon noun a chemicalthat is emitted as a by-product of industrialprocesses and contributes to global warm-ing, although it does not damage the ozonelayer. Abbr HFChydrogenhydrogen noun a gaseous chemical ele-ment that combines with oxygen to formwater, with other elements to form acids,and is present in all animal tissue (NOTE:Hydrogen is also used as a moderator toshow the speed of neutrons in some nucle-ar reactors. The chemical symbol is H; theatomic number is 1 and the atomic weightis 1.01.)hydrogen carbonatehydrogen carbonate noun a salt ofcarbonic acid in which one hydrogen atomhas been replaced, usually by a metal. Alsocalled bicarbonatehydrogen cyanidehydrogen cyanide noun a poisonousliquid or gas with a smell of almonds,which is found naturally in some plantssuch as cassava or almond nuts. Formula:HCN.hydrographhydrograph noun a graph showing thelevel or flow of water in a river or lakehydrographyhydrography noun the science of meas-uring and charting rivers, lakes and seashydrologicalhydrological adjective referring to hy-drologyhydrologyhydrology noun the study of water, itscomposition and properties and in particu-lar the place of water in the environment

hydrometerhydrometer noun an instrument thatmeasures the density of a liquidhydromorphic soilhydromorphic soil noun waterloggedsoil found in bogs and marsheshydrophytehydrophyte noun a plant that lives in wa-ter or in marshy conditionshydroponicshydroponics noun the practice of grow-ing plants in a nutrient liquid with or with-out sand, vermiculite or other granular ma-terialhydropowerhydropower noun same as hydroelec-tric powerhydroserehydrosere noun a series of plant commu-nities growing in water or in wet condi-tions. � clisere, lithosere, xeroserehydrospherehydrosphere noun all the water on theEarth, in the atmosphere, the sea and onlandhydrostatichydrostatic adjective referring to waterthat is not movinghydrothermalhydrothermal adjective referring to wa-ter and heat under the Earth’s crusthydroxidehydroxide noun a metallic compoundcontaining inorganic OH- groups giving itbasic propertieshygienehygiene noun 1. the state or practice ofbeing clean and keeping healthy conditions2. the science of healthhygienichygienic adjective referring to the state orpractice of being clean � hygienic condi-tions � Don’t touch the food with dirtyhands – it isn’t hygienic.hygro-hygro- prefix wethygrometerhygrometer noun an instrument used forthe measurement of humidity � The mostcommon type of hygrometer is the wet anddry bulb thermometer arrangement.hygrometryhygrometry noun the scientific measure-ment of humidityhygroscopehygroscope noun a device or substancewhich gives an indication of humidity, of-ten by changing colourhygroscopichygroscopic adjective referring to asubstance which absorbs moisture from theatmospherehyp-hyp- prefix same as hypo- (NOTE: used be-fore vowels)hyper-hyper- prefix over, above, higher or toomuch. Opposite hypo-hyperaccumulatehyperaccumulate verb to take up andretain an unusually high concentration ofmetal from the environmenthyperactivehyperactive adjective being unusuallyactive and restlesshyperparasitehyperparasite noun a parasite which is aparasite on other parasites


hypersensitive 110hypersensitivehypersensitive adjective reacting morestrongly than usual to a factor such asstress, an antigen, an event or a diseaseagenthypersensitivityhypersensitivity noun a condition inwhich an organism reacts unusually strong-ly to a factor such as stress, an antigen, anevent or a disease agenthypertonichypertonic adjective referring to a solu-tion with a higher osmotic pressure thanthat of another solution to which it is com-paredhyphahypha noun a long thin structure contain-ing cytoplasm that is part of the networkforming the vegetative body of a fungus(NOTE: The plural is hyphae.)hypo-hypo- prefix under, less, too little or toosmall. Opposite hyper-hypogealhypogeal adjective occurring or develop-ing below ground. Compare epigeal

hypolimnionhypolimnion noun the lowest layer ofwater in a lake, which is cold and stationaryand contains less oxygen than upper layers.� epilimnion, metalimnionhypothesishypothesis noun a suggestion thatsomething may account for observed facts,though without proof, used as a basis forreasoning (NOTE: The plural is hypothe-ses.)hypotonichypotonic adjective referring to a solu-tion with lower osmotic pressure than thatof another solution to which it is comparedhypoxiahypoxia noun the depletion of oxygen inwater caused by too great a supply of nutri-ents stimulating the growth of algae whichuse large amounts of oxygen as they de-composehypoxic waterhypoxic water noun water containingvery little oxygenHzHz abbr hertz

III symbol iodineIAEAIAEA abbr International Atomic EnergyAuthorityiceice noun frozen water

COMMENT: Ice is formed when water freez-es at 0°C. Ice is less dense than water andso floats. Because the ice in the polar icecaps is very thick and has been formedover many thousands of years, scientistsare able to discover information about theclimate over a very long period of time byexamining core samples obtained by drill-ing into the ice.

Ice AgeIce Age noun a long period of time whenEarth’s temperature was cool and large are-as of the surface were covered with iceicebergiceberg noun a very large block of icefloating in the sea, formed when ice breaksaway from an Arctic glacier or ice sheetice capice cap noun same as polar ice capice floeice floe noun a block of ice floating in theseaice sheetice sheet noun a large area of thick ice inthe north or south polar regionsice shelfice shelf noun an outer margin of an icecap or ice sheet that extends into and overthe sea-icide-icide suffix substance which destroys aparticular organism

ICRPICRP abbr International Commission onRadiological Protectionidenticalidentical adjective exactly the same assomething elseidentificationidentification noun the action or processof recognising or establishing the nature ofsomething � keys for the identification ofplants � the identification of our prioritiesidentifyidentify verb 1. to recognise somebody orsomething as different from somebody orsomething else � The team has identified anew species. 2. to understand the nature ofsomething � We soon identified the prob-lem.igneousigneous adjective referring to rock suchas basalt and granite, formed from moltenlava. � metamorphic, sedimentaryillegalillegal adjective referring to an action notpermitted by the criminal lawillegallyillegally adverb in a way that is not ac-cording to the law � The company was ac-cused of illegally felling protected forest.illuviationilluviation noun the movement of parti-cles and chemicals from the topsoil into thesubsoilimagoimago noun an insect in the final adultstage after metamorphosisimbalanceimbalance noun a situation where thebalance between a set of things is unequal


111 impregnate� Lack of vitamins A and E creates hormo-nal imbalances in farm animals.imbricateimbricate adjective on top of and partial-ly covering somethingimmatureimmature adjective referring to an organ-ism or part that is still developing � an im-mature duck � an immature fruitimmigrant speciesimmigrant species noun a species thatmigrates into or is introduced into an eco-system, deliberately or accidentallyimmigrationimmigration noun the movement of anindividual into a new area. Opposite emi-grationimmuneimmune adjective referring to a person,other animal or plant that is not affected bya specific microorganism � This barleystrain is not immune to the virus.immunisationimmunisation noun the production ofimmunity to a specific disease, either by in-jecting an antiserum or by giving an indi-vidual the disease in such a small dose thatthe body does not develop the disease, butproduces antibodies to counteract itimmunityimmunity noun 1. the natural or acquiredability of a person or other animal to resista microorganism and the disease it causes� The vaccine gives immunity to tuberculo-sis. 2. the ability of a plant to resist diseasethrough a protective covering on leaves,through the formation of protoplasts orthrough the development of inactive formsof virusesimmunologicalimmunological adjective referring toimmunologyimmunological responseimmunological response noun theresponse of an animal to an attack by para-sites by the production of antibodiesimmunologyimmunology noun the study of immuni-ty and immunisationimpactimpact noun 1. a collision of one objectagainst another 2. the effect that somethingor someone hasimpact assessmentimpact assessment noun an evalua-tion of the effect upon the environment ofan activity such as a large construction pro-gramme or the draining of marshes. Alsocalled impact studyimpacted areaimpacted area noun an area of land af-fected by something such as a large-scalebuilding projectimpact studyimpact study noun same as impact as-sessmentimpairimpair verb to cause something to becomeless effective � An unfortunate legacy ofpast contamination still impairs the ecosys-tem.impairmentimpairment noun 1. the inability ofsomething to function effectively 2. the

process of damaging something so that itdoes not function effectivelyimperial unitimperial unit noun a unit in a systemmeasuring weight, distance and volume inpounds, yards and gallons and their subu-nits, now generally replaced by SI unitsimpermeableimpermeable adjective 1. referring to asubstance which does not allow a liquid orgas to pass through � rocks which are im-permeable to water 2. referring to a mem-brane which allows a liquid to passthrough, but not solid particles suspendedin the liquidimperviousimpervious adjective not allowing a liq-uid to enterimplementationimplementation noun the process ofcarrying out a plan � the rapid implemen-tation of flood defence plansimplicationimplication noun 1. a suggestion ratherthan a direct statement � There was an im-plication that the method was unsound. 2.the effect that one thing has on another �The recent cuts in funding carry serious im-plications for research.importimport verb 1. to bring something into acountry from abroad 2. to introduce newthings from elsewhere � noun 1. the actionof bringing something into a country fromabroad 2. something brought into a countryfrom abroadImportant Plant AreaImportant Plant Area noun a natural orsemi-natural site supporting an exception-ally rich range of plants or populations ofspecies that are of concern, or is a threat-ened habitat. Abbr IPAimpoundmentimpoundment noun a body of water orsludge confined by a barrier such as a dam,dyke or floodgateimpoverishimpoverish verb to reduce the quality ofsomething � to impoverish the soil tomake soil less fertile � Overcultivation hasimpoverished the soil.impoverishedimpoverished adjective referring tosomething with reduced quality � If impov-erished soil is left fallow for some years,nutrients may build up in the soil again.impoverishmentimpoverishment noun a reduction inqualityimpregnateimpregnate verb 1. to fill somethingwith a substance by passing it insidethrough the outer surface � Fruits on salemay be impregnated with pesticides even ifthey have been washed. � They impregnat-ed the wooden posts with creosote. 2. to fer-tilise a female, by introducing male sper-matozoa into the female’s body so that theyfuse with the female’s ova


imprint 112imprintimprint verb (of young animals) to learnfrom a source, usually the mother, by imita-tion at a very early age, usually occurringduring a very brief period such as the firstfew hours after a bird has hatchedimprovement grantimprovement grant noun a grant avail-able to improve the standard of a buildingor an area. Grants are available for a varietyof purposes, such as putting in domesticdrainage and bathrooms, the eradication ofbracken on pasture land, or providing a wa-ter supply to fields.impulseimpulse noun 1. a force of short duration2. a sudden strong feelingimpulse turbineimpulse turbine noun a turbine wherejets of water are directed at bucket-shapedblades which catch the waterimpulsiveimpulsive adjective 1. propelling or hav-ing the power to propel 2. done suddenlyimpureimpure adjective not pureimpurityimpurity plural noun a substance thatmakes another substance not pure or clean� impurities in drinking water (NOTE: Theplural is impurities.)in.in. abbr inchinactivateinactivate verb to make something una-ble to act � The ultraviolet component ofsunlight inactivates some herbicides.inactiveinactive adjective 1. not doing anything2. (of a volcano) not erupting or likely toerupt, though not necessarily extinct 3. (ofa chemical) not reacting with other sub-stances 4. (of a disease) not producingsymptoms 5. biologically inertinactivityinactivity noun the state of not being ac-tiveinbredinbred adjective resulting from inbreed-inginbreedinginbreeding noun the process of matingor crossing between closely related individ-uals, leading to a reduction in variation.Compare outbreeding (NOTE: Inbreedingas a result of self-fertilisation occurs natu-rally in many plants)inbreeding depressioninbreeding depression noun a reduc-tion in variation and vigour arising in anoutbreeding population that is repeatedlyinbred. Compare heterosisincapacityincapacity noun not having the neces-sary power to do somethingincentiveincentive noun something which encour-ages someone to do somethingincentive-based regulationincentive-based regulation noun theuse of official measures to affect the eco-nomic behaviour of companies and house-holds to achieve environmental goals �Emission taxes are a form of incentive-based regulation.

inchinch noun a British Imperial System unitof length, also used in the USA, equal to25.4 millimetres or 2.54 centimetres or1/12 of a foot. Abbr in. (NOTE: The plural isinches.)incidenceincidence noun the frequency of occur-rence of something � the incidence offloodingincidentincident noun an event or happeningwhich interrupts usual activities � withoutincident without any problems occurring �The research review passed without inci-dent.incinerateincinerate verb to burn a substance suchas wasteincinerationincineration noun the burning of a sub-stance such as waste � Uncontrolled incin-eration can contribute to atmospheric pol-lution. � Controlled incineration of wasteis an effective method of disposal.incineration ashincineration ash noun a powder left af-ter a substance has been burntincineration plantincineration plant noun an industrialsite which has furnaces for burning wasteincineratorincinerator noun a device in which asubstance such as waste is burntincipientincipient adjective in the early stages ofdevelopmentincipient lethal levelincipient lethal level noun the concen-tration of toxic substances at which 50% ofaffected organisms will dieincludeinclude verb to add as a part with others� Please include full bibliographical de-tails in your report.inclusioninclusion noun the state of having or anact of adding something as a part � the in-clusion of checks at each stageinclusive fitnessinclusive fitness noun the sum of an or-ganism’s Darwinian fitness with the fitnessof its relativesincompatibilityincompatibility noun the state of beingincompatibleincompatibleincompatible adjective 1. having basicdifferences that prevent effective jointworking � Our ideas were incompatiblewith their outline plans. 2. unable to cross-fertilize and produce offspringincreaseincrease noun the act or an instance ofbecoming greater or more � Decreasingengine rpm results in an increase in the rateof descent. Opposite reduction � verb tobecome greater or more or make somethinggreater or more � As you increase inheight, the countryside below you appearsto flatten out. � Efforts are being made toincrease productivity. Opposite reduce �opposite (all senses) decrease


113 industrial parkincubate

incubate verb 1. to keep eggs warm untilthe young birds come out, either by an adultbird sitting on them or in an incubator 2. tokeep microorganisms at a temperature thatpromotes their growthincubation

incubation noun 1. the process of keep-ing eggs warm until the young birds comeout, either by an adult bird sitting on themor by artificial means 2. the process ofkeeping microorganisms at a temperaturethat matures their growthincubator

incubator noun a container that keeps aconstant temperature and controls other en-vironmental conditions (NOTE: Incubatorsare used for allowing premature babies togrow, hen’s eggs to hatch, or microorgan-isms to develop.)indefinite

indefinite adjective without a clear end orpurpose � an indefinite period � indefiniteplansindehiscent

indehiscent adjective referring to seedpods, fruit or capsules that do not open torelease seeds when ripe. Compare dehis-centindentation

indentation noun a gap in the edge ofsomething � The indentations of the leaveswere typical of the species.independent

independent adjective free from the in-fluence or effects of other people or things� an independent existenceindeterminate wasteindeterminate waste noun wastewhich is more radioactive than low-levelwaste, but not as dangerous as high-levelwasteindicator

indicator noun 1. something whichshows the state of something else 2. a sub-stance which shows that another substanceis present 3. an organism whose presence orabsence in an environment indicates condi-tions such as oxygen level or the presenceof a contaminating substance � Lichens actas indicators for atmospheric pollution.Also called indicator organismindicator organism

indicator organism noun same as indi-catorindicator species

indicator species noun a species whichis very sensitive to particular changes in theenvironment and can show that environ-mental changes are taking placeindigenousindigenous adjective native to a place �There are six indigenous species of monkeyon the island. � Bluebells are indigenous tothe British Isles.individual

individual noun a single organism oritem considered as one rather than as amember of a group

individual variationindividual variation noun the range ofdifferences found between individualswithin a populationindoor air pollutionindoor air pollution noun the pollutioninside a building, caused by somethingsuch as smoke or carbon monoxideindoor air qualityindoor air quality noun the condition ofthe air inside buildings, including the extentof pollution caused by smoking, dust,mites, mould spores, radon, as well as gasesand chemicals from materials and applianc-esinduceinduce verb to cause something to happen� an animal induced to live in the reserveinductive reasoninginductive reasoning noun the drawingof a general conclusion based on a limitedset of observations. Compare deductivereasoningindumentumindumentum noun a covering of hairson plant leaves or stems, or of hairs orfeathers on an animalindustrialindustrial adjective referring to indus-tries or factoriesindustrial cropindustrial crop noun a crop grown forpurposes other than food, e.g. flax grownfor fibreindustrial derelictionindustrial dereliction noun the uglyand neglected condition of a landscape orenvironment that has been damaged by in-dustrial processesindustrial developmentindustrial development noun theplanning of new industries and the con-struction of new factories and productionfacilitiesindustrial effluentindustrial effluent noun the liquidwaste produced by industrial processes.Also called industrial sewageindustrial estateindustrial estate noun an area of landwith buildings specially designed and con-structed for light industriesindustrialisationindustrialisation, industrializationnoun the process of developing industry ina countryindustrialiseindustrialise, industrialize verb to de-velop industry in a country, by building fac-tories and encouraging new processes andmethods of productionindustrialistindustrialist noun a person who owns ormanages an industrial businessindustrial melanismindustrial melanism noun the increasein the numbers of animals such as mothswith dark coloration in places where indus-tries create a lot of black smoke, causingdiscoloration of surfaces and allowingpredators to see and feed on lighter-col-oured individuals more easilyindustrial parkindustrial park noun same as industrialestate


industrial sewage 114industrial sewage

industrial sewage noun same as in-dustrial effluentindustrial wasteindustrial waste noun the waste pro-duced by industrial processes. Comparepost-consumer wasteindustry

industry noun the factories, companies orprocesses involved in the manufacturing ofproductsinert

inert adjective referring to a chemical sub-stance or gas that does not react with otherchemicalsinert gas

inert gas noun same as noble gas � In-ert gases, dust, smoke, salt, volcanic ash,oxygen and nitrogen together constitute99% of the atmosphere.infectinfect verb 1. (of an organism) to enter ahost organism and cause disease � The newstrain has infected many people and thedisease is spreading fast. � All these plantshave been infected by a virus. 2. to contam-inate something with a microorganism thatcauses diseaseinfection

infection noun 1. the process of a micro-organism entering a host organism andcausing disease � As a carrier he wasspreading infection to other people in theoffice. 2. a disease caused by a microorgan-ism � West Nile fever is a virus infectiontransmitted by mosquitoes. � Coral spot isa fungal infection that affects woody plants.infectiousinfectious adjective referring to a diseasethat is caused by microorganisms and canbe transmitted to other individuals by directmeans � This strain of flu is highly infec-tious. Compare contagiousinfective

infective adjective referring to a diseasecaused by a microorganism, which can becaught from another person but which can-not always be directly transmittedinfectivityinfectivity noun the state of being infec-tiveinferenceinference noun a deduction of resultsfrom data according to specific rulesinfertile

infertile adjective 1. referring to any or-ganism that is not able to reproduce or pro-duce offspring 2. referring to trees andplants that are not able to produce fruit orseeds 3. referring to soil that is not able toproduce good cropsinfertilityinfertility noun the inability to reproduceor have offspringinfest

infest verb (of pests) to be present some-where in large numbers � Pine forests areinfested with these beetles. � Plants thathave been infested should be dug up andburnt.

infestationinfestation noun the presence of largenumbers of pests � The crop showed a se-rious infestation of greenfly.infiltrationinfiltration noun the passing of water intothe soil or into a drainage systeminfiltration waterinfiltration water noun the water whichpasses into the soil or into a drainage sys-teminflammableinflammable adjective easily set on fire� Petrol is an inflammable liquid. Oppositenon-flammable (NOTE: Flammable andinflammable mean the same thing. Toavoid confusion, it is recommended to useflammable.)inflateinflate verb to blow air into something andthereby increase its size � A sharp pull onthe cord will discharge the gas bottle andinflate the life jacket. Opposite deflateinflorescenceinflorescence noun a flower or a groupof flowers on a steminflowinflow noun the action of flowing in � aninflow of effluent into a riverinfluentinfluent noun 1. a stream or river flowinginto a larger river 2. an organism which hasan important effect on the balance of itscommunityinfrared radiationinfrared radiation noun long invisiblerays, below the visible red end of the colourspectrum, which form part of the warmingradiation which the Earth receives from theSuninfrared raysinfrared rays plural noun � infrared ra-diationinfrastructureinfrastructure noun 1. the basic frame-work of a system or organisation 2. the ba-sic facilities and systems of a country orcity, e.g. roads, pipelines, electricity andtelecommunications networks, schools orhospitalsingestingest verb to take in or absorb foodingestioningestion noun the process of taking inor absorbing foodinhabitinhabit verb to live in a placeinhabitantinhabitant noun an animal or plant whichlives or grows in a placeinheritinherit verb to receive a genetically con-trolled characteristic from a parent � Flow-er colour is inherited.inheritanceinheritance noun the transfer of geneti-cally controlled characteristics from parentto offspringinhibitinhibit verb to prevent or limit the effectof something � Cloud cover inhibits cool-ing of the Earth’s surface at night.inhibitioninhibition noun the prevention or limita-tion of the effect of something � Fuel con-tains chemicals for the inhibition of fungalgrowth.


115 insulation materialinjectinject verb 1. to force or drive a fluid intosomething 2. to inject a liquid into a bodyusing a syringe 3. to introduce somethingnew or stimulatinginjectioninjection noun 1. the forcing of fluid intosomething 2. the act of injecting a liquidinto a body using a syringe 3. the introduc-tion of something new or stimulatinginlandinland adjective not near a sea coastinland waterinland water noun a body of water awayfrom a sea coast, e.g. a river, canal or lakeinletinlet noun 1. an opening which allows anintake of something � an air inlet 2. themouth of a small river in a coast or lakeinnerinner adjective being further inside or fur-ther towards the centre of something � theinner earinner cityinner city noun a part of a city at or nearthe centre, especially an area where there ishigh-density housing and sometimes apoorly maintained environmentinnovative technologyinnovative technology noun new orinventive methods to treat hazardous waste,prevent pollution or conserve energyinoculateinoculate verb 1. to introduce vaccineinto a body in order to stimulate the produc-tion of antibodies to a particular organism,giving rise to immunity to the disease �The baby was inoculated against diphthe-ria. 2. to introduce a microorganism into aplant or a growth mediuminorganicinorganic adjective 1. referring to a sub-stance which does not come from an animalor a plant � Inorganic substances includeacids, alkalis and metals. 2. referring to asubstance that does not contain carboninorganic acidinorganic acid noun an acid whichcomes from a mineralinorganic fertiliserinorganic fertiliser noun an artificiallysynthesised fertiliserinorganic matterinorganic matter noun a substancewhich does not contain carboninorganic pesticideinorganic pesticide noun a pesticidemade from inorganic substances such assulfurinorganic wasteinorganic waste noun substances suchas glass, metals, dust or synthetic productsdisposed of as waste. Compare organicwasteinputinput noun something such as energy,electrical power, fertilisers or information,put into a system to achieve a specific result� inputs and outputs of nutrients to ecosys-temsinquiryinquiry noun another spelling of enquiry(NOTE: The plural is inquiries.)

insanitaryinsanitary adjective unhygienic � Chol-era spread rapidly because of the insani-tary conditions in the town.insectinsect noun a small animal with six legsand a body in three partsinsect-borneinsect-borne adjective referring to in-fection which is carried and transmitted byinsects � insect-borne viruses � Malaria isan insect-borne disease.insecticideinsecticide noun a substance which isused to kill insectsinsectivoreinsectivore noun an animal that feedsmainly on insectsinsectivorousinsectivorous adjective referring to ananimal or plant that feeds mainly on insects(NOTE: Pitcher plants and sundews are in-sectivorous.)inselberginselberg noun a steep-sided isolated hillthat stands above nearby hillsinshoreinshore adjective referring to an area ofsea near the coastinshore watersinshore waters plural noun the parts ofthe sea that are near a coastin-situin-situ adjective, adverb referring to thestudy, maintenance or conservation of anorganism within its natural surroundings.Compare ex-situinsolationinsolation noun the radiation from theSuninsolubleinsoluble adjective referring to a sub-stance that cannot be dissolved in liquidinspectinspect verb to look at something closelyto see if it is in the correct condition or ifthere are problemsinspectioninspection noun a careful check to see ifsomething is in the correct condition or ifthere are problems � The officials havecarried out an inspection of the factory tosee if waste is being properly managed.installationinstallation noun the act of puttingequipment or devices into the position andcondition in which they will be used � theinstallation of an irrigation systeminstarinstar noun a developmental stage of in-sects and other arthropods between twomoultsinstinctinstinct noun a pattern of behaviour par-ticular to a species and developed in re-sponse to priorities such as survival and re-productioninsulateinsulate verb to prevent the passing ofheat, cold or sound into or out of an areainsulationinsulation noun the act of preventing thepassing of heat, cold, sound or electricityfrom one area to anotherinsulation materialinsulation material noun material usedto insulate something, especially a building


intake 116intakeintake noun an opening through which afluid is allowed into a container or tubeintegrated crop managementintegrated crop management nounan approach to growing crops that com-bines traditional good farm husbandry withreduction in the use of agrochemicals andtakes into consideration the impact of farm-ing practices on the environmentintegrated farm managementintegrated farm management, inte-grated farming noun an approach to farm-ing that combines the best of traditionalmethods with modern technology, toachieve high productivity with a low envi-ronmental impactintegrated pest managementintegrated pest management nounan appropriate combination of differentmethods of pest control, involving goodcultivation practices, use of chemical pesti-cides, resistant crop varieties and biologicalcontrol. Abbr IPMintegrated pollution controlintegrated pollution control, inte-grated pollution prevention and controlnoun an approach which looks at all inputsand outputs from a process that is likely tocause pollution and regulates other factorsas well as emissions. Abbr IPC, IPPCintensificationintensification noun 1. the process ofbecoming stronger or greater 2. the use ofintensive farming methods � Intensifica-tion of farming has contributed to soil ero-sion. Compare extensificationintensifyintensify verb 1. to become stronger orgreater 2. to use intensive farming methodsintensityintensity noun the degree or strength ofsomething � high intensity of land use in asmall country with a large population �These plants grow well in low light intensi-ty.intensiveintensive adjective achieving maximumproduction from land or animals � inten-sive agricultureintensive agricultureintensive agriculture, intensive farm-ing, intensive cultivation noun a methodof farming in which as much use is made ofthe land as possible by growing crops closetogether, growing several crops in a year orusing large amounts of fertiliser. Oppositeextensive agriculture. Also called pro-ductive agricultureintensive animal breedingintensive animal breeding noun asystem of raising animals in which live-stock are kept indoors and fed on concen-trated foodstuffs, with frequent use ofdrugs to control the diseases which tend tooccur under these conditionsintensivelyintensively adverb using intensive farm-ing methodsinter-inter- prefix between

interactioninteraction noun a relationship betweentwo or more organisms or thingsinteractiveinteractive adjective referring to a proc-ess involving people reacting to and com-municating with other people or situations� an interactive display describing theprocess of river pollutioninterbreedinterbreed verb 1. to mate and have off-spring 2. to cross animals or plants with dif-ferent characteristics to produce offspringwith distinctive features (NOTE: Individualsfrom the same species can interbreed,those from different species cannot.)intercroppingintercropping noun the growing ofcrops with different characteristics and re-quirements on the same area of land at thesame time � intercropping beans withmaizeinterdependenceinterdependence noun a state of two ormore organisms or processes depending oneach otherinterdependentinterdependent adjective referring toorganisms or things being dependent oneach otherinterest groupinterest group noun a group of peoplewho are all concerned about the same issue.They may try to influence the opinions ofpoliticians, local officials and business peo-ple on this issue.interfluveinterfluve noun the area of land betweentwo riversintergenerational equityintergenerational equity noun thefairness of the distribution of the costs andbenefits of an environmental policy whenthey are experienced by different genera-tionsintergenericintergeneric adjective involving two ormore generainterglacial periodinterglacial period, interglacial nounthe period between two Ice Ages when theclimate becomes warmerintergovernmentalintergovernmental adjective involvingthe governments of several countriesIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIntergovernmental Panel on Cli-mate Change noun an internationalgroup of expert scientists who assess infor-mation on climate changeintermediateintermediate adjective referring to astate or a stage between two othersintermediate hostintermediate host noun a host onwhich a parasite lives for a time beforepassing on to another hostinternalinternal adjective on or from the inside ofsomething. Opposite externalinternal combustion engineinternal combustion engine noun atype of engine used in motor vehicles,where the fuel is a mixture of petrol and air


117 invertebrateburnt in a closed chamber to give energy tothe pistonsinternationalinternational adjective referring to morethan one countryInternational Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agen-cy noun the agency of the United NationsOrganization dealing with all aspects of nu-clear energy. Abbr IAEAInternational Commission on Radiological ProtectionInternational Commission on Ra-diological Protection noun a group ofscientists who try to decide on worldwidesafety standards for the nuclear industry byfixing a maximum allowable dose of radia-tion. Abbr ICRPInternational Council of Chemical AssociationsInternational Council of ChemicalAssociations noun a group of trade as-sociations representing chemical manufac-turers worldwideInternational Whaling CommissionInternational Whaling Commis-sion noun an international body set up un-der an agreement signed in 1946 to controlthe commercial killing of whalesinternodeinternode noun the part of a plant stembetween two adjacent nodesinterpretationinterpretation noun an explanation ofthe meaning or importance of somethingintersexual selectionintersexual selection noun the selec-tion of a mate where an individual looks forspecial traits in the opposite sexinterspecificinterspecific adjective involving two ormore speciesinterspecific competitioninterspecific competition noun thecompetition between species for one ormore of the same limited resources of food,sunlight, water, soil, nutrients or space. �fundamental nicheintertidalintertidal adjective relating to land that iscovered by the sea at high tide and exposedat low tide � intertidal communities Alsocalled littoralintertidal zoneintertidal zone noun an area of sea wa-ter and shore between the high and low wa-ter marks � seaweeds of the intertidal zoneintertropical convergence zoneintertropical convergence zonenoun the boundary between the trade windsand tropical air masses of the northern andsouthern hemispheres. Abbr ITCZinterventionintervention noun the act of making achange in a systemintra-intra- prefix inside or withinintrasexual selectionintrasexual selection noun the selec-tion of a mate where several individualscompete with each otherintraspecificintraspecific adjective occurring withina species � an intraspecific cross betweentwo cultivarsintraspecific competitionintraspecific competition noun com-petition from other members of the same

species for the same resources of food, sun-light, water, soil, nutrients or spaceintrinsic valueintrinsic value noun the value placed onthe inherent qualities of a species, as op-posed to its value to humansintroduceintroduce verb 1. to bring something intobeing or start to use something new � Thelab introduced a new rapid method of test-ing. 2. to bring something to a new place �Several of the species of plant now commonin Britain were introduced by the Romans.� Starlings were introduced to the USA in1891.introduced speciesintroduced species noun a species thathas been brought to an area by humans anddid not occur there naturallyintroductionintroduction noun 1. the process ofbringing something into being or usingsomething new � the introduction of a newrapid testing method � The death rate frommalaria was very high before the introduc-tion of new anti-malarial techniques. 2. thebringing of something to a new place � Be-fore the introduction of grey squirrels, thered squirrel was widespread. 3. a plant oranimal that has been brought to a new place� It is not an indigenous species but a 19th-century introduction.introgressionintrogression noun the transfer of genesfrom one species into the gene pool of an-other as a result of hybridisationintrusionintrusion noun an area of rock which haspushed into other rocksinvadeinvade verb to arrive in an area in largeunwanted numbers � These introducedpests could cause serious problems if theyinvaded our marine environment.invasioninvasion noun the arrival of large num-bers of unwanted organisms into an area �an invasion of weedsinvasiveinvasive adjective referring to an organ-ism that enters an area in large numbers, es-pecially a non-native species that threatensan ecosystem, habitat or other species � in-vasive weeds � Giant hogweed is a non-na-tive invasive species in the British Isles.inventoryinventory noun a list of items existing ina placeinversioninversion noun 1. an atmospheric phe-nomenon in which cold air is nearer theground than warm air � Smog is smoke orpollution trapped on the surface by an in-version of temperature with little or nowind. 2. the act of turning something upsidedown � Inversion of soil by ploughing bur-ies weeds and weed seeds.invertebrateinvertebrate noun an animal that has nobackbone. Compare vertebrate � adjec-


in vitro 118tive referring to animals that have no back-bone � marine invertebrate animalsin vitroin vitro adjective, adverb occurring out-side a living organism, in laboratory condi-tions � in vitro experiments � The tissuewas cultured in vitro.in vivoin vivo adjective, adverb occurring withinor taking place on a living organism � invivo experiments � The experiments werecarried out in vivo.involucreinvolucre noun a ring of modified leaves(bracts) at the base of a flower or flowerheadiodineiodine noun a chemical element. It is es-sential to the body, especially to the func-tioning of the thyroid gland, and is found inseaweed. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is I;the atomic number is 53 and the atomicweight is 126.90.)iodiseiodise, iodize verb to treat or impregnatesomething with iodineionion noun an atom or a group of atoms thathas obtained an electric charge by gainingor losing one or more electrons (NOTE: Ionswith a positive charge are called cationsand those with a negative charge are ani-ons.)ion-exchange filterion-exchange filter noun a water-sof-tening device attached to a water supply toremove nitrates or calcium from the waterionisationionisation, ionization noun the produc-tion of atoms with electric chargesioniseionise, ionize verb to give an atom anelectric chargeioniserioniser, ionizer noun a machine that in-creases the concentration of negative ionsin the atmosphere of a room, so counteract-ing the effect of positive ions. Also callednegative ion generatorionising radiationionising radiation noun the radiationthat produces atoms with electrical chargesas it passes through a medium, e.g. alphaparticles or X-raysionosphereionosphere noun the part of the atmos-phere 50km above the Earth’s surface(NOTE: Because the strength of the Sun’sradiation varies with latitude, the structureof the ionosphere varies over the surface ofthe Earth. It is composed of 70% nitrogen,15% oxygen and 15% helium, in which at-oms are ionised by solar radiation.)

COMMENT: The uppermost layer of Earth’satmosphere is where most of the atomsare ionised. Some 350 km above sea lev-el, the ionosphere has high temperaturesbecause high-energy solar photons arecaptured there, including those in X-raywavelengths. This prevents radiationwhich would otherwise be fatal to human

and other life from reaching sea level, sothat without the ionosphere any life onEarth would have evolved very differently.The ionosphere is also useful for commu-nications and radar, since it is possible tobounce radio signals off it for transmissionbeyond the visible horizon.

IPAIPA abbr Important Plant AreaIPCIPC � IPPC � abbr integrated pollutioncontrolIPCCIPCC abbr Intergovernmental Panel onClimate ChangeIPMIPM abbr integrated pest managementIPPCIPPC abbr Integrated Pollution Preventionand Controlirisiris noun a plant with coloured flowers andsword-shaped leaves. Genus: Iris.Irish mossIrish moss noun same as carrageenirokoiroko noun an African hardwood tree, for-merly widely used but becoming rarer. Lat-in name: Milicia excelsa.ironiron noun a metallic element. It is essentialto biological life. (NOTE: The chemicalsymbol is Fe; the atomic number is 26 andatomic weight is 55.85.)iron oxideiron oxide noun same as ferric oxideiron paniron pan noun a layer of deposition inpodzol soilsiron pyritesiron pyrites noun same as pyriteirradianceirradiance noun the amount of radiationreceived in a specific areairradiateirradiate verb to subject something to ra-diationirradiationirradiation noun 1. the spread of some-thing from a centre 2. exposure to radiation,especially ionising radiationirradiation doseirradiation dose noun the amount of ra-diation to which an organism is exposedirreversibilityirreversibility noun the inability tochange something back to its earlier state,resulting in its permanent lossirreversibleirreversible adjective referring to a proc-ess that cannot be turned back to its originalstate � an irreversible changeirrigateirrigate verb to supply water to land to al-low plants to grow, by channels, pipes,sprays or other meansirrigationirrigation noun the process of supplyingof water to land to allow plants to grow �irrigation channels � New areas of landmust be brought under irrigation to meetthe rising demand for food.

COMMENT: Irrigation can be carried out us-ing sprinklers or by channelling wateralong small irrigation canals from reser-voirs or rivers. Irrigation can cause salini-sation of the soil, as the soil becomes wa-terlogged and salts rise to the surface. Atthe surface, the irrigated water rapidlyevaporates, leaving the salts behind as a


119 ivorysaline crust. Irrigation can also increasethe spread of disease. Water insects areeasily spread through irrigation canals andreservoirs.

irritabilityirritability noun same as sensitivityirritantirritant noun a substance or object thatcan cause irritation (NOTE: An irritant canhave an acute effect on respiration from asingle high-level exposure, or chronic ef-fects from repeated low-level exposures.)islandisland noun a piece of land surrounded bywater, in a sea, river or lakeisland biogeographyisland biogeography noun a theorystating that the number of species on an is-land or other area results from a dynamicequilibrium between colonisation and ex-tinctioniso-iso- prefix equalisobarisobar noun a line on a map linking pointswhich are of equal barometric pressure at agiven timeisobaric chartisobaric chart noun a weather mapshowing the isobars at a given timeisohalineisohaline noun a line on a map linking ar-eas of equal salt contentisohyetisohyet noun a line on a map linkingpoints of equal rainfallisolateisolate verb 1. to separate and keep ob-jects or organisms apart from others � iso-lated the sick animals in a separate enclo-sure � Organisms that are isolated mayevolve into new species. 2. to separate a mi-croorganism from its host or the materialon which it grows � Scientists have isolat-ed the bacterium which lives in air-condi-tioning systems and causes legionnaires’disease. � noun a pure culture of a micro-organismisolatedisolated adjective separate from others �an isolated incident

isolationisolation noun a state or the process ofbeing separated and kept apart from otherobjects or organismsisoproturonisoproturon noun a herbicide used oncereals that is found as a contaminant ofsurface water (NOTE: It is commonly used inthe UK but it is under review for withdrawalfrom use in the European Union.)isotachisotach noun a line on a map linkingpoints where the wind is blowing at thesame speedisothermisotherm noun a line on a map linkingpoints of equal temperatureisotopeisotope noun a form of a chemical ele-ment which has the same chemical proper-ties as other forms, but a different atomicmassisotropicisotropic adjective referring to some-thing that has physical properties that donot differ according to directionisthmusisthmus noun a narrow piece of landlinking two larger areas of landITCZITCZ abbr intertropical convergence zoneiterationiteration noun a repetitionIUCNIUCN noun a union of 140 countries thatgenerates scientific knowledge, advice andstandards on environmental subjects andmonitors the status of species, publishingfindings in its Red Lists. Full form IUCN -The World Conservation Unionivoryivory noun a smooth whitish substanceforming the tusks of animals such as ele-phants and walruses, formerly used tomake piano keys and ornaments (NOTE: Theban on the trade in ivory was confirmed atthe 50th Meeting (2004) of the StandingCommittee of CITES (Convention on Inter-national Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora) when it was de-clared that there would be no sale of ivoryuntil further notice.)


JKjetjet noun a strong fast stream of fluid forcedout of an opening � a jet of water from apipejet fueljet fuel noun same as keroseneJNCCJNCC abbr Joint Nature ConservationCommitteejoinjoin noun a place at which two or morethings are connectedjointjoint noun a place at which two bones areconnectedJoint ImplementationJoint Implementation noun a set ofagreements made between two or more na-tions under the Framework Convention onClimate Change to help reduce greenhousegas emissionsJoint Nature Conservation CommitteeJoint Nature Conservation Com-mittee noun a UK government advisorybody on conservation. Abbr JNCCjoulejoule noun an SI unit of measurement ofenergy. Symbol Jjournaljournal noun a scientific publicationjunglejungle noun a tropical rainforest(informal)juvenilejuvenile noun a young animal or plant �adjective referring to an animal, plant, or-gan or type of behaviour that is not yet adult� The juvenile foliage of eucalyptus is dif-ferent from its adult foliage.KK symbol potassiumkaolinkaolin noun a fine white clay used formaking china, for coating shiny paper andin medicines � Spoil heaps from kaolinworkings are bright white. Also called chi-na claykarstkarst noun ground typical of limestonecountry, with an uneven surface and holesand cracks due to weatheringkatabatic windkatabatic wind noun a cold wind whichblows downhill as the ground surface coolsat night. Compare anabatic windkatadromouskatadromous adjective another spellingof catadromouskatadromykatadromy noun another spelling of cat-adromykelpkelp noun a brown seaweed with largeleathery fronds. It is a source of iodine andpotash.kelp forestkelp forest noun a large area of kelpfound in cold and temperate seawater, espe-cially on the western coasts of continents

kelvinkelvin noun a base SI unit of measurementof thermodynamic temperature. Symbol K(NOTE: 0°C is equal to 273.15K. Tempera-tures are shown in kelvin without a degreesign: 20K.)kernel

kernel noun 1. the soft edible part of a nut2. the seed and husk of a cereal grainkerosenekerosene, kerosine noun a thin fuel oilmade from petroleum. Also called jet fuelketoseketose noun a simple sugarkeykey noun a set of questions to enablesomething to be identified or classified � akey for identifying lichenskeystone species

keystone species noun a species thatplays a significant role in helping to main-tain the ecosystems that it is part ofkgkg symbol kilogramkGkG symbol kilograykhamsinkhamsin noun a hot wind that brings duststorms in North Africakieselguhrkieselguhr noun same as diatomaceousearthkillkill verb to make someone or somethingdie � noun 1. an act of making someone orsomething die � Pollutants in water areone of the main causes of fish kills. 2. preywhich has been killed � The vultures sur-rounded the remains of the lion’s kill.kill offkill off verb to kill all the individual mem-bers of a species, usually one by one � Do-dos were killed off by 18th-century sailors.kilnkiln noun a furnace used for making some-thing such as pottery or bricks � The smokefrom the brick kilns was dispersed by theprevailing winds.kilokilo noun same as kilogramkilo-

kilo- prefix one thousand, 103. Symbol Kkilocaloriekilocalorie noun a unit of measurementof heat equal to 1000 calories (NOTE: In sci-entific use, the SI unit joule is now moreusual. 1 calorie = 4.186 joules.)kilogram

kilogram noun the base unit of mass inthe SI system, equal to 1000 grams or2.2046 pounds. Symbol kg. Also calledkilokilogray

kilogray noun an SI unit of measurementof absorbed radiation equal to 1000 grays.Symbol kG


121 Kyoto Protocolkilojoulekilojoule noun an SI unit of measurementof energy or heat equal to 1000 joules.Symbol kJkilometrekilometre noun a measure of length equalto 1000 metres or 0.621 miles. Symbol km(NOTE: The US spelling is kilometer.)kilowattkilowatt noun a unit of measurement ofelectricity equal to 1000 watts. Symbol kWkinesiskinesis noun the movement of a cell ororganism in response to the intensity of astimulus rather than its directionkinetickinetic adjective referring to motion orsomething produced by motionkineticskinetics noun the scientific study of bod-ies in motionkingdomkingdom noun the largest category in theclassification of organisms � The largestspecies in the animal kingdom is the whale.kJkJ abbr kilojouleknockknock verb to make a loud noise as themixture of petrol and air in a petrol engineexplodes, caused when the mixture is notrich enough in petrolknotknot noun 1. a structure formed when sev-eral strands are joined together or a singlestrand is looped on itself 2. a dark area in apiece of wood where a branch formerlygrewKöppen classificationKöppen classification noun a stand-ard classification of climate

COMMENT: The classification of climatetypes was drawn up by Wladimir Köppenin 1900 and has been much modified sincethen. The classification divides the Earthinto five climate types: A, B, C, D and E,according to temperature and rainfall.

KrKr symbol krypton

Krebs cycleKrebs cycle noun a series of reactions inwhich pyruvic acid is broken down in thepresence of oxygen to carbon dioxide. It isthe final step in the oxidation of carbohy-drates and fats, and occurs in mitochondria.Also called citric acid cyclekrillkrill noun a mass of tiny shrimps that livein the cold seas of the Antarctic and formthe basic diet of many sea animals includ-ing whaleskrotovinakrotovina noun an animal burrow thathas been filled with organic or mineral ma-terial from another soil horizonkrummholzkrummholz noun 1. the stunted trees thatgrow just above the timberline on a moun-tain 2. a high-altitude zone in which krum-mholz growskryptonkrypton noun an inert gas found in verysmall quantities in the atmosphere (NOTE:The chemical symbol is Kr; the atomicnumber is 36 and atomic weight is 83.80.)K selectionK selection noun a process of natural se-lection that leads to a reduction in birthswhen the population of a species approach-es the maximum number that its environ-ment can sustainK strategyK strategy noun a form of reproductionin which a mother produces a few large off-spring which need constant care and atten-tion over a long period of time. Compare RstrategykWkW abbr kilowattKyoto ProtocolKyoto Protocol noun an internationalagreement on strategies for coping with cli-mate change signed in December 1997 bythe United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC)


Llablab noun same as laboratory (informal) �The samples have been returned by the lab.labellabel noun a piece of information attachedto something that gives information about it� pesticide labels � verb 1. to identifysomething by using a label � Parts are la-belled with the manufacturer’s name. 2. toadd identifying words and numbers to a di-agram � There is a standard way of label-ling the navigation vector.labellinglabelling noun the presentation of infor-mation about a product on a label � regula-tions for food labellinglaboratorylaboratory noun a room with equipmentfor scientists to do experimental researchand testing � The samples of water havebeen sent to the laboratory for testing. �adjective referring to laboratories � Thenew drug has passed its laboratory tests.laboratory techniquelaboratory technique noun a methodor skill needed to perform experiments in alaboratorylactationlactation noun the production of milk asfood for younglacustrinelacustrine adjective referring to a lake orpondlaglag verb 1. to cover something with an in-sulating material to protect against cold orto stop heat escaping � Boilers and pipesshould be carefully lagged to prevent heatloss. 2. to be slower or not as advanced �Public opinion sometimes lags behind sci-entific discoveries. � noun a delay � a timelag � a lag in supplylagginglagging noun the material used to insulatepipeslagoonlagoon noun a shallow part of the sea inthe tropics, surrounded or almost surround-ed by reefs. � saline lagoon, sewage la-goonlagoonallagoonal adjective referring to lagoonslagooninglagooning noun the creation of artificiallakes for purifying sewagelakelake noun 1. a large area of fresh watersurrounded by land 2. a large quantity ofliquid produce stored because of overpro-duction (informal) � a wine lake � a milklake � mountainlake bloomlake bloom noun a mass of algae whichdevelops rapidly in a lake due to eutrophi-cation

landland noun the solid part of the Earth’s sur-face � back to the land encouragementgiven to people who once lived in the coun-try and moved to urban areas to return tothe countryside � land under cultivationland which is being cultivated or which hascrops growing on it � The area under ricecultivation has grown steadily in the past40–50 years.land burialland burial noun same as land disposalland clearanceland clearance noun the removal oftrees or undergrowth in preparation forploughing or buildingland disposalland disposal noun the act of depositingwaste in a hole in the ground. Also calledland burialland erosion controlland erosion control noun a method ofpreventing the soil from being worn awayby irrigation, planting or mulchinglandfilllandfill noun 1. the disposal of waste byputting it into holes in the ground and cov-ering it with earth 2. same as landfill sitelandfill gaslandfill gas noun a gas produced by thedecomposition of rubbish in a landfill site,e.g. methanelandfillinglandfilling noun the practice of disposingof waste by putting it into holes in theground and covering it with earthlandfill sitelandfill site noun an area of land wherewaste is put into holes in the ground andcovered with earth � The council has de-cided to use the old gravel pits as a landfillsite. � Landfill sites can leak pollutantsinto the ground water. � Landfill sites, ifproperly constructed, can be used to pro-vide gas for fuel. Also called landfilllandfill taxlandfill tax noun a tax on every metric tonof waste put in a landfill site instead of be-ing recycled that is paid by companies andlocal councilslandlockedlandlocked adjective referring to a placethat has no sea coast � a landlocked coun-try in central Africaland managementland management noun the use andmaintenance of land according to a set ofprinciples for a particular purpose such asthe cultivation of crops or recreational ac-tivitiesland managerland manager noun someone who is re-sponsible for the condition of land, e.g. afarmer or landowner


123 lawlandmasslandmass noun a large area of land � thecontinental landmass of the USAlandracelandrace noun a local variety of plant oranimal developed over many thousands ofyears by farmers selecting for favourablecharacteristics within a speciesland reclamationland reclamation, land restorationnoun the process of bringing back into pro-ductive use a piece of land such as a sitethat was formerly used for an industrialprocessLandsatLandsat noun a US satellite belonging toa set which scan the land surface of theEarth, particularly the vegetation coverlandscapelandscape noun the scenery, generalshape, structure and features of the surfaceof an area of landlandscape assessmentlandscape assessment, landscapecharacter assessment noun the analysis,description and classification of an area ofland, noting the features that contribute toits special character and developing appro-priate proposals for its future conservationand managementlandscape designlandscape design, landscape plan-ning, landscaping noun a plan of how tolay out an artificial landscape, includingwhere to plant trees and shrubslandscape ecologylandscape ecology noun the study ofthe ecology of an area and how it affects thelandscapelandscape managerlandscape manager noun somebodysuch as a farmer or landowner who is re-sponsible for the way land is used andlooked afterlandscape valuelandscape value noun the degree towhich an area is seen as attractive and ofbenefit to society in general � The land-scape value of new woodlands is high in ar-eas where loss of hedges and trees by dis-ease or deliberate policy took place in thepast.landslidelandslide, landslip noun a sudden fall oflarge amounts of soil and rocks down theside of a mountain or of waste matter downthe side of a spoil heapland useland use noun the way in which land isused for different purposes such as farmingor recreation � a survey of current land uselapselapse noun a short period of time whichseparates two eventslapse ratelapse rate noun the rate at which temper-ature changes according to altitudelarchlarch noun a deciduous European soft-wood tree that has cones. It is fast-growingand used as a timber crop. Genus: Larix.large-scalelarge-scale adjective big in size or exten-sive in scope. Compare small-scale

larvalarva noun the form of an insect or otheranimal in the stage of development after theegg has hatched but before the animal be-comes adult (NOTE: The plural is larvae.)larvallarval adjective referring to larvae � thelarval stagelatentlatent adjective present but not yet devel-opedlaterallateral adjective referring to the side �lateral buds � Drift is lateral movementcaused by wind.laterisationlaterisation, laterization noun the proc-ess of weathering tropical soil into hard la-teritelateriselaterise, laterize verb to weather tropicalsoil into hard lateritelateritelaterite noun a hard rock-like clay foundin the tropics, formed when latosol driesout (NOTE: When tropical rainforests arecleared, the soil beneath rapidly turns to la-terite as nutrients are leached out by rainand the land cannot be cultivated.)lateriticlateritic adjective referring to soil thatcontains lateritelate successional plantlate successional plant noun a plantthat grows slowly to a large size, toleratesshade and is competitive towards otherplants, e.g. a hardwood tree (NOTE: Suchtrees form a climax community.)latexlatex noun a white fluid from a plant suchas poppy, dandelion or rubber treelatitudelatitude noun an angular distance north orsouth of the Earth’s equator, measured indegrees, minutes and seconds, along a me-ridian � Parallels of latitude are imaginarycircles on the surface of the Earth, theirplanes being parallel to the plane of theequator. � at a latitude of 46°N at a posi-tion on the Earth’s surface which is 46 de-grees north of the equatorlatosollatosol noun a type of reddish soft soilfound in tropical areas that is characterisedby deep weathering and hydrous oxide ma-teriallaunchlaunch noun the start of a planned activity� the launch of their public awarenesscampaign � verb to begin a planned activi-ty, especially by announcing it publicly �to launch a new research initiativelavalava noun molten rock and minerals whichflow from an erupting volcano and solidifyinto various types of igneous rocklawlaw noun 1. a rule or set of rules by whicha country is governed � under British,French, etc., law according to British,French, etc., law 2. a basic principle of sci-ence or mathematics


lawrencium 124lawrenciumlawrencium noun a chemical element(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Lr; theatomic number is 103 and the atomicweight is 256.)layerlayer noun 1. a flat area of a substance un-der or over another area (NOTE: In geologi-cal formations, layers of rock are calledstrata; layers of soil are called horizons.)2. a stem of a plant which has made rootswhere it touches the soil � verb to propa-gate a plant by bending a stem down until ittouches the soil and letting it form rootsthereLCLC50 abbr lethal concentration 50LDLD50 abbr lethal dose 50%leachleach verb to be washed out of the soil bywater � Excess chemical fertilisers on thesurface of the soil leach into rivers andcause pollution. � Nitrates have leachedinto ground water and contaminated thewater supply.leachateleachate noun 1. a substance which iswashed out of the soil 2. a liquid whichforms at the bottom of a landfill siteleachingleaching noun the process by which asubstance is washed out of the soil by waterpassing through itleadlead1 noun a very heavy soft metallic ele-ment (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Pb;the atomic number is 82 and the atomicweight is 207.20.)leadlead2 noun an electrical wire or narrow ca-ble � A lead connects the monitor to thecomputer.lead-acid batterylead-acid battery, lead-acid accumu-lator noun a type of battery consisting oflead and lead-oxide plates, surrounded by asulfuric acid electrolyteleaded petrolleaded petrol noun petrol to which afuel additive such as tetraethyl lead hasbeen added to prevent knockinglead-freelead-free adjective referring to somethingsuch as paint or fuel which has no lead in it� lead-free petrol � Lead-free fuel is usedin most modern piston engines.lead poisoninglead poisoning noun poisoning causedby taking in lead saltslead replacement petrollead replacement petrol noun a lead-free petrol for compulsory use in vehiclesthat were designed to be used with leadedpetrol, introduced as a way of improving airquality and protecting the environmentleafleaf noun a structure growing from a plantstem, with a stalk and a flat blade. It is usu-ally green and carries out photosynthesis.(NOTE: A leaf stalk is called a petiole, and aleaf blade is called a lamina.)

LEAFLEAF noun an independent organisationthat promotes better understanding of farm-ing by the public and helps farmers im-prove the environment by combining thebest traditional farming methods with mod-ern technology. Full form Linking Envi-ronment and Farmingleaf cuttingleaf cutting noun a piece of a leaf, root orstem cut from a living plant and put in soilwhere it will sproutleaf litterleaf litter noun dead leaves lying on thefloor of a forest. Also called litterleaf mouldleaf mould noun a soft fibrous materialformed of decomposed leavesleakleak noun an escape of liquid or gas froma sealed container � a gas leak � verb (ofliquid or gas) to escape from a sealed con-tainer � Fuel may leak from a fuel tank ifthe drain plug is not seated correctly.leakageleakage noun the process of a gas or liq-uid leaking out of a container � Any inter-nal or external leakage of fuel will cause areduction in the operating period.leak rateleak rate noun the speed at which a liquidor gas escapes from a sealed containerlean-burn enginelean-burn engine noun a type of inter-nal combustion engine adapted to use lessfuel than other engines, and so release lesscarbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide intothe atmosphereLEDLED abbr light-emitting diodeleelee noun the side of something which isprotected from the wind � The trees in thelee of the hill grow better than those on thewindward side. � on the lee side on theside away from the windleewardleeward adjective protected from thewindlegleg noun a part of the body with which aperson or animal walks and standslegionnaires’ diseaselegionnaires’ disease noun a bacterialdisease similar to pneumonia (NOTE: Thebacteria develop in warm, moist areas suchas air-conditioning systems and are trans-mitted through droplets of moisture in theair, often affecting many people at once.)legislationlegislation noun the laws by which acountry is governedlegislative bodylegislative body noun a group of peoplewho make laws for a countrylegumelegume noun a member of the plant fam-ily that produces seeds in pods, e.g. peasand beans. Family: Leguminosae.

COMMENT: There are many species of leg-ume, including trees, and some are partic-ularly valuable because they have rootnodules that contain nitrogen-fixing bacte-ria. Such legumes have special value inmaintaining soil fertility and are used in


125 lifetimecrop rotation. Peas, beans, clover andvetch are all legumes.

LeguminosaeLeguminosae noun a family of plantsincluding peas and beans, that produceseeds in podsleguminousleguminous adjective referring to a leg-umeleguminous plantleguminous plant noun a plant that is alegumeleisureleisure noun free time that can be used forrelaxation, entertainment or sportleisure centreleisure centre noun a place that pro-vides equipment and resources for activi-ties such as swimming or sportleisure facilitiesleisure facilities plural noun equipmentand resources such as sports centres, swim-ming pools, parks or cinemas which can beused during free timeleisure visitorleisure visitor noun someone who visitsa place for pleasure � The number of lei-sure visitors to the area has increased.leklek noun a small territory established by amale for breeding purposeslenticlentic adjective referring to stagnant waterLepidopteraLepidoptera noun an order of insectsthat includes butterflies and mothslessenlessen verb to make something less or tobecome less � Clean filters lessen the pos-sibility of blockage.lethallethal adjective causing death � Thesefumes are lethal if inhaled.lethal concentration 50lethal concentration 50 noun the con-centration of a pollutant or effluent atwhich 50% of the test organisms die. AbbrLC50lethal dose 50%lethal dose 50% noun the dose of a sub-stance which will kill half the organismswhich absorb it. Abbr LD50LEVLEV abbr low-emission vehicleleveelevee noun (in the USA) an embankmentbuilt up along the bank of a river to preventfloodinglevellevel adjective having a flat, smooth sur-face � noun a relative amount, intensity orconcentration � an unsafe level of contam-ination � reduced noise levels � verb 1. tomake something become flat � levellingthe ground 2. to knock down and destroysomething � The developers levelled thederelict buildings.leyley noun a field in which crops are grownin rotation with periods when the field issown with grass for pasture (NOTE: Leys arean essential part of organic farming.)LH2LH2 abbr liquid hydrogenLiLi symbol lithiumlianaliana noun a climbing plant found in trop-ical rainforests

liaslias noun a type of rock formation consist-ing of shale and limestonelicelice plural of louselichenlichen noun a complex of two organismsgrowing in symbiosis, a fungus providingthe outer shell and an alga or a cyanobacte-rium giving the organism its colour. Li-chens are often found on the surface ofstones or trunks of trees. (NOTE: As they areable to survive in cold or exposed condi-tions, they provide food for many arctic an-imals. Many lichens are very sensitive topollution, especially sulfur dioxide, and actas indicators for atmospheric pollution.)lidarlidar noun a device that uses pulses of la-ser light to measure the distance betweenan aircraft and the ground, used to producemany reference points over an area of landand allow the mapping of large areas suchas marshes and river networks to which ac-cess might be difficult. Full form Light De-tection and Ranginglifelife noun 1. the time from birth to death �adult life the time period during which aperson or other organism is an adult 2. astate of active metabolism 3. the state or ex-perience of being alive. � Their lives wereput at risk by the contamination. 3. livingorganisms � bird life � plant lifelife cyclelife cycle noun 1. all the changes an or-ganism goes through between a specificstage in its development and the same stagein the next generation 2. the process that aproduct undergoes from manufacture todisposallife cycle analysislife cycle analysis noun a review of aproduct from manufacture to final disposalin order to assess its full impact on the en-vironmentlife formlife form noun a living thing, e.g. a plant,animal or microorganismlife spanlife span noun the length of time that anorganism lives or a product is useful �Some insects have a life span of only oneday.lifestylelifestyle noun the way in which a personor group of people live their daily lives, in-cluding habits, behaviour and activitieslifestyle farmland buyerlifestyle farmland buyer noun a pur-chaser of farmland for leisure or investmentpurposes rather than as a working farmerlife systemlife system noun a part of an ecosystemwhich is formed of a living organism andthe parts of the environment which supportitlifetimelifetime noun 1. the time during which anorganism is alive � Humans consume tonsof sugar in a lifetime. 2. the approximate


life zone 126time it would take for the part of an atmos-pheric pollutant concentration created byhumans to return to its natural level assum-ing emissions cease � Average lifetimesrange from about a week for products suchas sulfate aerosols to more than a centuryfor CFCs and carbon dioxide. Also calledatmospheric lifetime 3. a period of timeduring which a device is useful or not out-dated � This new computer has a four-yearlifetime.life zonelife zone noun a place or area in which thetype and number of organisms differ slight-ly from neighbouring areas because of var-iations in environmental conditionslightlight noun 1. brightness produced by theSun, the Moon or a lamp 2. electromagneticradiation which can be sensed by the eyes� adjective 1. bright because the sun isshining � a light room � At six o’clock inthe morning it was just getting light. 2.without much weight � Aluminium is alight metal.light-emitting diodelight-emitting diode noun a semicon-ductor diode that emits light when a currentis applied, used in clock and calculator dis-plays and as an indicator. Abbr LEDlightninglightning noun a discharge of electricitybetween clouds and the Earth, seen as abright flash and accompanied by the soundof thunder which is heard after a short delaylight pollutionlight pollution noun the effect of streetor other artificial lighting which makes thesky red or orange at night, and so reducesthe visibility of starslight water reactorlight water reactor noun a nuclear re-actor which uses ordinary water as a cool-ant. Abbr LWRlight wavelight wave noun 1. a visible wave of elec-tromagnetic radiation that travels from asource of light and is capable of stimulatingthe retina 2. any wave of electromagneticradiation, including ultraviolet and infraredligninlignin noun the material in plant cell wallsthat makes plants woody and gives them ri-gidity and strengthlignitelignite noun a type of soft coal with a lowcarbon contentlimblimb noun 1. a leg or arm � lower limbslegs � upper limbs arms 2. a main branchof a treelimelime noun 1. calcium oxide made fromburnt limestone, used to spread on soil toreduce acidity and add calcium 2. a hard-wood tree. Genus: Tilia. 3. a citrus fruittree, with green fruit similar to, but smallerthan, lemons. Latin name: Citrus aurantifo-

lia. � verb to treat acid soil by spreadinglime on itlimestonelimestone noun a common sedimentaryrock, formed of calcium minerals and oftencontaining fossilised shells of sea animals.It is porous in its natural state and may formlarge caves by being weathered by water. Itis used in agriculture and building. � car-boniferous limestonelimestone pavementlimestone pavement noun an area ofoutcrops of rock where the surface has beendissolved by water over millions of yearsinto blocks, giving it the appearance of astreet pavement. Some rare plants live onlimestone pavements.lime treatmentlime treatment noun same as liminglimewaterlimewater noun a solution of calcium hy-droxide in waterlimingliming noun the spreading of lime on soilto reduce acidity and add calcium. Alsocalled lime treatmentlimitlimit noun a furthest point or place beyondwhich you cannot go � They have set astrict limit on the amount of fish which for-eign fishing boats are allowed to catch. �verb to set a limit on something � The gov-ernment has limited the number of barrelsof oil to be extracted each day.limiting factorlimiting factor noun something that isessential for a chemical reaction to takeplace and which prevents the reaction orlimits its rate of occurrence if it is notpresent � Oxygen is a limiting factor forcombustion.limiting factor principlelimiting factor principle noun a gener-al rule that too much or too little of any abi-otic factor can limit or prevent the growthof a populationlimiting similaritylimiting similarity noun the extent ofniche differentiation required for species tocoexistlimn-limn- prefix fresh waterlimneticlimnetic adjective referring to deep freshwaterlimniclimnic adjective referring to deposits infresh waterlimnologylimnology noun the study of river sys-tems and their ecologylindanelindane noun an organochlorine pesti-cide. It is a persistent organic pollutant andhas been banned for all agricultural uses inthe European Union. Formula: C6H6Cl6.lineline verb to cover the inside of a containerto prevent the contents escaping � Landfillsites may be lined with nylon to preventleaks of dangerous liquids.lined landfilllined landfill noun a hole in the groundcovered on the inside with nylon sheets to


127 litterprevent leaks of dangerous liquids fromwaste deposited thereline of latitudeline of latitude noun an imaginary linerunning round the Earth, linking points atan equal distance from the equatorlinerliner noun material used to line some-thing, e.g. a sheet or bag of nylon or plasticline squallline squall noun a series of thunder-storms advancing in a linelinklink noun a connection between two things� proved a link between smoking and lungcancer � verb to be related to or associatedwith something � Health is linked to diet orHealth and diet are linked.linkagelinkage noun the process of two or moregenes situated close together on a chromo-some being inherited togetherLinnaean systemLinnaean system noun the scientificsystem of naming organisms devised by theSwedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–78). See Comment at binomial classifica-tion (NOTE: Carl von Linné is another formof his name.)linoleic acidlinoleic acid noun one of the two essen-tial fatty acids which cannot be produced inthe body by humans and has to be taken infrom food such as vegetable oil. Formula:C18H32O2.linolenic acidlinolenic acid noun one of the two es-sential fatty acids which cannot be pro-duced in the body by humans and has to betaken in from food such as vegetable oil.Formula: C25H30O2. (NOTE: Linolenic acidis also used in paints and in synthetic resinmanufacture.)lipidlipid noun an organic compound belong-ing to a group of compounds that are notwater-soluble and include animal fat, plantoils and waxesliposolubleliposoluble adjective referring to a sub-stance that can be dissolved in fatliquefactionliquefaction noun the process of makinga solid or gas into liquidliquefied natural gasliquefied natural gas noun a naturalgas, extracted from under ground, that iscooled and transported in containers. AbbrLNGliquefied petroleum gasliquefied petroleum gas noun pro-pane or butane or a combination of bothproduced by refining crude petroleum oil.Abbr LPG (NOTE: Liquefied petroleum gasis used for domestic heating and cookingand for powering vehicles.)liquefyliquefy verb to make a gas into liquid or tobecome liquidliquidliquid noun a substance with a consisten-cy like water � Water is a liquid, ice is asolid.

liquid fertiliserliquid fertiliser noun a solution of a sol-id fertiliserliquid hydrogenliquid hydrogen noun an alternativefuel proposed for use in cars and aircraft.Abbr LH2listlist noun a set of short pieces of informa-tion, each one given on a separate line � alist of endangered specieslisterialisteria noun a bacterium found in humanand animal faeces, one species of whichcan cause meningitis if ingested in contam-inated food. Genus: Listeria.List of Chemicals of ConcernList of Chemicals of Concern nouna list of chemicals believed to be producedor used in the UK in substantial amountswhich meet specific criteria for concern re-lating to risks to the environment and hu-man health on the basis of information cur-rently available. The list is drawn up by theUK Chemicals Stakeholder Forum and isintended for discussion and input.literliter noun US spelling of litrelith-lith- prefix stonelithiumlithium noun a soft silvery metallic ele-ment, the lightest known metal, used in bat-teries (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Li; theatomic number is 3 and the atomic weightis 6.94.)lithoserelithosere noun a succession of communi-ties growing on rocklithosollithosol noun soil which forms on the sur-face of rock, with no clearly different layerslithospherelithosphere noun 1. the Earth’s solid sur-face, together with the molten interiorabove the core 2. the solid surface of theEarth which lies above the asthenospherelithosphericlithospheric adjective referring to thelithospherelitmuslitmus noun a dye obtained from lichenswhich is used to make litmus paperlitmus paperlitmus paper noun paper treated with lit-mus, used in tests for acidity (NOTE: The pa-per becomes red when the pH falls below 7,indicating acid, and becomes blue whenthe pH is above 7, indicating alkaline.)litrelitre noun a measure of capacity equal to1000cc or 1.76 pints. Symbol l, L (NOTE: Itis the volume of one kilogram of water at4°C.)litterlitter noun 1. rubbish left by people 2. agroup of young mammals born to onemother at the same time � The sow had alitter of ten piglets. 3. bedding for livestock� Straw is the best type of litter. 4. same asleaf litter � verb 1. to lie all over the place� The valley is littered with huge boulders.2. to leave rubbish in a place 3. to give birth� Bears litter in early spring.


litter basket 128litter basketlitter basket, litter bin noun a containerin a public place in which rubbish is thrownawaylittorallittoral adjective 1. referring to a coast 2.same as intertidal � noun a coastlittoral zonelittoral zone noun 1. an area of water atthe edge of a lake where plants grow 2. anarea of the sea and shore between the highand low water markslivelive adjective 1. (of an organism) carryingout metabolism 2. (of cables) carrying elec-tricity 3. (of a volcano) erupting from timeto time 4. in active use � verb to be or re-main alivelive offlive off verb to exist by eating something� These fish live off the debris which sinksto the bottom of the lake.live onlive on verb 1. to exist by eating some-thing � Most apes live on berries and roots.2. to exist on the surface of something �Lice live on the skin of their host.livestocklivestock noun cattle and other farm ani-mals which are reared to produce meat,milk or other products � Livestock produc-tion has increased by 5%.living environmentliving environment noun the part of theenvironment made up of living organismsLLWLLW abbr low-level wasteLNGLNG abbr liquefied natural gasloadload noun 1. something that is loaded ortransported 2. the power output of an elec-trical generator or power plant 3. theamount of something that a vehicle can car-ry or a machine can deal with at one time �verb 1. to put something that is to be trans-ported onto a vehicle or other means oftransport 2. to put something into a contain-er or piece of equipment ready for useload upload up verb same as loadloamloam noun dark soil, with medium-sizedgrains of sand, which crumbles easily andis very fertileloamyloamy adjective referring to soil that isdark, crumbly and fertilelobbylobby noun a group of people trying to in-fluence the opinions of politicians, local of-ficials and businessmen on a particular issue� the road lobby � a green lobby group �verb to ask someone such as a politician orlocal official to do something on somebody’sbehalf � They lobbied their MP about theplan to build houses on the Green Belt.lobby grouplobby group noun same as lobbylobbyistlobbyist noun a person who is paid by alobby group to act on the group’s behalflobelobe noun a rounded part of a divided leaflocallocal adjective referring to a particulararea

local authoritylocal authority noun an official bodythat is responsible for public services in aspecific area of a countrylocal governmentlocal government noun government ofa specific area of a country by locally elect-ed politicianslocationlocation noun 1. a place where somethingcan be found 2. the process of findingwhere something islochloch noun (in Scotland) a lakelocomotionlocomotion noun movement or travelfrom one place to anotherlocuslocus noun the position of a gene on achromosome (NOTE: The plural is loci.)locustlocust noun a flying insect which occursin subtropical areas, flies in large groupsand eats large amounts of vegetationlodelode noun a deposit of metallic oreloessloess noun a fine fertile soil formed oftiny clay and silt particles deposited by thewindloglog noun 1. a full record of a set of actionsor events 2. a large piece of wood cut fromthe trunk or from a main branch of a tree �verb 1. to keep a full record of a set of ac-tions or events 2. to cut down trees for theirwood as a commercial activityloggerlogger noun a person whose job is to cutdown treeslogginglogging noun the commercial activity ofcutting down treeslong-day plantlong-day plant noun a plant that flowersas the days get longer in the spring. Com-pare short-day plantlong-grass prairielong-grass prairie noun an area in theeast of the North American prairies wheremainly varieties of tall grasses grow. Alsocalled tall-grass prairielongitudelongitude noun an angular distance onthe Earth’s surface, measured east or westfrom the prime meridian to the meridianpassing through a position, expressed in de-grees, minutes and seconds

COMMENT: Longitude is measured fromGreenwich, just east of London, and, to-gether with latitude, is used to indicate anexact position on the Earth’s surface. Lon-gitude is measured in degrees, minutesand seconds. The centre of London is lati-tude 51°30’N, longitude 0°5’W

longlinelongline noun a very long fishing line,which stretches for miles and is baited withmany hooks (NOTE: Longlines are a prob-lem in that they catch all types of fish, someof which are not of commercial interest, andeven dolphins)long-livedlong-lived adjective referring to an ani-mal or plant that lives for a long time


129 lysislong-range

long-range adjective referring to aweather forecast that covers a period morethan five days aheadlongshore

longshore adjective referring to a currentwhich flows along the length of a shorelong-term

long-term adjective lasting for a longtime � the long-term effects of grazinglong ton

long ton noun same as ton 1looping

looping noun a situation in which a col-umn of smoke from a tall chimney isbrought down to ground level by air cur-rents and then rises againloss

loss noun the state of not having some-thing any more, or of having less of some-thing � loss of control � the loss of naturalhabitats � loss of amenity value � hearingloss from noisy working conditionslotic

lotic adjective referring to ecological com-munities that live in water that flows quicklyLotka-Volterra predator-prey model

Lotka-Volterra predator-prey mod-el noun a simple mathematical model rep-resenting the interaction between predatorsand their preylough

lough noun (in Ireland) a lakelouse

louse noun a small wingless insect thatsucks blood and lives on the skin as a para-site on animals and humans. There are sev-eral types, the commonest being bodylouse, crab louse and head louse. Some dis-eases can be transmitted by lice. Genus:Pediculus. (NOTE: The plural is lice.)low

low adjective near the bottom or towardsthe bottom � noun same as depression 1� A series of lows are crossing the NorthAtlantic towards Ireland.low-emission vehicle

low-emission vehicle noun a vehiclewhich does not emit much pollution whencompared to vehicles with conventional in-ternal combustion engines. Abbr LEVlower

lower verb 1. to put something in a lowerposition � lower the barrier 2. to reducesomething in amount or intensity � low-ered the temperature � lower the pressurelower plants

lower plants plural noun organisms tra-ditionally classed as plants but which donot have a vascular system, e.g. mosseslow-grade

low-grade adjective not of high qualitylow input farming

low input farming, lower input farm-ing noun a system of farming based on re-stricted use of chemical fertilisers, pesti-cides and herbicideslowland

lowland noun an area of low-lying land asopposed to hills and mountains or high-lands

low-level radioactive waste

low-level radioactive waste, low-level waste noun waste which is onlyslightly radioactive and does not causeproblems for disposallow production volume chemical

low production volume chemicalnoun a chemical of which 10–1000 tonnes issold per year per manufacturer or importerlow tide

low tide noun the point when the sea levelat the coast is lowestlow-waste technology

low-waste technology noun efficienttechnology which produces little wasteLPG

LPG abbr liquefied petroleum gasLPV chemical

LPV chemical abbr low production vol-ume chemicalLr

Lr symbol lawrenciumlucerne

lucerne noun a perennial, drought-resist-ant, leguminous plant that is rich in protein.It is mainly used either for green feed foranimals or for hay or silage. Latin name:Medicago sativa. (NOTE: The US name isalfalfa.)lumber

lumber noun (in the USA and Canada)trees which have been cut downlumberjack

lumberjack noun (in the USA and Cana-da) a person whose job is to cut down treeslunar

lunar adjective referring to the moonlunar eclipse

lunar eclipse noun a situation when theEarth passes between the Sun and theMoon causing the shadow of the Earth tofall across the Moon, so cutting off its light.Compare solar eclipselunar phase

lunar phase noun a change in the ap-pearance of the Moon as it moves from newto full and back again every 29 days (NOTE:The phases are: new moon, first quarter,full moon and last quarter.)lung

lung noun the organ of respiration of ver-tebrates that breathe airlush

lush adjective referring to vegetationwhich is thick and green � Lush tropicalvegetation rapidly covered the clearing.lux

lux noun an SI unit of brightness of lightshining on a surface. Symbol lxLWR

LWR abbr light water reactorlyophilise

lyophilise verb to preserve food by freez-ing it rapidly and drying in a vacuumlysimeter

lysimeter noun a device used for measur-ing the rate of drainage of water throughsoil and the soluble particles removed in theprocesslysis

lysis noun the destruction of a cell by dis-rupting its outer membrane, allowing thecell contents to escape


Mmm symbol milli-MM symbol mega-MABMAB abbr Man and the Biosphere Pro-grammeMACMAC abbr maximum allowable concentra-tionmackerel skymackerel sky noun a pattern of wavycirrocumulus or altocumulus cloud withholes which looks like the body markingsof mackerel fishmacro-macro- prefix large. Opposite micro-macrobenthosmacrobenthos noun plants or animalsliving at the bottom of a lake or the seawhose shortest dimension is equal to ormore than 0.5 mmmacrobioticmacrobiotic adjective referring to a veg-etarian diet without artificial additives orpreservatives � a macrobiotic dietmacrobioticsmacrobiotics noun a dietary systembased on vegetarian foods without artificialadditives or preservatives, especially or-ganically grown whole grains, fruit andvegetablesmacroclimatemacroclimate noun the climate over alarge area such as a region or country. �mesoclimate, microclimatemacronutrientmacronutrient noun a nutrient that anorganism uses in very large quantities, e.g.oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phos-phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesiumand ironmacroparasitemacroparasite noun a parasite whichlives on or inside the body of the host butdoes not multiply, e.g. a worm or insect lar-vamacrophytemacrophyte noun a plant that is largeenough to be studied without the aid of amicroscopemacroplanktonmacroplankton plural noun plankton ofabout 1mm in lengthmacroscopicmacroscopic adjective referring to anobject or organism that can be seen withoutthe aid of a microscopemad cow diseasemad cow disease same as BSE(informal)magmamagma noun a molten substance in theEarth’s mantle, which escapes as lava dur-ing volcanic eruptions and solidifies toform igneous rocksmagmaticmagmatic adjective referring to magma

magnesiummagnesium noun a light, silvery-whitemetallic element that burns with a brilliantwhite flame (NOTE: It is also found in greenvegetables and is essential especially forthe correct functioning of human muscles.The chemical symbol is Mg; the atomicnumber is 12 and the atomic weight is24.31.)magnetmagnet noun an object that produces amagnetic field and attracts iron and steelmagneticmagnetic adjective referring to a magnetor a magnetic fieldmagnetic fieldmagnetic field noun an area round anobject that is under the influence of its mag-netic effect � The Earth’s magnetic field isconcentrated round the two magnetic poles.magnetic polemagnetic pole noun one of the twopoles of the Earth, near to but not identicalwith the geographical poles, which are thecentres of the Earth’s magnetic field and towhich a compass points. Also called geo-magnetic polemagnetospheremagnetosphere noun a region sur-rounding the Earth, extending from about500 to several thousand kilometres abovethe surface, in which charged particles arecontrolled by the Earth’s magnetic fieldmagnificationmagnification noun a measure of in-crease in size, especially in the apparentsize of an image seen through a microscopemagnox power stationmagnox power station noun a nuclearpower station with a magnox reactor

COMMENT: The first magnox power stationwas built in the UK in 1956. The safetyrecord has been very good, but magnoxpower stations are at the end of their com-mercial life and decommissioning began in1990.

mahoganymahogany noun a tropical hardwoodtree producing a dark timber, now becom-ing rare. Genus: especially: Swietenia.mainmain adjective the most important or prin-cipalmainsmains noun a system of pipes or cableswhich bring gas, water or electricity to ahouse � mains gas � mains electricitymaintainmaintain verb to keep something at thesame level or standardmaintenancemaintenance noun the action of keepingsomething at the same level or standardmaizemaize noun a tall cereal crop grown inwarm climates, that carries its grains on a


131 maplarge solid core (cob) of which there areonly one or two per plant. Latin name: Zeamays. (NOTE: The US term is corn.)make up watermake up water noun the water intro-duced into an irrigation or sewage systemto replace water lost by leaking or evapora-tionmalariamalaria noun a tropical disease caused bythe parasite Plasmodium which enters thebody after a bite from a mosquitomalarialmalarial adjective referring to malariamalariousmalarious adjective referring to a regionwhere malaria occurs frequentlymalathionmalathion noun an organophosphorusinsecticide used to kill aphids, mainly onflowers grown in glasshousesmalemale adjective 1. referring to an animalthat produces sperm 2. referring to a flowerthat produces pollen, or a plant that produc-es such flowers � noun a male animal orplantmalignant melanomamalignant melanoma noun a dark can-cerous tumour that develops on the skinfrom a mole, caused by exposure to strongsunlight � Cases of malignant melanomacould rise by between 5 and 7 per cent foreach percentage decrease in ozone in theatmosphere.malnutritionmalnutrition noun 1. the effect of an in-adequate or unhealthy diet 2. the state ofnot having enough to eatmammalmammal noun an animal that gives birthto live young, secretes milk to feed them,keeps a constant body temperature and iscovered with hair. Class: Mammalia.manman noun 1. an adult male human being 2.all human beings considered in contrast toother animals � Man is the only species tohave made a global impact on the environ-ment. � humankind (NOTE: This use of‘man’ is now regarded as inappropriate inmany non-technical contexts.)managemanage verb 1. to organise something orcontrol the way in which something hap-pens � The department is in charge of man-aging land resources. 2. to succeed in do-ing something � We managed to preventfurther damage occurring.managed forestmanaged forest, managed woodlandnoun a wood or a forest producing com-mercial timber that is controlled by cuttingdown, coppicing or planting treesmanagementmanagement noun 1. the organised useof resources or materials 2. the people whocontrol an organisation or businessmanagermanager noun a person who is in chargeof an organisation or part of one

Man and the Biosphere ProgrammeMan and the Biosphere Pro-gramme noun a programme of researchand training organised by UNESCO to en-courage the sensible use and conservationof the biosphere’s resources and to improverelationships between people and their en-vironment. Abbr MABmandiblemandible noun a biting mouthpart in in-sects and other invertebratesmanganesemanganese noun a metallic trace ele-ment. It is essential for biological life and isalso used in making steel. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Mn; the atomic numberis 25 and the atomic weight is 54.94.)mangrovemangrove noun a salt-tolerant tropicalshrub or tree that grows in areas such as riv-er estuaries or tidal marshes that are cov-ered by the sea at high tidemangrove forestmangrove forest noun a group of salt-tolerant tropical trees and shrubs growingin an area that is covered by the sea at hightidemangrove swampmangrove swamp noun an area that iscovered by the sea at high tide where man-groves growmanholemanhole noun a hole in a roadway orpavement leading to a shaft down which aninspector can go to look at the sewersman-mademan-made adjective referring to an ob-ject made or an event caused by human be-ingsmantlemantle noun a layer of the interior of theEarth, between the solid crust and the core,formed of magmamanualmanual noun a document or book con-taining instructions for doing something,especially carrying out a procedure or oper-ating a machine � adjective carried out bysomeone without the help of a machinemanufacturemanufacture verb 1. to make a productusing machines 2. to produce a chemicalnaturally � Ozone is constantly being man-ufactured and destroyed by natural proc-esses in the atmosphere.manufacturermanufacturer noun a person or compa-ny that produces machine-made products �The company is a large manufacturer offarm machinery.manufacturingmanufacturing noun the production ofmachine-made products for salemanuremanure noun animal dung used as ferti-liser (NOTE: In liquid form it is called ‘slur-ry’.) � verb to spread animal dung on landas fertilisermapmap noun 1. a drawing that shows the lo-cation of geographical and urban features2. a diagram showing the position of some-thing such as stars in the sky or genes on


MAP 132chromosomes � verb to make a map of aplace or areaMAPMAP abbr Mediterranean Action Planmaplemaple noun a hardwood tree of northerntemperate regions, some varieties of whichproduce sweet sap which is used for mak-ing sugar and syrup. Genus: Acer.MAPPS modelMAPPS model noun a global biologicaland geographical model that simulates thepotential natural vegetation that will growat any site in the world. Full form mappedatmosphere–plant–soil modelmaquismaquis noun in the Mediterranean area,shrubby vegetation, taller than garrigue, ofevergreen shrubs and small trees with thickor spiny leavesmarblemarble noun a form of limestone that hasbeen metamorphosed, used especially inbuilding and sculpture as it can be polishedto give a flat shiny surfacemarginmargin noun 1. the edge of a place orthing � the eastern margin of the continent� unploughed strips at the margins of thefields � a leaf margin 2. an amount bywhich an amount or estimate may be differ-ent from the one expected without it caus-ing a problem. Also called margin of error3. a blank space around a section of printedtextmarginalmarginal adjective 1. referring to areas ofland such as field edges or banks besideroads which are at the edge of cultivatedland 2. referring to a plant which grows atthe edge of two types of habitat � marginalpond plants such as irises 3. referring toland of poor quality which results from badphysical conditions such as poor soil, highrainfall or steep slopes, and where farmingis often difficult � Cultivating marginal ar-eas can lead to erosion. 4. situated in thespaces around a section of printed text �marginal notesmariculturemariculture noun the breeding and keep-ing of sea fish or shellfish for food in sea-water enclosuresmarinemarine adjective 1. referring to the sea �seals and other marine mammals 2. an ani-mal or plant which lives in the seamarine biocoenosismarine biocoenosis noun a variedcommunity of organisms living in the seamarine biologymarine biology noun the scientificstudy of sea lifemarine disposalmarine disposal noun the depositing ofwaste at seamarine ecologymarine ecology noun the study of therelationship between organisms that live inthe sea and their environment

marine environmentmarine environment noun the areas ofthe world usually covered by or containingsea water, including seas and oceans, riverestuaries, and coasts and beachesmarine faunamarine fauna noun the animals that livein the seamarine floramarine flora noun the plants that live inthe seamarine habitatmarine habitat noun an area of seacoast, including features such as beaches,cliffs, salt marshes, dunes or mangroveswampsmarine parkmarine park noun a natural park createdon the bottom of the sea where visitors cango into observation chambers to look at thefish and plant life. Compare oceanariummarine pollutionmarine pollution noun the harmful ef-fects of human activities such as disposal ofwaste into the sea on marine organisms andtheir environment, with resulting hazards tohuman food and healthmaritime climatemaritime climate noun a climate that ismodified by the influence of the sea, givingmild winters and warm summers, but withhigh rainfallmarkedmarked adjective clear and definite �marked changes in climatic conditionsmarkermarker noun same as genetic markermarket gardenmarket garden noun a place for thecommercial cultivation of plants, usuallyvegetables, soft fruit, salad crops and flow-ers, found near a large urban centre whichprovides a steady outlet for the sale of itsproducemarlmarl noun a fine soil formed of a mixtureof clay and lime, used for making bricksMARPOL ConventionMARPOL Convention noun the maininternational agreement for the preventionof pollution of the sea by ships, either acci-dentally or deliberately. Full form Conven-tion for the Prevention of Pollution fromShipsmarram grassmarram grass noun a type of grassplanted on sand dunes to prevent them be-ing spread by the wind. Latin name: Ammo-phila arenaria.MARSMARS noun a computer network used bymember countries of the EU and OECD forreporting and exchanging information onserious industrial accidents in a standardformat. Full form Major Accident Report-ing Systemmarshmarsh noun an area of permanently wetland and the plants that grow on it (NOTE:Marshes may be fresh water or salt waterand tidal or non-tidal. A marsh usually hasa soil base, as opposed to a bog or fen,which is composed of peat.)


133 meatmarsh gasmarsh gas noun same as methanemarshlandmarshland noun land that is coveredwith marshmarshymarshy adjective referring to land that ispermanently wetmarsupialmarsupial noun a mammal with a pouchin which its young are carried, e.g. Austral-ian kangaroos and wallabies or SouthAmerican opossums (NOTE: Marsupialsgive birth to young at a much earlier stageof development than other mammals sothat the young need to be protected in themother’s pouch for some months until theybecome able to look after themselves.)massmass noun 1. a body of matter 2. a largequantity or large numbermass extinctionmass extinction noun the disappear-ance of numerous species in a short periodby a force of nature such as climate changeor a volcanic eruption � It has been sug-gested that the mass extinction of the dino-saurs 65 million years ago may have beencaused by the impact of a comet or meteor-ite.mastmast noun 1. a vertical pole for a flag orantenna � Ice accretes on the leading edgeof the detector mast. 2. the small hard fruitsthat have fallen from a beech treematemate noun an animal that reproduces sex-ually with another � verb to reproduce sex-ually with another of same speciesmaterialmaterial noun 1. a substance with a par-ticular quality or used for a specific pur-pose � waste material � construction ma-terials 2. clothmattermatter noun a physical substance � or-ganic mattermaturationmaturation noun the process of becom-ing mature or fully developedmaturation lagoonmaturation lagoon, maturation pondnoun a pond used in the final stages of sew-age treatmentmaturemature adjective referring to somethingthat is fully developed � verb to becomefully developedmaturingmaturing adjective referring to some-thing that is in the process of becoming ma-turematuritymaturity noun the state of being fully de-velopedMauna LoaMauna Loa noun a volcano on the islandof Hawaii where scientists have maintainedthe longest continuous collection of relia-ble daily atmospheric recordsmaximisemaximise, maximize verb to makesomething as large as possible. Oppositeminimise

maximummaximum adjective referring to thegreatest possible � maximum effect � Themaximum capacity of the vehicle is 12. Op-posite minimummaximum allowable concentrationmaximum allowable concentrationnoun the largest amount of a pollutant withwhich workers are allowed to be in contactin their work environment. Abbr MACmaximum–minimum thermometermaximum–minimum thermometernoun a thermometer that shows the highestand lowest temperatures reached since itwas last checked, as well as the currenttemperaturemaximum permissible dosemaximum permissible dose nounthe highest amount of radiation to which aperson may safely be exposedmaximum permissible levelmaximum permissible level nounthe highest amount of radiation that is al-lowed to be present in an environmentmaximum residue levelmaximum residue level noun themaximum amount of a pesticide that canremain in crops or foodstuffs under Euro-pean Union regulations. Abbr MRLMCPAMCPA noun a herbicide that kills the mostpersistent broad-leaved weeds: nettle, but-tercups, charlock, dock seedlings, plantainsand thistles. Full form 2-methyl-4chloro-phenoxy-acetic acidMCPPMCPP abbr mecopropmeadowmeadow noun a field of grass and wildplants, sometimes grown for fodder. � wa-ter meadowmeanmean adjective referring to an arithmeticmean � mean daytime temperatures �noun same as arithmetic meanmeandermeander noun a large bend in the courseof a river as it nears the sea � verb (of ariver) to follow a winding coursemean lethal dosemean lethal dose noun the dose of asubstance that will kill half the organismswhich absorb itmeansmeans noun a way of doing somethingthat brings a result � Turning down the cen-tral heating temperature by one or two de-grees is a means of saving energy.mean sea levelmean sea level noun the level of the sea,measured relative to points on land, withwave movements and tide changes aver-aged out over a period of time � Altitude isthe vertical distance between a specificpoint and mean sea level. Abbr MSLmean temperaturemean temperature noun an averagetemperature � The mean temperature forJuly in this area is 25 °C.meatmeat noun animal flesh that is eaten asfood


mechanical treatment 134mechanical treatmentmechanical treatment noun theprocessing of sewage by mechanical meanssuch as agitating or stirringmechanismmechanism noun 1. a machine or part ofa machine 2. a method of achieving some-thing � a mechanism for receiving feed-back from consumersmecopropmecoprop noun a commonly used herbi-cide, mostly used to control weeds in cerealand grass crops, that is found as a contami-nant of water. Abbr MCPPmediamedia plural of mediummedicinalmedicinal adjective referring to a sub-stance or plant that has healing propertiesmedicinallymedicinally adverb in the treatment ofdisease � The herb can be used medicinal-ly.medicinemedicine noun 1. a drug or preparationtaken to treat a disease or condition 2. thestudy of diseases and how to cure or pre-vent themMediterranean Action PlanMediterranean Action Plan noun anagreement to protect the environment andencourage sustainable development in theMediterranean area established by the Eu-ropean Union and the countries borderingthe Mediterranean Sea. Abbr MAPmediummedium adjective middle or average �noun 1. a substance through which some-thing else is transmitted or carried � Tubesconvey the cooling medium. (NOTE: The plu-ral is mediums or media.) 2. a substance inwhich an organism lives or is grownmedullamedulla noun 1. the soft inner part of anorgan surrounded by the cortex 2. same aspithmedullary raymedullary ray noun a band or sheet ofconnective tissue between the pith and thebark in the stems of some woody plantsmega-mega- prefix large. Opposite micro-megadosemegadose noun a large dose � receiveda megadose of radiationmegalo-megalo- prefix unusually large. Oppositemicro-megalopolismegalopolis noun a group of severalsmall towns that grow to become one hugeurban areamegaplanktonmegaplankton plural noun large plank-ton more than 20 cm in lengthmegawattmegawatt noun one million watts � pow-er plants with a capacity larger than 50megawattsmegawatt-hourmegawatt-hour noun a measurement ofpower with respect to time (NOTE: Onemegawatt-hour is equal to one megawattbeing used for a period of one hour.)melanicmelanic adjective being unusually dark inappearance � melanic moths

melaninmelanin noun a dark pigment which givescolour to skin and hairmelanismmelanism noun a condition in whichthere are abnormal deposits of dark pig-ment on the skin of an animalmelanomamelanoma noun � malignant melano-mameltmelt verb 1. to heat a solid so that it be-comes liquid � The gradual rise in air tem-perature melted the glaciers. 2. (of solid) tobecome liquid after being heated � Thegradual rise in air temperature made theglaciers melt. � moltenmeltdownmeltdown noun a point in an accident ina nuclear reactor at which the fuel over-heats and the core melts while the nuclearreaction is still in progressmeltwatermeltwater noun water from melting ice,especially from a glacier or from wintersnowmembermember noun an individual that belongsto a group � Wheat is a member of thegrass family.membranemembrane noun 1. a thin layer of tissuethat lines or covers an organ � mucousmembranes in the nasal cavity 2. a thin lay-er of artificial material � a waterproofmembranemeniscusmeniscus noun the curved surface of anarrow column of waterMercalliMercalli � Modified Mercalli scalemercurymercury noun a metal element that is liq-uid at room temperature. It is used in ther-mometers, barometers and electric batteriesand is poisonous. Also called quicksilver(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Hg; theatomic number is 80 and the atomic weightis 200.59.)meridianmeridian noun an imaginary circle on theEarth’s surface passing through the northand south geographic polesmeridionalmeridional adjective referring to a me-ridianmeridionalitymeridionality noun a phenomenon of airblowing from north to south or from southto northmeristemmeristem noun a plant tissue at the tips ofstems and roots in which cells are activelydividingmes-mes- prefix same as meso- (NOTE: usedbefore vowels)mesamesa noun a high plateau in the southwestof the USA, with steep sides and a flat topmesarchmesarch adjective relating to the se-quence of plant or animal communities(sere) that originates in a moist habitatmesh sizemesh size noun the diameter of the holesin a net (NOTE: The mesh size of fishing


135 methanolnets is used as a means of limiting catch-es.)mesicmesic adjective referring to an organismgrowing in or an environment characterisedby moderate moisturemeso-meso- prefix middlemesobenthosmesobenthos noun the animals orplants living on the seabed, 250–1000m be-low the surfacemesoclimatemesoclimate noun the climate over aspecific locality such as a hillside or valley,extending no more than a few kilometres inradius. � macroclimate, microclimatemesohalinemesohaline adjective referring to waterthat contains a limited amount of saltmesopausemesopause noun a thin cold layer of theEarth’s atmosphere between the meso-sphere and the thermospheremesophyllmesophyll noun the tissue inside a leafwhere photosynthesis takes placemesophytemesophyte noun a plant that needs astandard amount of water to survivemesoplanktonmesoplankton plural noun organismsthat take the form of plankton for part oftheir life cyclemesosaprobicmesosaprobic adjective referring to anorganism that can survive in moderatelypolluted watermesospheremesosphere noun the zone of theEarth’s atmosphere between the strato-sphere and the thermosphere (NOTE: It lies50–80km above the surface, with the strat-opause at the bottom and the mesopauseat the top. The air temperature falls steadilywith increasing ascent through the meso-sphere.)mesothermmesotherm noun a plant that grows inwarm conditionsmesotrophicmesotrophic adjective referring to waterthat contains a moderate amount of nutri-ents. Compare eutrophic, oligotrophicmeta-meta- prefix 1. changing 2. followingmetabolicmetabolic adjective referring to metabo-lismmetabolisemetabolise verb to break down or buildup organic compounds by metabolism �The liver metabolises proteins and carbo-hydrates.metabolismmetabolism noun the chemical process-es of breaking down or building up organiccompounds in organismsmetabolitemetabolite noun a chemical produced asa result of metabolismmetalmetal noun an element or a compoundthat can conduct heat and electricitymetaldehydemetaldehyde noun a substance used inthe form of pellets to kill slugs and snails

metalimnionmetalimnion noun the middle layer ofwater in a lake. Also called thermocline.Compare epilimnion, hypolimnionmetallicmetallic adjective 1. referring to metal �metallic materials 2. referring to somethingthat is like metal, especially in appearancemetamorphicmetamorphic adjective referring to rockthat has changed because of external influ-ences such as pressure from other rocks ortemperature changes. � igneous, sedimen-tarymetamorphismmetamorphism noun the process offorming metamorphic rockmetamorphosemetamorphose verb 1. (of an animal) tochange into another form 2. (of rock) to un-dergo metamorphismmetamorphosismetamorphosis noun a process ofchange into a different form, especially thechange of a larva into an adult insectmetapopulationmetapopulation noun a population be-longing to a group of populations of thesame species that exchange individualsthrough migration and recolonise sites inwhich other metapopulations have becomeextinctmeteormeteor noun a solid body that enters theEarth’s atmosphere from outer space, usu-ally burning up as it does someteoricmeteoric adjective referring to meteorsmeteoritemeteorite noun a solid body that fallsfrom outer space onto the Earth’s surfacemeteorologicalmeteorological adjective referring tometeorology or to climatemeteorologistmeteorologist noun a person who stud-ies, reports and forecasts the weathermeteorologymeteorology noun the scientific study ofweather and weather conditions � Terres-trial radiation plays an important part inmeteorology.metermeter noun 1. a device to measure a phys-ical property such as current, rate of flow orair speed 2. US spelling of metre � verb tocount or measure with a metermethanationmethanation noun the process of con-verting a mixture into methane. Also calledmethanisationmethanemethane noun a colourless flammablegas produced naturally from rotting organicwaste, as in landfill sites or animal excreta.Formula: CH4. (NOTE: It is also found inmarshes (marsh gas) and coal mines (fire-damp).)methane convertermethane converter noun a process thatturns into a usable form the gas producedby rotting waste in a landfill sitemethanolmethanol noun an alcohol manufacturedfrom coal, natural gas or waste wood,which is used as a fuel or solvent. Formula:


methylated spirits 136CH3OH. Also called methyl alcohol,wood alcoholmethylated spiritsmethylated spirits noun almost purealcohol, with wood alcohol and colouringaddedmethyl isothiocyanatemethyl isothiocyanate noun a chemi-cal compound used in the production of soilsterilants. Abbr MICmetremetre noun an SI unit of length � Thearea is four metres by three. Symbol m(NOTE: The US spelling is meter.)metres per secondmetres per second noun a system ofmeasuring speed � One metre per second isequal to 2.2 miles per hour. Abbr m/s(NOTE: It is often used to measure windspeed.)metric systemmetric system noun a decimal measur-ing system, calculated in units of ten, e.g.the SI systemmetric tonmetric ton noun same as tonnemetropolismetropolis noun a very large town, usu-ally the capital of a countrymetropolitanmetropolitan adjective referring to alarge town � Smog covered the whole met-ropolitan area.mgmg abbr milligramMgMg symbol magnesiumMICMIC abbr methyl isothiocyanatemicamica noun a silicate mineral that splitsinto thin transparent flakes. It is used as aninsulator in electrical appliances.micro-micro- prefix very small. Opposite mac-ro-, mega-, megalo-microbemicrobe noun a microorganism (NOTE:Viruses, bacteria, protozoa and microscop-ic fungi are informally referred to as mi-crobes.)microbenthosmicrobenthos noun plants or animalsliving at the bottom of a lake or the seawhose shortest dimension is equal to ormore than 0.1 mmmicrobialmicrobial adjective referring to microbesmicrobial insecticidemicrobial insecticide noun an insecti-cide based on fungal, bacterial or other mi-croorganisms that are pathogens of insects,or their toxins, as a form of biological con-trol, e.g. the fungus Verticillium lecaniicontrolling whitefly in glasshousesmicrobiologicalmicrobiological adjective referring tomicrobiologymicrobiologistmicrobiologist noun a scientist whospecialises in the study of microorganismsmicrobiologymicrobiology noun the scientific studyof microorganismsmicroclimatemicroclimate noun the climate over avery small area such as a pond, tree, field,

or even a leaf. � macroclimate, mesocli-matemicroenvironmentmicroenvironment noun same as mi-crohabitatmicrofaunamicrofauna noun 1. very small animalswhich can only be seen with a microscope2. the animals living in a microhabitatmicrogrammicrogram noun a unit of measurementof weight, equal to one millionth of a gram.Symbol µgmicrohabitatmicrohabitat noun a single small areasuch as the bark of a tree, where faunaand/or flora live. Also called microenvi-ronmentmicro-hydro systemmicro-hydro system noun a small sys-tem that uses water to produce electricitymicrometermicrometer noun an instrument for tak-ing very small measurements such as of thewidth or thickness of very thin pieces of tis-suemicrometremicrometre noun one thousandth of amillimetre. Symbol µmmicronutrientmicronutrient noun a nutrient which anorganism uses in very small quantities, e.g.iron, zinc or coppermicroorganismmicroorganism noun an organism thatcan only be seen with a microscope. Com-pare microbe (NOTE: Viruses, bacteria,protozoa and fungi are all forms of microor-ganism.)microparasitemicroparasite noun a parasite whichmultiplies inside the body of its host, e.g. avirusmicroplanktonmicroplankton plural noun plankton inthe size range 20–200 µmmicropollutantmicropollutant noun a pollutant whichoccurs in very small quantitiesmicroscopemicroscope noun a scientific instrumentwhich makes very small objects appearlarger � The tissue was examined under themicroscope. � Under the microscope it waspossible to see the chloroplasts.

COMMENT: In a light microscope the imageis magnified by lenses. In an electron mi-croscope the lenses are electromagnetsand a beam of electrons is used instead oflight, thereby achieving much greatermagnifications.

microscopicmicroscopic adjective referring tosomething so small that it can only be seenthrough a microscopemicroscopymicroscopy noun the science of the useof microscopesmicrothermmicrotherm noun a plant which grows incool regionsmid-mid- prefix middlemid-latitude desertmid-latitude desert noun a desert situ-ated between the tropics, e.g. the Gobi


137 mineral oilDesert or the Turkestan Desert. Also calledwarm desertmidribmidrib noun the thick structure that runsalong the middle of a leaf, providing forsupport and the movement of dissolvedsubstancesmigrantmigrant noun an animal or bird thatmoves from one place to another accordingto the season. Compare nomadmigratemigrate verb 1. (of a bird or other animal)to move from one place to another accord-ing to the season � As winter approaches,the herds of deer migrate south. 2. to moveto another place � Waste materials may beallowed to migrate from landfill sites intothe surrounding soil.migrationmigration noun 1. the process of a bird orother animal moving from one place to an-other according to the season � The islandslie along one of the main migration routesfrom Siberia to Australia. (NOTE: Birds suchas swallows breed in Northern Europe butfly south for the winter; fish such as salmonand eels spawn in one place, often a river,and then migrate to the sea.) 2. the processof moving from one place to anothermigratorymigratory adjective moving from oneplace to another according to the season �Estuaries are important feeding groundsfor migratory birds, and are also importantfor the passage of migratory fish such assalmon.mildewmildew noun a disease caused by a funguswhich produces a fine powdery film on thesurface of an organismmilemile noun an imperial measurement ofdistance, equal to 1.609km. Also calledstatute mile (technical)mileagemileage noun a distance measured inmilesmillmill noun a factory where a substance iscrushed to make a powder, especially onefor making flour from the dried grains ofcereals � verb to crush a substance to makea powdermilletmillet noun a cereal crop grown in manyof the hot, dry regions of Africa and Asia,where it is a staple food. Genera: especial-ly: Panicum or Eleusine.milli-milli- prefix one thousandth or 10-3. Sym-bol mmillibarmillibar noun a unit of pressure equal toone thousandth of a bar or 100Pa. Symbolmbar (NOTE: This unit is often used in me-teorology to express atmospheric pressure,standard atmospheric pressure at sea levelbeing 1013.25 millibars.)

milligaussmilligauss noun a unit of magnetic fluxdensity � A person living under a low-volt-age power line is exposed to 20 milligaussof radiation.milligrammilligram noun a unit of measurement ofweight, equal to one thousandth of a gram.Abbr mgmillilitremillilitre noun a unit of measurement ofliquid equal to one thousandth of a litre.Abbr ml (NOTE: The US spelling is millilit-er.)millimetremillimetre noun a unit of measurement oflength, equal to one thousandth of a metre.Abbr mm (NOTE: The US spelling is millim-eter.)millingmilling noun 1. the process of crushingand grinding mineral ores to separate outthe useful materials 2. the process of grind-ing cereal grains into flourmillion tonnes of coal equivalentmillion tonnes of coal equivalentnoun a measure of energy from a sourcethat is not coal. Abbr MTCEmillisievertmillisievert noun a unit of measurementof radiation. Abbr mSvmillisievert/yearmillisievert/year noun a number of mil-lisieverts per yearmillwheelmillwheel noun a large wheel with wood-en bars that is turned by the force of watermimicmimic noun an animal which imitates an-other � Starlings are excellent mimics. �verb to imitate another animal � The star-ling mimicked the call of the thrush.mimicrymimicry noun a situation where one ani-mal imitates another, often to prevent itselffrom being attackedMinamata diseaseMinamata disease noun a form of mer-cury poisoning from eating polluted fish,first identified in Japanminemine noun a hole dug in the ground to ex-tract a mineral � verb to dig into the groundto extract a mineralmineralmineral noun an inorganic solid sub-stance with a characteristic chemical com-position that occurs naturally (NOTE: Thenames of many minerals end with the suffix-ite.)mineral depositmineral deposit noun a deposit of rockscontaining useful mineralsmineralisationmineralisation noun the breaking downof organic waste into its inorganic chemicalcomponentsmineral nutrientmineral nutrient noun an inorganic ele-ment other than carbon, hydrogen and oxy-gen that is absorbed by plants from the soilmineral oilmineral oil noun US oil which derivesfrom petroleum and is made up of hydro-carbons (NOTE: The UK term is liquid par-affin.)


minimal 138minimalminimal adjective small in amount or im-portance � the minimal area for samplingin which specimens of all species can befoundminimisationminimisation noun the measures ortechniques that reduce something such asthe amount of waste generated during in-dustrial production processesminimiseminimise, minimize verb to make some-thing as small as possible � We minimisedcosts by cutting down the number of com-ponents. Opposite maximiseminimumminimum adjective referring to thesmallest possible � the minimum amountrequired � minimum requirementsminimum lethal doseminimum lethal dose noun the small-est amount of a substance needed to kill anorganismminimum tillageminimum tillage noun a method ofploughing in which disturbance of the soildoes not affect the deeper layers. The ben-efits are conservation of organic matter,leading to a better soil structure and lesssoil erosion, better soil biodiversity, and theuse of less energy; disadvantages includethe easier germination of grass seeds. Alsocalled min-till. � no-till agricultureminimum viable populationminimum viable population noun thesmallest population which will allow a spe-cies to continue to exist and to avoid in-breeding, usually taken to be about 300 in-dividuals. Abbr MVPmining subsidence areamining subsidence area noun a re-gion in which the ground has subsided be-cause of mines being dugminuteminute adjective extremely small �minute hairs on leaves � minute tracesmiremire noun an area of land saturated withwatermiscanthusmiscanthus noun a plant related to sugarcane that is grown as an ornamental plant orfor use as a fuel. Also called elephantgrassmiscarrymiscarry verb same as abort 2(technical)mistmist noun 1. the visible water vapour, inthe form of very fine droplets, in the atmos-phere � an early morning mist on the fields� Mist is thinner than fog. 2. water vapourthat has condensed on a cool surface 3. liq-uid in the form of a spray � an air/oil mist� verb 1. also mist up to form a mist on acool surface � The windows had misted up.2. to spray plants with small drops of waterto keep them wetmistermister noun a device for spraying plantswith small drops of water to keep them wet

mistralmistral noun a strong, cold wind from thenorth which blows down the Rhone valleyinto the Mediterraneanmistymisty adjective referring to mist � a mistyautumn morning � a misty windowmisusemisuse verb to use something wrongly orinappropriatelymitemite noun a tiny animal of the spider fam-ily which may be free-living in the soil oron stored products, or parasitic on animalsor plantsmiticidemiticide noun a substance that kills mitesmixedmixed adjective referring to somethingmade up of different parts or categoriesmixed croppingmixed cropping noun the practice ofgrowing more than one type of plant on thesame piece of land at the same time. Oppo-site monocroppingmixed farmingmixed farming noun the practice ofcombining arable and dairy farmingmixed fertilisermixed fertiliser noun same as com-pound fertilisermixed woodlandmixed woodland noun a wooded areawhere neither conifers nor broadleavedtrees account for more than 75% of the totalmixturemixture noun something which is the re-sult of mixing a number of things togethermlml abbr millilitremmmm abbr millimetreMMHDMMHD abbr Mountain, Moor, Heath,DownMnMn symbol manganeseMoMo symbol molybdenummodermoder noun humus which is partly acidmor and partly neutral mullModified Mercalli scaleModified Mercalli scale noun a scalerising from 1 to 12 used for measuring thedamage caused by an earthquakemodulemodule noun a part that together withother parts makes up another structure orsystemMohorovicic discontinuityMohorovicic discontinuity, Mohonoun a boundary layer in the interior of theEarth between the crust and the mantle, be-low which seismic shocks move more rap-idlymoistmoist adjective damp or humidmoist tropical forestmoist tropical forest noun a tropicalforest which receives less rain than othertypes of tropical forest such as cloud forestmoisturemoisture noun water or other liquidmolarmolar adjective referring to a solutioncontaining one mole of solute per litre �noun a large back toothmoldmold noun, verb US spelling of mouldmolemole noun 1. a small dark-grey mammalwhich makes tunnels under the ground and


139 Mooneats worms and insects 2. a dark raised spoton the skin � She has a large mole on herchin. 3. an SI unit of measurement of theamount of a substance. Symbol molmolecularmolecular adjective referring to mole-culesmolecular ecologymolecular ecology noun the study ofecological problems using the techniquesof molecular biologymoleculemolecule noun the smallest particle intowhich a substance can be divided withoutchanging its chemical and physical proper-ties � The molecules of a gas move morequickly than the molecules of a liquid.mole drainmole drain noun an underground drainformed under the surface of the soil by aspecial plough (mole plough) as it is pulledacross a field (NOTE: Mole drains are usual-ly made 3 to 4 metres apart, and are usedin fields with a clay subsoil.)molehillmolehill noun a small heap of earthpushed up to the surface by a mole as itmakes its tunnelmolluscmollusc noun an invertebrate animal witha soft body, a muscular foot on the under-side used for movement and, in many spe-cies, a protective shell (NOTE: Molluscs arefound on land as well as in fresh and saltwater; slugs, snails and shellfish are mol-luscs. The US spelling is mollusk.)molluscicidemolluscicide noun a substance used tokill molluscs such as snailsmoltenmolten adjective having become liquidwhen heated. � meltmolybdenummolybdenum noun a metallic trace ele-ment. It is essential to biological life and isalso used in electric wiring. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Mo; the atomic numberis 42 and the atomic weight is 95.94.)monitormonitor noun 1. a screen for a computerdisplay 2. a piece of equipment for showinginformation or recording a process � verbto check or examine how something isworkingmonitoringmonitoring noun a process of regularchecking on the progress of something �health monitoring � Scientists have set upa monitoring programme to record thechanges in the Sun’s radiation.monitoring wellmonitoring well noun a well used totake water quality samples or to measureground water levelsmono-mono- prefix single or one. Opposite mul-ti-monoclimaxmonoclimax noun a situation where onesingle community exists in a geographicalregion

monoclinemonocline noun a rock formation wheresedimentary rock slopes sharply on oneside of a foldmonocotmonocot noun same as monocotyledon(informal)monocotyledenousmonocotyledenous adjective referringto monocotyledonsmonocotyledonmonocotyledon noun a plant withseeds that have a single cotyledon, e.g. agrass or lily. Compare dicotyledon. � cot-yledonmonocroppingmonocropping, monocrop system,monoculture noun a system of cultivationin which a single crop plant such as wheatis grown over a large area of land often forseveral years. Opposite mixed croppingmonoeciousmonoecious adjective with male and fe-male flowers on separate plants. Comparedioeciousmonogamymonogamy noun a breeding arrange-ment where a male and female mate forlife. Compare polygamymonophagousmonophagous adjective referring to anorganism that feeds on only one kind offood. Compare polyphagousmonophagymonophagy noun the practice of feedingon only one kind of food. Compare poly-phagymonosodium glutamatemonosodium glutamate noun a sub-stance, labelled E621, added to processedfood to enhance the flavour. Abbr MSG(NOTE: It can cause a bad reaction in somepeople.)monotrememonotreme noun a type of mammal thatlays eggs but feeds its young on milk in apouch. The only monotremes are the duck-billed platypus and the spiny anteater.monsoonmonsoon noun 1. a season of wind andheavy rain in tropical countries 2. a windwhich blows in opposite directions accord-ing to the season, especially the wind blow-ing north from the Indian Ocean in the sum-mermonsoon forestmonsoon forest noun a tropical rain-forest in an area where rain falls during themonsoon seasonmontanemontane adjective referring to a plant oranimal found in mountainous regionsMontreal ProtocolMontreal Protocol noun an internation-al agreement to control the production anduse of chemicals containing bromine andchlorine, such as CFCs, that damage theozone layer in the atmosphere. It wassigned in 1987 and later updated. Full formMontreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone LayerMoonMoon noun a natural satellite that orbitsthe Earth every 27 days


moor 140moormoor noun an area of often high land thatis not cultivated, and is formed of acid soilcovered with grass and low shrubs such asheathermoorlandmoorland noun a large area of moormormor noun a type of humus found in conif-erous forests, which is acid and containsfew nutrients. Compare mullmorainemoraine noun a deposit of gravel andsand left by a glacier (NOTE: There are var-ious types of moraine: ground moraine,which is a deposit left under a glacier; ter-minal moraine, which is the heap of soil andsand pushed by a glacier and left behindwhen it melts; and lateral moraines, whichare deposits left at the sides of a glacier asit moves forward.)moratoriummoratorium noun a period when every-one agrees to stop a specific activity � Theyvoted to impose a ten-year moratorium onwhaling. � The conference rejected a mo-tion calling for a moratorium on nuclearreprocessing.morbiditymorbidity noun a state of being diseasedor sickmorbidity ratemorbidity rate noun the number of casesof a disease per 100000 of populationmorphmorph noun an organism with a charac-teristic shapemorphologymorphology noun the study of the struc-ture and form of living organisms. � geo-morphologymortalitymortality noun the occurrence of death �The population count in spring is alwayslower than that in the autumn because ofwinter mortality.mortality ratemortality rate noun same as death ratemosaicmosaic noun a disease of plants thatmakes yellow patterns on the leaves andcan seriously affect some crops. It is oftencaused by viruses.mosquitomosquito noun an insect which sucksblood and passes viruses or parasites intothe bloodstream (NOTE: The plural is mos-quitoes or mosquitos.)mosquitocidemosquitocide noun a substance whichkills mosquitoesmossmoss noun a very small plant withoutroots, which grows in damp places andforms mats of vegetation � Sphagnum is atype of moss.mothmoth noun an insect similar to a butterflythat is generally active at night. Order: Lep-idoptera.mother-of-pearlmother-of-pearl noun a hard shiny sub-stance, mostly made up of calcium carbon-ate, which forms the inner layer of someshells such as oyster shells

mother rockmother rock noun a main layer of rock.Also called parent rockmotionmotion noun the act of moving or chang-ing position or placemouldmould noun 1. a fungus, especially onethat produces a fine powdery layer on thesurface of an organism (NOTE: The USspelling is mold.) 2. soft earthmoultmoult noun an occasion of sheddingfeathers or hair at a specific period of theyear � verb to shed feathers or hair at a spe-cific period of the year � Most animalsmoult at the beginning of summer. (NOTE:The US spelling is molt.)mountmount verb to fix something to a support� to mount a specimen � noun somethingsuch as a support or frame to which some-thing else can be fixedMountMount noun a mountain. Abbr Mt (NOTE:used in the names of specific mountains:Mount Everest.)mountainmountain noun 1. a natural structure ofrock rising very high above the surroundingland surface 2. a surplus or large amount ofsomething, especially something that is be-ing stored � butter mountain � fridgemountain � lake 2mountainousmountainous adjective referring to anarea of land where there are high mountainsmountainsidemountainside noun the sloping side of amountainmouthmouth noun 1. the part of an animal’sbody where food is taken in 2. a placewhere a river widens and joins the seamouthpartmouthpart noun a structure close to themouth of an insect or other arthropod usedto gather or chew foodMRLMRL abbr maximum residue levelm/sm/s abbr metres per secondMSGMSG abbr monosodium glutamateMSLMSL abbr mean sea levelmSvmSv symbol millisievertMtMt abbr MountMTCEMTCE abbr million tonnes of coal equiva-lentmucilagemucilage noun slime secreted by someorganisms such as seaweedsmucinmucin noun a glycoprotein that is a con-stituent of mucusmuckmuck noun same as manuremucusmucus noun 1. a slimy solution of mucinsecreted by vertebrates onto a mucousmembrane to provide lubrication 2. a slimysubstance secreted by invertebratesmudmud noun a thick mixture of soil and wa-ter


141 myxomatosismuddymuddy adjective containing mud, or cov-ered with mud � a muddy field � muddybootsmud flatmud flat noun a wide flat area of mud,usually in a river estuarymudslidemudslide noun a large amount of mudthat slips down a slopemulchmulch noun an organic material used tospread over the surface of the soil to pre-vent evaporation or erosion, e.g. deadleaves or straw � verb to spread organicmaterial over the surface of the soil to pre-vent evaporation or erosionmullmull noun a type of humus found in decid-uous forests. Compare mor (NOTE: It isformed of rotted leaves, is PH neutral andcontains many nutrients.)Mullerian mimicryMullerian mimicry noun a form ofmimicry where an animal mimics anotheranimal which has an unpleasant tastemulti-multi- prefix many or more than one. Op-posite mono-multicellularmulticellular adjective referring to an or-ganism composed of several or many cells.Compare unicellularmulticroppingmulticropping noun the cultivation ofmore than one crop on the same piece ofland in one yearmunicipalmunicipal adjective referring to a town orcitymunicipal dumpmunicipal dump noun a place where atown’s rubbish is disposed of after it hasbeen collectedmunicipalitymunicipality noun a town, city or regionthat has its own local governmentmunicipal refusemunicipal refuse, municipal wastenoun the rubbish collected from homes andbusinesses in a townmunicipal wastewatermunicipal wastewater noun effluentfrom wastewater treatment plants that dealwith sewage from homes and businessesand excess water after stormsmushroommushroom noun a common edible fun-gus, often grown commerciallymuskegmuskeg noun a bog in high cold plateauregions, especially in Canada

mutagenmutagen noun an agent that causes muta-tion, e.g. a chemical or radiationmutagenicmutagenic adjective referring to an agentthat causes mutationmutagenicitymutagenicity noun the ability of anagent to make genes mutatemutantmutant adjective referring to a gene inwhich a mutation has occurred, or to an or-ganism carrying such a gene � mutant mice� noun an organism carrying a gene inwhich mutation has occurred � New mu-tants have appeared. Also called mutationmutatemutate verb (of a gene or organism) toundergo a genetic change that can be inher-ited � Bacteria can mutate suddenly andbecome increasingly able to infect.mutationmutation noun 1. a heritable change oc-curring in a gene 2. same as mutantmutualismmutualism noun same as symbiosismutualistmutualist noun a species which benefitsfrom symbiosis with anotherMVPMVP abbr minimum viable populationmyc-myc- prefix same as myco- (NOTE: usedbefore vowels)myceliummycelium noun a mass of hyphae whichforms the main part of a fungusmyco-myco- prefix fungus or fungalmycologymycology noun the study of fungimycorrhizamycorrhiza noun a mutual association ofa fungus with the roots of a plant in whichthe fungus supplies the plant with waterand minerals and feeds on the plant’s sug-ars (NOTE: Many different fungi form mycor-rhizas, especially with trees, and manyplants such as orchids cannot grow withoutthem.)mycotoxinmycotoxin noun a toxic substance pro-duced by a fungus growing on crops in thefield or in storage. There are regulationscontrolling the amount of some mycotoxinssuch as aflatoxin and ochratoxin permittedin food.myiasismyiasis noun an infestation of animals bythe larvae of fliesmyxomatosismyxomatosis noun a usually fatal virusdisease affecting rabbits, transmitted byfleas


NNN symbol 1. nitrogen 2. newtonNaNa symbol sodiumnacellenacelle noun a part of a wind generatorthat contains the generator and gearbox atthe top of the towernacreous cloudsnacreous clouds plural noun thinclouds, possibly made of ice crystals,which form a layer about 25km above theEarth and look like mother-of-pearlnanogramnanogram noun one billionth of a gramnanoplanktonnanoplankton plural noun plankton inthe size range 10 –50 µmNAONAO abbr North Atlantic Oscillationnastic responsenastic response noun a response ofplants and flowers to a stimulus which isnot connected with the direction fromwhich the stimulus comes, e.g. the closingof flowers at night-nasty-nasty suffix nastic responsenatalitynatality noun birthnationalnational adjective referring to a specificcountry � noun belonging to the people ofa specific countrynational gridnational grid noun same as electricitygridNational Nature ReserveNational Nature Reserve noun a na-tionally important example of a type ofhabitat, established as reserve to protect themost important areas of wildlife habitat andgeological formations. Abbr NNR (NOTE:There are over 200 National Nature Re-serves in England, owned or controlled byEnglish Nature or held by approved bodiessuch as Wildlife Trusts.)national parknational park noun a large area of landselected because of its scenic, recreational,scientific, or historical importance for spe-cial protection from development, andmanaged by a local government body forrecreational use by the public and the bene-fit of the local communityNational Radiological Protection BoardNational Radiological ProtectionBoard noun an agency that monitors radi-ation risks to the UK population. AbbrNRPBNational Resources InstituteNational Resources Institute noun aspecialised research institute of the Univer-sity of Greenwich, UK, working in the areaof the sustainable management of naturaland human resources in the developingworld and elsewhere. Abbr NRI

National Rivers AuthorityNational Rivers Authority noun aformer UK statutory body responsible forwater management, flood defence and theregulation of water quality. Abbr NRA(NOTE: Now part of the Environment Agen-cy.)National Scenic AreaNational Scenic Area noun a nationalpark in ScotlandNational TrustNational Trust noun 1. in England,Wales and Northern Ireland, a charitableorganisation that preserves historic build-ings, gardens, parks, coastline and areas ofnatural beauty for the benefit of the public2. in Australia, an organisation that pre-serves historic monuments and areas of nat-ural beauty for the benefit of the publicNational Trust for ScotlandNational Trust for Scotland noun inScotland, a charitable organisation that pre-serves historic buildings, gardens, parks,coastline and areas of natural beauty for thebenefit of the publicNational Vegetation ClassificationNational Vegetation Classificationnoun a systemic scheme for classifyingtypes of vegetation in the United Kingdom,covering all natural, semi-natural and ma-jor artificial habitats, including derelict ur-ban sites. Abbr NVCnativenative adjective always having lived,grown or existed in a place � Tigers are na-tive to Asia.native speciesnative species noun a species which ex-ists naturally in an areaNatura 2000Natura 2000 noun in the European Un-ion, a network of environmental sites desig-nated by member states as of special inter-est for protection for their habitats or birdlifenaturalnatural adjective 1. not made by people �natural materials � areas of natural beauty2. usual or expected � It’s natural to beconcerned about what’s in the food you eat.natural amenitiesnatural amenities plural noun featuresof the landscape that are not made by hu-mans and are regarded as contributing to apleasant environment, e.g. rivers, lakes ormoorlandNatural AreaNatural Area noun an area of the UnitedKingdom that is a biogeographical zonewith a characteristic association of wildlifeand natural features (NOTE: There are both


143 neap tideterrestrial and marine Natural Areas, man-aged by English Nature.)natural backgroundnatural background noun the sur-rounding level of radiation or substancessuch as arsenic in a specific locationnatural capital

natural capital noun natural resourcesseen in economic terms as stock, goods andservicesnatural disasternatural disaster noun a phenomenonsuch as a storm, earthquake or flood thatdestroys property and kills people and live-stocknatural ecosystem

natural ecosystem noun an ecosystemwhere humans have had no more local in-fluence than native speciesnatural environmentnatural environment noun 1. same asnatural habitat 2. the part of the Earth thathas not been built or formed by humans.Compare built environmentnatural forestnatural forest noun a forest that has notbeen planted, maintained or exploited on alarge scale by humansnatural gas

natural gas noun a gas often found nearpetroleum deposits, although it can occurwithout petroleum, used as a domestic fuel(NOTE: It is mainly formed of methane butalso contains small amounts of butane andpropane. It contains no sulfur, unlike coalgas, and since it mixes with air it burnscompletely, creating very little carbon mon-oxide.)natural habitat

natural habitat noun 1. the usual sur-roundings in which an organism lives in thewild. Also called natural environment 2.an area of land or water where the majorityof species are native and there has beenvery little human activitynatural historiannatural historian noun same as natu-ralistnatural historynatural history noun the study of livingorganisms in their natural environmentsand of the features of the Earth not formedby humansnaturalise

naturalise verb to introduce a speciesinto an area where it has not lived or grownbefore so that it becomes established as partof the ecosystem � Rhododendron ponti-cum has become naturalised in parts ofBritain.naturalist

naturalist noun a person who is interest-ed in and studies the natural environmentand its organisms. Also called natural his-toriannatural pollutant

natural pollutant noun a polluting sub-stance that occurs naturally, e.g. ash from avolcano

natural resourcenatural resource noun a naturally oc-curring material that can be put to use byhumans, e.g. wood or oil (often plural)natural sciencenatural science noun a science thatdeals with aspects of the physical world,e.g. biology, chemistry, geology or physics(often plural)natural scientistnatural scientist noun a person whospecialises in natural sciencenatural selectionnatural selection noun the process ofevolutionary change, by which offspring oforganisms with certain characteristics aremore able to survive and reproduce thanoffspring of other organisms, thus gradual-ly changing the composition of a popula-tionnatural vegetationnatural vegetation noun the range ofplant communities that exist in the naturalenvironment without being planted or man-aged by peoplenaturenature noun all living organisms and theenvironments in which they live � to goback to nature to return to a state similarto the one that existed before cultivation �They’ve let the hillside go back to nature. �back-to-natureNature Conservancy CouncilNature Conservancy Council noun aformer UK organisation (1973–91) thattook official responsibility for the conser-vation of fauna and flora. Abbr NCC (NOTE:Now replaced by English Nature, the Coun-tryside Council for Wales and Scottish Nat-ural Heritage.)nature conservationnature conservation noun the activemanagement of the Earth’s natural resourc-es, plants, animals and environment, to en-sure that they survive or are appropriatelyusednature managementnature management noun the activityof managing a natural environment to en-courage plant and animal life. Also calledhabitat managementnature reservenature reserve noun an area whereplants, animals and their environment areprotectednature trailnature trail noun a path through thecountryside with signs to draw attention toimportant and interesting features aboutplants, animals and the environmentNAWARADNAWARAD abbr National Assembly forWales Agriculture and Rural Affairs De-partmentNCCNCC abbr Nature Conservancy CouncilNDPBNDPB abbr non-departmental public bodyNeNe symbol neonneap tideneap tide noun a tide which occurs at thefirst and last quarters of the Moon, when


Nearctic Region 144the difference between high and low wateris less than usual. Compare spring tideNearctic RegionNearctic Region noun a biogeographi-cal region, part of Arctogea, comprisingNorth America and Greenlandnecrotrophnecrotroph noun a parasite which onlyfeeds on dead organisms. Compare bio-trophnectarnectar noun a sweet sugary liquid pro-duced by flowers, which attracts birds orinsects which pollinate the flowersnectarynectary noun a plant part that producesnectar, often found at the base of a flower(NOTE: Nectaries are usually in the flowersbut may also develop on other plant partssuch as the traps of pitcher plants.)needneed noun something that is necessary orrequired � the need for clean water � plu-ral noun needs something that a personmust have for their health or well-being �nutritional needsneedleneedle noun 1. a thin hard leaf of a coni-fer 2. a thin metal pointer in an instrument� The needle on the dial indicated zero.-needled-needled suffix with needles � two nee-dled or five-needled pinesNEFNEF abbr noise exposure forecastnegativenegative adjective having a value of lessthan 0 � The mechanism enables the pro-peller to be set to a negative pitch. Symbol-. Opposite positivenegative feedbacknegative feedback noun a situation inwhich the result of a process inhibits the ac-tion which caused the processnegative ion generatornegative ion generator noun same asioniserneighbourhood noiseneighbourhood noise noun the gener-al noise from a local source such as a facto-ry which is disturbing to people living inthe areanektonnekton plural noun swimming sea ani-mals such as fish, as opposed to floating ordrifting animals such as planktonnematicidenematicide noun a substance which killsnematodesnematodenematode noun a type of roundworm,some of which, such as hookworms, areparasites of animals while others, such asroot knot and cyst nematodes, live in theroots or stems of plantsneo-neo- prefix newneo-Darwinismneo-Darwinism noun a revised form ofDarwin’s theory of evolution which ac-counts for modern genetics and other recentdiscoveriesNeogeaNeogea noun one of the main biogeo-graphical regions of the Earth, comprisingCentral and South America together with

the islands in the Caribbean. Also calledNeotropical Region. � Arctogea, Noto-geaneonneon noun an inert gas found in verysmall quantities in the atmosphere. It isused in illuminated signs. (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Ne; the atomic numberis 10 and the atomic weight is 20.18.)Neotropical RegionNeotropical Region noun same as Ne-ogeaneptuniumneptunium noun a naturally radioactiveelement (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Np;the atomic number is 93 and the atomicweight is 237.05.)NERCNERC abbr Natural Environment Re-search Councilneriticneritic adjective referring to an animal orplant which lives in the shallow sea over thecontinental shelfnervous systemnervous system noun the network ofspecialised cells that transmit nerve im-pulses in most animalsnestnest noun 1. a construction built by birdsand some fish for their eggs 2. a construc-tion made by some social insects such asants and bees for the colony to live in �verb to build a nestnestlingnestling noun a very young bird that hasnot yet left its nestnet primary productivitynet primary productivity noun therate at which organic matter is incorporatedinto plants to produce growth. � gross pri-mary productivitynetworknetwork noun a complex interconnectedgroup or system of people or things � Anetwork of meteorological stations aroundthe world exchange information. � verb tolink people or things together in a networkneurotoxicityneurotoxicity noun the capacity to pre-vent nerve impulses from workingneurotoxinneurotoxin noun a substance which pre-vents nerve impulses from working, e.g. thepoison of a snake or insectneustonneuston plural noun organisms such asplankton which float or swim in the surfacefilm of a body of waterneutralneutral adjective 1. referring to the stateof being neither acid nor alkali � pH 7 isneutral. 2. referring to an electrical chargethat is neither positive nor negativeneutralisationneutralisation, neutralization noun achemical process in which an acid reactswith a base to form a salt and waterneutraliseneutralise, neutralize verb 1. to make anacid neutral � Acid in drainage water canbe neutralised by limestone. 2. to make abacterial toxin harmless by combining it


145 nitrogen fixationwith the correct amount of antitoxin 3. tocounteract the effect of somethingneutralisingneutralising, neutralizing adjective re-ferring to a substance which acts againstthe effect of somethingnévénévé noun the spring snow on high moun-tains which becomes harder and more likeice during the summernew chemicalsnew chemicals plural noun the chemi-cals that were not listed in the European In-ventory of Existing Commercial ChemicalSubstances between January 1971 and Sep-tember 1981. Compare existing chemi-calsnewtonnewton noun an SI unit of measurementof force. Abbr N (NOTE: 1 newton is theforce required to move 1 kilogram at thespeed of 1 metre per second.)NGONGO abbr non-governmental organisationNiNi symbol nickelnicheniche noun a place in an ecosystem whicha species has adapted to occupynickelnickel noun a metallic element (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Ni; the atomic numberis 28 and the atomic weight is 58.71.)nicotinenicotine noun a harmful substance in to-bacco. It is used as an insecticide.nid-nid- prefix nestnidicolousnidicolous adjective referring to a veryyoung bird that is not well developed whenit leaves the egg and remains in the nest forsome timenidifugousnidifugous adjective referring to a veryyoung bird that is well developed when itleaves the egg and can leave the nest imme-diatelynight soilnight soil noun human excreta, collectedand used for fertiliser in some parts of theworldnimbostratusnimbostratus noun a grey mass of cloudwith precipitation in the form of rain orsnow about 1000m above the groundNIMBYNIMBY noun used to describe people whoare willing to accept development andbuilding for various purposes, provided it isnot near where they themselves are living.Full form not in my backyardnitratenitrate noun 1. an ion with the formulaNO3 2. a chemical compound containingthe nitrate ion, e.g. sodium nitratenitrate-sensitive areanitrate-sensitive area, nitrate-vulner-able zone noun a region of the countrywhere nitrate pollution is likely and wherethe use of nitrate fertilisers is strictly con-trolled. Abbr NSA, NVZnitricnitric adjective referring to a compoundcontaining nitrogen

nitric acidnitric acid noun a corrosive acid. It is avery reactive oxidising agent, used in mak-ing fertilisers. Formula: HNO3.nitric oxidenitric oxide noun a gas that is producedby burning at high temperatures, as in for-est fires and internal combustion engines.Formula: NO. Also called nitrogen mon-oxide (NOTE: It converts to nitrogen dioxidein the atmosphere, is a major contributor tophotochemical smog and is soluble in wa-ter. It contributes to acid rain (nitric acid)deposition, and is important in the catalyticdestruction of ozone in the stratosphere.)nitrificationnitrification noun the process by whichbacteria in the soil break down nitrogencompounds and form nitrates which plantscan absorb (NOTE: It is part of the nitrogencycle.)nitrifiernitrifier noun a microorganism that is in-volved in the process of nitrificationnitrifynitrify verb to convert nitrogen or nitrogencompounds into nitratesnitritenitrite noun 1. an ion with the formulaNO2 2. a chemical compound containingthe nitrite ion, e.g. sodium nitritenitrogennitrogen noun a chemical element that isthe main component of air and an essentialpart of protein. It is essential to biologicallife. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is N; theatomic number is 7 and the atomic weightis 14.01.)nitrogen cyclenitrogen cycle noun the set of processesby which nitrogen is converted from a gasin the atmosphere to nitrogen-containingsubstances in soil and living organisms,then converted back to a gas (NOTE: Nitro-gen is absorbed into green plants in theform of nitrates, the plants are then eatenby animals and the nitrates are returned tothe ecosystem through animals’ excreta orwhen an animal or a plant dies.)nitrogen deficiencynitrogen deficiency noun a lack of ni-trogen in the soil, found where organic mat-ter is low and resulting in thin, weak growthof plantsnitrogen dioxidenitrogen dioxide noun a brown toxic ir-ritant gas. Formula: NO2. (NOTE: It is one ofthe pollutants produced by vehicle ex-hausts.)nitrogen fertilisernitrogen fertiliser noun a fertiliser con-taining mainly nitrogen, e.g. ammoniumnitratenitrogen fixationnitrogen fixation noun the process bywhich nitrogen in the air is converted bybacteria in some plant roots into nitrogencompounds (NOTE: When the plants die thenitrogen is released into the soil and actsas a fertiliser.)


nitrogen-fixing bacteria 146nitrogen-fixing bacterianitrogen-fixing bacteria plural nounbacteria such as Rhizobium in the soilwhich convert nitrogen in the air into nitro-gen compounds by means of the process ofnitrogen fixation in plantsnitrogen-fixing plantnitrogen-fixing plant noun a legumi-nous plant which forms an association withbacteria that convert nitrogen from the airinto nitrogen compounds in the soil, e.g. apea plantnitrogen monoxidenitrogen monoxide noun same as ni-tric oxidenitrogenousnitrogenous adjective referring to acompound containing nitrogennitrogen oxidenitrogen oxide noun an oxide formedwhen nitrogen is oxidised, e.g. nitric oxideor nitrogen dioxide. Formula: NOx.

‘The largest source of nitrogen oxides (NOx)emissions in the UK is the transport sector. (De-livering the evidence. Defra’s Science and Inno-vation Strategy 2003–06)’

nitrous oxidenitrous oxide noun a gas with a sweetsmell that is one of the major greenhousegases. Formula: HNO2. (NOTE: It is pro-duced by soil cultivation and fertilisationand by burning fossil fuels and biomass.)nivalnival adjective growing in or under thesnowNNINNI abbr noise and number indexNNRNNR abbr National Nature ReserveNOAELNOAEL noun the highest concentration ofa substance that causes no harm which canbe detected by existing testing methods.Full form no-observed-adverse-effect-levelnoble gasnoble gas noun a gas that does not reactchemically with other substances. Alsocalled rare gas, inert gas (NOTE: The noblegases include helium, neon, argon, kryp-ton, xenon and radon.)noble metalnoble metal noun a metal such as gold orsilver that resists corrosion and does notform compounds with non-metals. Com-pare base metalnocturnalnocturnal adjective 1. referring to an or-ganism that is active at night � Owls andbadgers are nocturnal. Compare diurnal 2.happening at nightnocturnal animalnocturnal animal plural noun an animalthat is active at night and sleeps during thedaynodenode noun a point on the stem of a plantwhere a leaf is attachednodulenodule noun a small lump found on theroots of leguminous plants such as peaswhich contains bacteria that can convert ni-trogen from the air into nitrogen com-pounds

no dumpingno dumping noun a sign telling peoplethat they are not allowed to throw awaywaste in that particular placeNOELNOEL noun the highest concentration of asubstance that has no detectable effect onhumans. Full form no-observed-effect-levelnoisenoise noun unwanted sound, especiallyan sound that is unpleasant or too loudnoise abatementnoise abatement noun measures takento reduce unacceptable noise or vibrations,or to protect people from exposure to itNoise Abatement SocietyNoise Abatement Society noun anassociation of people who work to influ-ence others to reduce loud or irritating nois-esnoise and number indexnoise and number index noun a wayof measuring noise from aircraft. Abbr NNInoise chargenoise charge noun a fee paid by a com-pany to be allowed to make some amount ofnoise in the course of its businessnoise criterianoise criteria plural noun the levels ofnoise which are acceptable to people whohear themnoise exposure forecastnoise exposure forecast noun a fore-cast of the effect that industrial or aircraftnoise will have on people. Abbr NEFnoise levelnoise level noun the degree of loudnessof a noise, taken as a measurement � Thefactory has announced plans to keep noiselevels down to a minimum.noise nuisancenoise nuisance noun a noise which isannoying, disturbing or unpleasant tosomeonenoise pollutionnoise pollution noun annoying or phys-ically dangerous noise to which people areexposed in their work or home environmentand over which they often have no controlnoise pollution levelnoise pollution level noun the degreeof loudness of annoying or physically dan-gerous noise in a person’s environment,taken as a measurement. Abbr NPLnoise zonenoise zone noun an area which is classi-fied according to the amount of noise thatexists in itnoisynoisy adjective 1. making a loud noise 2.referring to a place where there is a lot ofnoisenomadnomad noun an animal that moves fromplace to place without having a fixed range.Compare migrantnomadicnomadic adjective referring to nomadsnomadismnomadism noun a habit of some animalsthat move from place to place without hav-ing a fixed rangenomenclaturenomenclature noun a system for givingnames to organisms � taxonomic nomen-clature


147 northern hemispherenon-non- prefix not or nonon-biodegradablenon-biodegradable, non-degradableadjective referring to an object or substancethat cannot be decomposed into environ-mentally safe waste materials by the actionof soil bacterianon-degradationnon-degradation noun the preventionof the pollution of clean airnon-departmental public bodynon-departmental public bodynoun an organisation set up to carry out aspecific role within government responsi-bilities, but which is not a government de-partment or part of one. Abbr NDPBnon-disposablenon-disposable adjective referring to aproduct that is not thrown away after use,but can be recyclednon-ferrousnon-ferrous adjective not containingironnon-flammablenon-flammable adjective referring to amaterial that is difficult to set on firenon-genetically modifiednon-genetically modified adjectivereferring to an organism with a geneticcomposition that has not been altered bygenetic modification. Abbr non-GMnon-governmental organisationnon-governmental organisationnoun an organisation which is not fundedby a government and which works on a lo-cal, national or international level, e.g. apressure group, charity or voluntary agen-cy. Abbr NGOnon-indigenousnon-indigenous adjective referring to aplant, animal or person that is not native toa placenon-metalnon-metal noun a chemical element thatlacks the physical and chemical propertiesof a metal, e.g. carbon or oxygennon-nativenon-native adjective relating to a speciesthat did not originate where it is now found.Also called alien, exoticnon-organicnon-organic adjective 1. referring to acompound that does not contain carbon 2.referring to crops that are not produced ac-cording to guidelines restricting the use offertilisers and other practicesnon-persistentnon-persistent adjective referring to achemical, especially a pesticide, that de-composes quickly after it has been appliedso that it does not enter the food chainnon-point sourcenon-point source noun a source of pol-lution not associated with a specific dis-charge point. Compare point source(NOTE: Non-point sources include rainwaterand runoff from agricultural land and indus-trial sites, as well as escaping gases frompipes and fittings.)non-renewablenon-renewable adjective 1. not able tobe replaced when used up because a supplyis limited � non-renewable fuels 2. not able

to be extended for a longer period � non-renewable contractnon-renewable energynon-renewable energy noun powergenerated from a resource such as coil oroil that cannot be replaced once it has beenusednon-renewable resourcenon-renewable resource noun a nat-ural resource which cannot be replacedonce it has been used, e.g. coal or oilnon-resistantnon-resistant adjective referring to anorganism that is not resistant to a disease,antibiotic, pesticide, herbicide or otheragentnon-selective weedkillernon-selective weedkiller noun aweedkiller that kills all plantsnon-tillnon-till adjective � no-till agriculturenon-toxicnon-toxic adjective referring to a sub-stance that is not poisonous or harmful tohumans or other organisms or the environ-mentnon-woodynon-woody adjective referring to plantsthat do not form woody stemsnormal environmental lapse ratenormal environmental lapse ratenoun the rate at which the temperature ofthe air falls with height above the Earth(NOTE: This is about 6.4°C per thousandmetres, under conditions where there areno upward air currents or wind.)normal room temperaturenormal room temperature noun thetemperature regarded as comfortable forusual daily human activityNorth Atlantic ConveyorNorth Atlantic Conveyor noun anocean current system carrying warm sur-face waters to the North Atlantic, wherethey cool and drop to a deeper level beforeflowing south again. Also called AtlanticConveyor Belt (NOTE: Because it transfersheat to the atmosphere, it gives northwest-ern Europe a more temperate climate thanother countries on a similar latitude such asCanada.)North Atlantic DriftNorth Atlantic Drift noun a current ofwarm water flowing north along the eastcoast of the USA from the Gulf of Mexico,then crossing the Atlantic to northern Eu-rope (NOTE: It is part of the North AtlanticConveyor.)North Atlantic OscillationNorth Atlantic Oscillation noun an at-mospheric mass that alternates between theNorth and South Poles and affects thestrength and route of storms crossing theAtlantic from America to Europe as itchanges in mass and pressure. Its effectsare most obvious in November to April.Abbr NAOnorthern hemispherenorthern hemisphere noun the upperhalf of the Earth


Northern Lights 148Northern LightsNorthern Lights plural noun a spectacu-lar illumination of the sky in the northernhemisphere caused by ionised particlesstriking the atmosphere. Also called Auro-ra BorealisNorth SeaNorth Sea noun the sea to the north of theNetherlands and Germany, east of the UKand west of ScandinaviaNorth Sea oilNorth Sea oil noun oil extracted fromthe rocks under the North Seano smoking areano smoking area noun a part of a pub-lic place such as a restaurant or airportwhere smoking is not allowednotifiable diseasenotifiable disease noun a serious infec-tious disease of plants, animals or peoplethat has to be officially reported so thatsteps can be taken to stop it spreadingnotifynotify verb to inform someone aboutsomething officiallyno-till agricultureno-till agriculture, no-till farmingnoun a system of cultivation in which me-chanical disturbance of the soil by plough-ing is kept to a minimum to reduce soil ero-sion. Also called non-till. � minimum till-ageNotogeaNotogea noun one of the main biogeo-graphical regions of the Earth, comprisingAustralia, New Zealand and the Pacific Is-lands. � Arctogea, Neogeanoxiousnoxious adjective harmful to people oranimalsnoynoy noun a unit of measurement of per-ceived noiseNpNp symbol neptuniumNPKNPK noun nitrogen, phosphorus and po-tassium, used in different proportions as afertiliserNPLNPL abbr noise pollution levelNRANRA abbr National Rivers AuthorityNRINRI abbr National Resources InstituteNRPBNRPB abbr National Radiological Protec-tion BoardNSANSA abbr nitrate-sensitive areanuclearnuclear adjective 1. referring to an atomicnucleus, especially to the production of en-ergy by fission or fusion of nuclei 2. refer-ring to a cell nucleusnuclear accidentnuclear accident noun an unexpectedevent in a nuclear power station which re-sults in release of radiation into the envi-ronment above permitted safety levelsnuclear contaminationnuclear contamination noun the dam-age done to an object, person or substancebecause of contact with nuclear radiationnuclear energynuclear energy noun the energy re-leased during a nuclear reaction

nuclear falloutnuclear fallout noun the radioactive ma-terial which falls from the atmosphere aftera nuclear explosionnuclear-freenuclear-free adjective without nuclearreactors or nuclear weapons � While somecountries remain nuclear-free, nuclear re-actors supply about 15% of all electricitygenerated in the world.nuclear-free zonenuclear-free zone noun an area inwhich the use of nuclear reactors or the useof nuclear weapons is not allowednuclear powernuclear power noun the power generat-ed by a nuclear reactornuclear power plantnuclear power plant, nuclear powerstation noun a power station in which nu-clear reactions are used to provide energyto run turbines which generate electricitynuclear wastenuclear waste noun the radioactivewaste from a nuclear reactor, includingspent fuel rods and coolantnuclear winternuclear winter noun a period expectedto follow a nuclear explosion, when therewould be no warmth and light because dustparticles would obscure the Sun and mostlife would be affected by radiationnucleating agentnucleating agent noun a substancesuch as solid carbon dioxide that is scat-tered on clouds to make them release rainnucleic acidnucleic acid noun a complex organic ac-id, either DNA or RNA, that exists in thenucleus and protoplasm of all cellsnucleusnucleus noun 1. the central core of an at-om, formed of neutrons and protons 2. thecentral body in a cell, containing DNA andRNA, and controlling the function andcharacteristics of the cell 3. a central part orfocus round which something gathersnué ardentenué ardente noun a cloud of burning gasthat flows downhill during a volcanic erup-tionnuisancenuisance noun something annoying, dis-turbing or unpleasantnuisance thresholdnuisance threshold noun the point atwhich something such as a noise or smellbecomes annoying or unpleasantnurserynursery noun a place where plants aregrown until they are large enough to beplanted in their final positionsnutnut noun a hard indehiscent fruit with oneseednutraceuticalnutraceutical, nutriceutical noun sameas functional foodnutrientnutrient noun a substance that an organ-ism needs to allow it to grow, thrive and re-produce, e.g. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, ni-trogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,magnesium or sulfur. Plants obtain theirnutrients from the soil, while humans and


149 obscureother animals obtain them from their food,including plants.nutrient budgetnutrient budget noun the calculation ofthe amount of a nutrient taken up by an in-dividual and the amount lost by an individ-ual to the environmentnutrient leachingnutrient leaching noun the loss of nu-trients from the soil caused by water flow-ing through it, which deprives the soil ofnutrients and may pollute water coursesnutrient requirementnutrient requirement noun the typeand amount of nutrients needed by an or-ganismnutrient sourcenutrient source noun the source of anutrient for an individual or communitynutritionnutrition noun the process of taking in thenecessary food components to grow and re-main healthy. � soil nutritionnutritionalnutritional adjective referring to nutri-tion � the nutritional quality of meatnutritional requirementnutritional requirement noun the typeand amount of food needed by an organismnutritiousnutritious adjective referring to food thatprovides the nutrients that are needed forgrowth and health

nutritive

nutritive adjective 1. referring to a sub-stance that provides the necessary compo-nents for growth and health � plants grownin a nutritive solution 2. referring to nutri-tionnutritive value

nutritive value noun the degree to whicha food is valuable in promoting health �The nutritive value of white flour is lowerthan that of wholemeal flour.NVC

NVC abbr National Vegetation Classifica-tionNVZ

NVZ abbr nitrate-vulnerable zonenyct-

nyct- prefix nightnyctinasty

nyctinasty noun the opening or closingof flowers and leaves at night in response todarkness and falling temperaturenymph

nymph noun an insect at the stage in itsdevelopment between the larval stage andadulthoodnymphal

nymphal adjective referring to the stagein the development of some insects be-tween the larval stage and adulthood

OO

O symbol oxygenoakoak noun a deciduous or evergreen hard-wood tree of which there are many species.Latin name: Quercus.oak appleoak apple, oak gall noun a small hardround growth found on oak trees, caused bya parasitic waspoakwoodoakwood noun a number of oak treesgrowing togetheroasisoasis noun a place in an arid desert wherethe water table is near the surface andwhere vegetation can grow. In the oases ofthe hot desert regions, date palms form animportant food supply. (NOTE: The plural isoases.)oatoat noun a hardy cereal crop grown inmost types of soil in cool wet northern tem-perate regions. Latin name: Avena sativa.(NOTE: Oats are regarded as environmen-tally friendly because they require fewer in-puts than other cereals.)objectiveobjective noun a goal or target to beachieved � adjective referring to thoughts

based on facts rather than personal feelings� an objective assessmentobligate

obligate adjective referring to an organ-ism that exists or develops only in a partic-ular set of circumstances � an obligateparasite � an obligate anaerobe Comparefacultativeobliterative shading

obliterative shading, obliterativecountershading noun the grading of thecolour of an animal, such as a dark backdark shading towards a light belly, whichminimises shapes and gives a flat appear-anceobscure

obscure verb 1. to make something diffi-cult to see or prevent something from beingseen � The ice forming on the window ob-scured vision. 2. to make something diffi-cult to realise or understand � The low tem-peratures in the years after the volcaniceruption obscured the general trend ofgradual global warming. � adjective notclearly expressed and therefore difficult tounderstand � an obscure explanation


observation 150observationobservation noun the process of watch-ing or studying someone or somethingcarefully to find out information � The typeof cloud is established by observation andcomparison with cloud photographs. � un-der observation being watched carefullyobservationsobservations plural noun the pieces ofscientific information gathered by usingany of the five human senses, but especiallysight � observations of feeding patternsobserveobserve verb 1. to watch or study some-thing carefully to find out information �They observed the birds’ behaviour for sev-eral weeks. 2. to obey something such as anagreement or a guideline � We expect eve-ryone to observe the safety guidelines.OCOC abbr organic carbonoccidentaloccidental adjective referring to the westoccluded frontoccluded front noun a weather frontwhere warm and cold air masses meet andmix together, the warm air rising awayfrom the surface of the groundocclusionocclusion noun the forcing of air up-wards from the Earth’s surface, as when acold front overtakes and flows under awarm frontoccupational asthmaoccupational asthma noun asthmacaused by materials with which peoplecomes into contact at work, e.g. asthma infarm workers (farmer’s lung), caused byhayoccupational exposureoccupational exposure noun the situ-ation of experiencing a health hazard whileat workoceanocean noun the body of salt water whichcovers the Earth (NOTE: American Englishprefers to use ocean, British English pre-fers to use sea.)oceanariumoceanarium noun a large saltwateraquarium where marine animals are keptfor displayocean dumpingocean dumping noun the dischargingof waste, solid, liquid or radioactive, intothe ocean, now bannedoceanicoceanic adjective 1. referring to anocean, especially to deep water beyond thecontinental shelf 2. living in the oceanocean incinerationocean incineration noun the burningof toxic waste in special ships at sea, nowbannedoceanographyoceanography noun the study of all thephysical aspects of the ocean, including thefauna and flora living thereoceanologyoceanology noun the study of the geo-graphical distribution of the ocean’s eco-nomic resourcesOcean Thermal Energy ConversionOcean Thermal Energy Conver-sion noun the process whereby the differ-

ence in temperature between the upper andlower layers of water in tropical seas isused to generate electricity and fresh water.Abbr OTEC (NOTE: Warmer water from theupper layer is converted to steam to driveturbines and then condensed to providefresh water.)octaocta noun another spelling of oktaoctaneoctane noun a liquid hydrocarbon that ex-ists in 18 structurally different forms. For-mula: C8H18.

COMMENT: Petrol without the addition ofhydrocarbons will make the engine knock.Hydrocarbons, such as octane or aromatichydrocarbons, or lead tetraethyl can beadded to the petrol to give better perform-ance, while increasing the octane rating.Unleaded petrol has a relatively low oc-tane rating and leaded petrol, which con-tains an antiknock additive, has a high rat-ing. Leaded petrol produces more atmos-pheric pollution than unleaded.

odourodour noun a smell, especially an un-pleasant smell (NOTE: The US spelling isodor.)odour nuisanceodour nuisance noun a smell which isannoying or unpleasantODPODP abbr ozone-depleting potential orozone-depletion potentialODSODS abbr ozone-depleting substanceoestrogenoestrogen noun a steroid hormone be-longing to a group of hormones that con-trols the reproductive cycle and the devel-opment of secondary sexual characteristicsin female primates (NOTE: The US spellingis estrogen.)offpeakoffpeak adjective referring to a periodduring which the consumption of some-thing is low � Offpeak electricity costs less.� By using thermal storage we can move50% of electricity demand into offpeakhours.offshoreoffshore adjective, adverb 1. in sea waternear a coast 2. at a distance from a coastoffshore islandoffshore island noun an island situatedup to 12.5 km or 20 miles from a coastoffshore windfarmoffshore windfarm noun a collection ofwind turbines for the production of elec-tricity situated in the sea at some distancefrom a coast (NOTE: Britain’s first offshorewindfarm is situated 1 km off the coast ofBlyth, Northumberland.)offspringoffspring noun a child, the young of ananimal, or a descendant of a plant (NOTE:The plural is offspring: The birds usuallyproduce three or four offspring each year.)ohmohm noun the SI unit of measurement ofelectrical resistance. Symbol Ω


151 oozeoiloil noun 1. a liquid compound which doesnot mix with water, occurring as vegetableor animal oils, essential volatile oils andmineral oils 2. mineral oil extracted fromunderground deposits, used to make petroland other petroleum products

COMMENT: Oil is made up of different typesof hydrocarbon together with sulfur com-pounds, and usually occurs in combinationwith natural gas or water. When these areremoved it is called crude oil or crude pe-troleum. Refined crude oil gives productssuch as petrol, LPG, diesel oil, paraffinwax and tar. Crude oil is found in geologi-cal deposits, mainly in the Middle East, inthe North Sea, Central America and Asia.

oil-bearingoil-bearing adjective referring to rock,sand or shale that contains oiloil cropoil crop noun a crop grown for extractionof the oil in its seeds, e.g. sunflower oroilseed rapeoil-exporting countryoil-exporting country noun a countrywhich produces enough oil from under-ground deposits for its own use and to sellto other countriesoilfieldoilfield noun an area of rock under whichlie one or more pools of oil that can be ex-tracted � The search is on for new oilfieldsto replace fields which have been exhaust-ed.oil-firedoil-fired adjective using oil as fuel � oil-fired central heatingoil-importing countryoil-importing country noun a countrywhich buys the fuel and industrial oil it usesfrom other countriesoil pollutionoil pollution noun damage to an areacaused by oil, e.g. pollution of the sea by oilfrom a damaged oil tankeroil sandoil sand noun a geological formation ofsand or sandstone containing bitumen,which can be extracted and processed togive oil. Also called tar sand, bituminoussandoilseed rapeoilseed rape noun a plant of the cabbagefamily with bright yellow flowers, grown toprovide an edible oil and animal feed fromthe processed seeds. Latin name: Brassicanapus. Also called rape (NOTE: Oil pro-duced from oilseed rape is often called‘vegetable oil’.)oilseedsoilseeds plural noun crops grown for theoil extracted from their seeds, e.g. oilseedrape or linseedoil slickoil slick noun oil which has escaped intowater and floats on the surfaceoil spilloil spill noun an escape of oil into the en-vironment, especially from a damagedship, vehicle or pipeline

oilyoily adjective containing oiloktaokta, octa noun a unit of visible sky equalto one eighth of total area visible to the ho-rizonold growthold growth noun a long-established for-est or woodland with some large old treeswhich supports a relatively stable and di-verse community of plants and animalsold-growth forestold-growth forest noun a forest that hasnever been affected to any great extent byhuman activityolefinolefin, olefine noun an aliphatic hydro-carbonolfactoryolfactory adjective referring to the senseof smelloligo-oligo- prefix few or littleoligohalineoligohaline adjective (of water ) havingtraces of salt. � mesohaline, polyhalineoligophagousoligophagous adjective referring to an-imals that feed on only some types of preyoligophagyoligophagy noun the practice of feedingon only some types of preyoligosaprobicoligosaprobic adjective referring to anorganism that is unable to survive in pollut-ed wateroligotrophicoligotrophic adjective (of water) refer-ring to water that contains few nutrients. �dystrophic, eutrophic, mesotrophicoligotrophyoligotrophy noun the state of being oli-gotrophicoliveolive noun a Mediterranean tree withsmall yellowish-green edible fruit fromwhich an edible oil can be produced. Latinname: Olea europaea.ombrogenousombrogenous adjective referring to anarea of land, such as a bog, or a plant thatreceives water only from rain and is there-fore low in nutrientsombudsmanombudsman noun an official who inves-tigates complaints by the public againstgovernment departments or other large or-ganisationsomnivoreomnivore noun an animal that eats bothplant and animal foods. � carnivore, detri-tivore, frugivore, herbivore (NOTE: Hu-mans and pigs are examples of omni-vores.)omnivorousomnivorous adjective referring to an an-imal that eats both plant and animal foodsonshoreonshore adjective, adverb 1. situated onland � onshore oil and gas exploration 2.towards the coast � an onshore breezeontogenyontogeny noun the development of a liv-ing organism from its earliest stage to ma-turityoozeooze, ooze mud noun soft mud, especial-ly at the bottom of a lake or the sea. Also


opacity 152called ooze mud � verb (of liquid ) to flowslowlyopacityopacity noun the characteristic of not al-lowing light or other rays to pass through �Sometimes it is possible to estimate thedepth and opacity of the layer of mist or fogfrom ground observations.opaqueopaque adjective referring to somethingthat does not allow light or other rays topass through itOPECOPEC abbr Organization of PetroleumExporting Countriesopen-airopen-air adjective referring to the envi-ronment outside buildingsopen burneropen burner noun an outdoor site wherewaste such as automobile tyres or rags isdestroyed by fire, thereby causing atmos-pheric pollutionopen burningopen burning noun the burning of wastematter in the open air, creating pollutionwith smokeopen-cast miningopen-cast mining noun a form of min-ing in which the mineral is dug from thesurface instead of from under the ground.Also called open-cut mining, strip min-ingopen countryopen country, open land noun 1. anarea of land that is not built on 2. an area ofland that does not have many trees or highmountains 3. any area of land that is moun-tain, moor, heath or down or is registered ascommon landopen-cut miningopen-cut mining noun same as open-cast miningopen dumpopen dump noun a place where waste isleft on the ground and not buried in a holeopen landopen land noun land with no trees orbushes and no buildingsopen oceanopen ocean, open sea noun the oceanor sea well away from the coastoperationoperation noun an organised activity de-signed to achieve something � The clean-up operation after the oil spill lasted formonths.opportunistopportunist, opportunistic adjectivereferring to an organism that quickly colo-nises an available habitatopportunistic weedopportunistic weed noun a weed thatgrows in a wide range of conditionsopticoptic adjective referring to the eye or tosightoptimaloptimal adjective best or most effectiveoptimal foraging theoryoptimal foraging theory noun the the-ory that through evolution predators haveadapted to maximise energy gain and mini-mise energy loss when foragingoptimiseoptimise, optimize verb to make some-thing as efficient as possible

optimumoptimum adjective referring to the pointat which the condition or amount of some-thing is the best � optimum height � nounthe point at which the condition or amountof something is bestoptimum sustainable populationoptimum sustainable populationnoun the number of individuals that areneeded to maintain the existence of the spe-ciesoraloral adjective referring to the mouth, or tospeechorbitorbit noun the curved path of a planet orsatellite around another astronomical ob-jectorbitalorbital adjective referring to the move-ment of an object around somethingorbital roadorbital road noun a road which goesright round a town, at some distance fromthe built-up areas. Compare ring roadorderorder noun 1. a command or instruction 2.a classification of animals or plants, formedof several families (NOTE: Orders of ani-mals have names ending in -a; orders ofplants have names ending in -ales.) 3. theway in which things are arranged so thatone comes before another � in order in thecorrect order � in order of according to �in order of importance / priority / frequency� in ascending order with the lowestnumber or letter of the alphabet first � indescending order with the highest numberor letter of the alphabet first � in reverseorder in the opposite order from what isusual � out of order in the wrong orderoreore noun a mineral found in the groundcontaining a metal which can be extractedfrom it � Iron ore deposits were found inthe mountains. � The ore is heated to ahigh temperature to extract the metal.ore-bearingore-bearing adjective referring to rockthat contains oreorganorgan noun a part of an organism that isdistinct from other parts and has a particu-lar function, e.g. an eye or a flowerorganicorganic adjective 1. referring to a com-pound containing carbon 2. referring tofood produced using only a restrictednumber of permitted pesticides and fertilis-ers, or to the production of such food 3. re-ferring to organs in the body

COMMENT: Organic is a term that is usedloosely in the media and elsewhere tomean ‘natural’ or ‘wholesome’ with refer-ence to food. In fact, in the UK organicfood can only be labelled as such if itmeets various official criteria controllingthe way in which it has been produced.

organic agricultureorganic agriculture noun same as or-ganic farming


153 outbackorganicallyorganically adverb using only a restrict-ed number of permitted pesticides and fer-tilisers in growing a croporganic carbonorganic carbon noun carbon that comesfrom an animal or plant. Abbr OCorganic conversionorganic conversion noun the processof converting from conventional agricul-ture to organic productionorganic farmingorganic farming noun a method offarming which does not involve the use ofartificial fertilisers or pesticides � Organicfarming may become more economic thanconventional farming.organic fertiliserorganic fertiliser noun a fertiliser madefrom dead or decaying plant matter or ani-mal wastes, e.g. leaf mould, farmyard ma-nure or bone mealorganic materialorganic material, organic matter nouncarbon-based material derived from organ-isms, e.g. decomposed plant material or an-imal dungorganic matterorganic matter noun 1. a combinationfound in soil of plant material that is de-composing, microorganisms such as fungi,and humus. Also called soil organic mat-ter 2. same as organic materialorganicsorganics noun 1. the practice of manag-ing the land and growing food according toorganic principles 2. organic material of alltypes including wasteorganic wasteorganic waste noun substances consist-ing of material containing carbon com-pounds and disposed of as waste, e.g. plantor animal remains. Compare inorganicwasteorganismorganism noun any individual life formthat is able to reproduce and grow, e.g. aplant, animal or microorganismOrganization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesOrganization of Petroleum Export-ing Countries noun an association setup in 1960 to represent the interests of themajor oil-exporting nations, to fix the priceof oil and the amounts which can be pro-duced. Abbr OPECorganochlorineorganochlorine noun 1. a chlorinatedhydrocarbon 2. a chemical compound con-taining chlorine, used as an insecticideorganophosphateorganophosphate noun a synthetic in-secticide that attacks the nervous system,e.g. chlorpyrifosorganophosphorus compoundorganophosphorus compoundnoun an organic compound containingphosphorusorgano-tin paintorgano-tin paint noun a toxic paintbased on tin that is used on ships’ hulls toprevent the growth of marine organismsoriginorigin noun 1. a point where somethingstarts or comes from � the origin of life �

An air mass takes on the characteristics ofits place of origin. 2. a base from which amap projection is drawn � The value ofconvergence used is correct at the parallelof origin. � centre of originornamentalornamental adjective 1. for use as deco-ration 2. referring to a plant that is grownfor its appearance rather than for food orother use � noun an ornamental plant, e.g.a rose or orchidornithologicalornithological adjective referring to or-nithologyornithologistornithologist noun a scientist who stud-ies birdsornithologyornithology noun the study of birdsorographic effectorographic effect noun an atmosphericdisturbance that is caused by, or relating to,the existence of mountains or other highlandorphan siteorphan site noun an area of contaminat-ed land for which both polluter and ownerreject responsibilityorthotropismorthotropism noun growth directly to-wards or away from a stimulusoscillationoscillation noun a regular movementfrom side to sideosmoregulationosmoregulation noun also called os-motic regulationosmosisosmosis noun the movement of mole-cules from a solution of one concentrationto a solution of a higher concentrationthrough a semi-permeable membrane untilthe two solutions balance in concentrationosmotic pressureosmotic pressure noun the pressurerequired to prevent the flow of a solventinto a solution through a semi-permeablemembraneosmotic regulationosmotic regulation noun the control ofosmotic pressure within cells and simpleorganisms, by which they maintain a bal-ance between the fluid inside them and thatoutside in their environment. Also calledosmoregulationOSPAROSPAR noun an international agreementto prevent pollution of the northeast Atlan-tic and its coasts by continuously reducingdischarges, emissions and losses of hazard-ous substances, with the aim of eventuallyachieving very low or zero concentrations.Full form Oil Spill Preparedness and Re-sponseOTECOTEC abbr Ocean Thermal Energy Con-versionoutbackoutback noun a large area of wild orsemi-wild land in the centre of the conti-nent of Australia � Many wild animalswhich used to live in the outback are be-


outbreak 154coming rare as the land is reclaimed forfarming.outbreakoutbreak noun the sudden start of some-thing � an outbreak of disease � Showersare local outbreaks of precipitation fromdetached cumulus or cumulonimbus.outbreedingoutbreeding noun 1. breeding betweenindividuals that are not related 2. fertilisa-tion between two or more separate plants,rather than within a flower or betweenflowers of the same plant � Outbreedingoccurs in broad beans. � compare in-breedingoutcompeteoutcompete verb to be more successfulthan other organisms of the same or differ-ent species in obtaining access to the samelimited resources such as food, light or amateoutcropoutcrop noun an area of rock that standsout above the surface of the soil � verb (ofrock) to stand out above the surface of thesoilouterouter adjective furthest away from thecentre � The outer coating of the seed isvery hard.outer suburbsouter suburbs noun a residential part ofa town, a long way from the centre, but stillwithin the built-up areaoutfalloutfall noun a pipe from which sewage,either raw or treated, flows into a river, lakeor the sea. Also called outfall seweroutflowoutflow noun a flow in an outward direc-tion � The outflow valve is controlled bythe cabin pressure controller.outgrowthoutgrowth noun something that is grow-ing from a main partoutletoutlet noun a passage or pipe throughwhich something can leave � a water outletoutlieroutlier noun 1. an organism that occursnaturally some distance away from theprincipal area in which its species is found2. an area in which younger rocks are com-pletely surrounded by older rocksoutlineoutline noun 1. a summary � an outlineof the latest research results 2. a line thatshows the external shape of something �The drawing shows the outline of the coast.� verb to form or draw round the shape ofsomething � The additional material isoutlined in red.outline planning permissionoutline planning permission nounpermission in principle to build a propertyon a piece of land, but not the final approvalbecause further details must be submittedoutputoutput noun the product of a process �Air density will affect the output of the en-gine.

outwashoutwash noun the water which flowsfrom a melting glacier and creates depositsof siltoutwash depositoutwash deposit, outwash fan noun asilt deposit formed by a melting glacierovaova plural of ovumovaryovary noun 1. one of two organs in awoman or female animal that produce ovaor egg cells and secrete the female hormoneoestrogen 2. the part of a flower that con-tains the ovules, at the base of a carpelover-over- prefix 1. above 2. excessivelyoverburdenoverburden noun 1. in strip mining, thesoil and rock lying on top of a layer of coal2. a mineral which is dug away from thesurface of the land to expose the coal ormineral belowovercroppingovercropping noun the practice ofgrowing too many crops on poor soil,which has the effect of greatly reducing soilfertilityovercultivatedovercultivated adjective referring toland that has been too intensively cultivatedand has reduced fertilityoverexploitoverexploit verb 1. to work mineral de-posits or use other resources in an uncon-trolled way until there is very little left 2. tocultivate soil too intenselyoverexploitationoverexploitation noun the uncontrolleduse of natural resources until there is verylittle left � Overexploitation has reducedherring stocks by half.overfertilisationoverfertilisation noun the applicationof too much fertiliser to land (NOTE: Excessfertiliser draining from fields can cause pol-lution of the water in rivers and lakes.)overfishoverfish verb to catch so many fish thatthe fish do not reproduce quickly enoughand become rareoverfishingoverfishing noun the practice of catch-ing so many fish that the fish do not repro-duce quickly enough and become rare �Herring stocks have been reduced by over-fishing.overflowoverflow noun excess liquid that flowsover the edge of a container � verb to flowover the edge of a container � The floodsmade the reservoir overflow. � The riveroverflowed its banks and flooded hundredof hectares of farmland.overgrazeovergraze verb to graze a pasture somuch that it loses nutrients and is no longerable enough to provide food for livestockovergrazingovergrazing noun the practice of grazinga pasture so much that it loses nutrients andis no longer able to provide food for live-stock � Overgrazing has led to soil erosionand desertification.


155 ozone layeroverland flowoverland flow noun a movement of rain-water or water melting from snow or iceover the surface of the ground in a broadthin layerovernutritionovernutrition noun 1. the eating of toomuch food, or food containing too manycalories 2. same as eutrophicationoverpopulateoverpopulate verb to increase the popu-lation of a place so much that availablespace, food, water or other resources arenot adequate to support itoverpopulatedoverpopulated adjective referring to aplace containing too large a population tobe adequately supported by the availableresourcesoverproductionoverproduction noun the production ofmore of something than is wanted or need-edovershot wheelovershot wheel noun a type of water-wheel where the water falls on the wheelfrom above. It is more efficient than an un-dershot wheel, where the water flows un-derneath the wheel.overstoreyoverstorey noun the topmost vegetationlayer in a forest, formed by the tallest trees.Also called overwoodoveruseoveruse noun the excessive use of some-thing � The overuse of pesticides is con-taminating the rivers. � verb to use some-thing too much � Farmers are warnedagainst overusing synthetic fertilisers.overwinteroverwinter verb 1. to spend winter in aparticular place � The herds overwinter onthe southern plains. 2. to remain alivethough the winter � Many plants will notoverwinter in areas that have frost.overwoodoverwood noun same as overstoreyovicideovicide noun a substance, especially aninsecticide, that kills eggsoviparousoviparous adjective referring to an ani-mal that carries and lays eggs. Compare vi-viparousovuleovule noun an immature egg or an unfer-tilised seedovumovum noun a female egg cell which, whenfertilised by a spermatozoon, begins to de-velop into an embryo (NOTE: The plural isova.)ox-bow lakeox-bow lake noun a curved lake formedwhen a large curve of a river becomes cutoff from the main body of the river by siltoxidantoxidant noun same as oxidising agentoxidationoxidation noun a chemical reaction inwhich a substance combines with oxygenwith loss of electronsoxidation ditchoxidation ditch, oxidation pond noun aditch or pond where sewage is purified by

allowing biochemical reactions to takeplace in it over a period of timeoxidation–reductionoxidation–reduction noun a reversiblechemical reaction between two substanceswhere one is oxidised and the other is re-ducedoxideoxide noun a chemical compound of oxy-genoxidiseoxidise, oxidize verb to form an oxide bythe reaction of oxygen with another chemi-cal substance � Over a period of time, themetal is oxidised by contact with air.oxidising agentoxidising agent noun a substance thatforms an oxide with another substance.Also called oxidantoxidising atmosphereoxidising atmosphere noun a mixtureof gases that contains oxygen and convertselements into oxides through chemical re-actionsoxychlorinationoxychlorination noun the process ofneutralising bacteria in water intended fordrinkingoxygenoxygen noun a colourless, odourless gas,essential to human life, constituting 21%by volume of the Earth’s atmosphere � Ourbodies obtain oxygen through the lungs inrespiration. (NOTE: The chemical symbol isO; the atomic number is 8 and the atomicweight is 16.00.)oxygenateoxygenate verb to become filled with ox-ygenoxygenationoxygenation noun the process of be-coming filled with oxygenozoneozone noun poisonous form of oxygenfound naturally in the atmosphere, which istoxic to humans at concentrations above 0.1parts per million. Formula: O3.ozone-depleting substanceozone-depleting substance noun asubstance that is known to have unfavoura-ble effects on the ozone layer in the atmos-phere. Abbr ODSozone depletionozone depletion noun the loss of ozonefrom the atmosphereozone-depletion potentialozone-depletion potential, ozone-depleting potential noun a measurementof the effect of a substance on reducing theamount of ozone in the atmosphere. AbbrODPozone-friendlyozone-friendly adjective not harmful tothe ozone layer in the atmosphereozone holeozone hole noun a thin part in the ozonelayer in the atmosphere, which forms overAntarctica each year at the end of winterozone layerozone layer noun the layer of ozone inthe atmosphere between 20 and 50kmabove the surface of the Earth. Also calledozonosphere


ozone monitoring device 156COMMENT: The ozone layer in the strato-sphere acts as a protection against theharmful effects of the Sun’s radiation, andthe destruction or reduction of the layerhas the effect of allowing more radiation topass through the atmosphere with harmfulresults such as skin cancer in humans.The first ozone hole was detected overAntarctica.

ozone monitoring device

ozone monitoring device noun a de-vice which measures the levels of ozone inthe atmosphereozone precursor

ozone precursor noun a chemicalwhich contributes to the formation ofozone, e.g. nitrogen oxideozonosphere

ozonosphere noun same as ozone layer

PPP symbol phosphoruspackpack noun a group of predatory animalswhich live and hunt together (NOTE: Pack isespecially used of animals of the dog familysuch as wolves, but also of other animalssuch as killer whales.)packagepackage noun 1. an object or set of ob-jects wrapped in a covering 2. a group ofdifferent items brought together � a pack-age of measures designed to reduce con-sumptionpackagedpackaged adjective referring to itemswrapped in a coveringpackagingpackaging noun the set of coveringsused to wrap an object, especially a productthat is going to be transported, displayedand sold (NOTE: Packaging may be paper,cardboard, plastic, polystyrene or someother material.)packaging material

packaging material noun a type ofcovering such as paper or plastic used towrap an object, especially a product that isgoing to be transported, displayed and sold� Many of the packaging materials we usedto throw away may now be re-used or recy-cled to save energy and raw materials.packaging wastepackaging waste noun material such aspaper or plastic used as packaging that isthrown away

COMMENT: In the European Union, mem-ber states must have systems for the re-turn and/or collection of used packaging toattain the following targets: recovery 50%to 60% and recycling 25% to 45%, with aminimum of 15% by weight for each pack-aging material. There are also require-ments covering the composition and there-use, recovery and recycling of packag-ing.

paddy

paddy, padi noun a rice crop growing inshallow water � Paddies can be breedinggrounds for mosquitoes.

paddy fieldpaddy field noun a field filled with shal-low water, in which rice is grown � It isthought that paddy fields may contribute tothe methane in the atmosphere.PAHPAH abbr polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-bonpaintpaint noun a liquid substance put on a sur-face to give it colour or to protect it � Anti-fouling paint used on ships’ hulls kills ma-rine organisms.Palaearctic RegionPalaearctic Region noun a biogeo-graphical region, part of Arctogea coveringEurope, North Asia and North Africapalaeo-palaeo- prefix ancient or prehistoric(NOTE: The US spelling is paleo-.)palaeoecologypalaeoecology noun the study of theecology of fossilspalaeomagnetismpalaeomagnetism noun the study ofthe magnetism of ancient rockspalmpalm noun a large tropical plant like a treewith branching divided leaves, that produc-es fruits which give oil and other foodstuffspalmatepalmate adjective referring to leaves thatsplit from a central part like the fingers ona hand. Also called digitatepalm oilpalm oil noun an edible oil producedfrom the seed or fruit of an oil palmpaludalpaludal adjective relating to or living inswamps or marshespalynologypalynology noun the scientific study ofpollen, especially of pollen found in peatand coal deposits. Also called pollen anal-ysispampaspampas noun a wide area of grassy plainsfound in South AmericaPANPAN abbr peroxyacetyl nitratepan-pan- prefix affecting everything or every-wherepandemicpandemic adjective, noun referring to anepidemic disease which affects many partsof the world. � endemic, epidemic


157 parts per millionpanemonepanemone noun a type of windmill inwhich flat surfaces spin round a verticalaxispaniclepanicle noun a flower head (inflores-cence) with many branches that carry smallflowers, e.g. the flower head of a rice plantpaperpaper noun a substance made from thepulp of wood, rags or fibre rolled flat intosheets, used for writing on, printing, wrap-ping objects and other purposespara-para- prefix 1. similar to 2. changed or be-yondparabenparaben noun a chemical used in toilet-ries and as a food preservative (NOTE: It isreported as a possible cause of reproduc-tive or developmental problems because itsaction is similar to that of the hormone oes-trogen.)paraffinparaffin noun 1. a saturated aliphatic hy-drocarbon 2. same as paraffin oilparaffin oilparaffin oil noun oil produced from pe-troleum, used as a fuel in aircraft engines,for domestic heating and lighting, and as asolvent. Also called paraffinparallelparallel noun 1. same as parallel of lati-tude 2. a line representing a parallel on amap or chartparallel of latitudeparallel of latitude noun an angular dis-tance north or south of the Earth’s equator,measured in degrees, minutes and seconds,along a meridian. Also called parallelparameterparameter noun 1. a factor that definesthe limits or actions of something � The Xparameter defines the number of charac-ters displayed across a screen. � The sizeof the array is set with this parameter. 2. avariable quantity or value for which ameasurement is attempted, e.g. meanheightparapatric speciationparapatric speciation noun the devel-opment of new species in areas which arenext to each other and so not completelyisolatedparaquatparaquat noun a herbicide that destroys awide range of plants by killing their foliageand becomes inert on contact with the soilparasiteparasite noun a plant or animal whichlives on or inside another organism, thehost, and derives its nourishment and otherneeds from it � a water-borne parasiteparasiticparasitic adjective referring to animal orplant parasites � a parasitic worm � Dod-der is a parasitic plant.parasiticideparasiticide noun a substance that killsparasitesparasitiseparasitise, parasitize verb to live as aparasite on another organism � Sheep areparasitised by flukes.

parasitismparasitism noun a state in which one or-ganism, the parasite, lives on or inside an-other organism, the host, and derives itsnourishment and other needs from itparasitoidparasitoid noun an organism that is aparasite only at one stage in its develop-mentparasitoidismparasitoidism noun the state of being aparasite only at one stage of development,as when an insect lays eggs inside the bodyof a hostparasitologyparasitology noun the scientific study ofparasitesparcelparcel noun 1. a package 2. a plot of land3. a quantity of wood, either growing in aforest or cut down, which is soldparentparent noun a male or female that hasproduced offspringparent rockparent rock noun same as mother rockparkpark noun an area of open land used as aplace of recreationparklandparkland noun grazed grassland or heath-land with large individual trees or smallgroups of large trees, usually part of a de-signed and managed landscapeparthenocarpyparthenocarpy noun the production ofseedless fruits without fertilisation havingtaken placeparthenogenesisparthenogenesis noun a form of repro-duction in which an unfertilised ovum de-velops into an individualparticleparticle noun 1. a very small piece of asubstance � soil particles � Particles ofvolcanic ash were carried into the upper at-mosphere. 2. � elementary particleparticulateparticulate adjective made up of separateparticles � noun a tiny solid piece of a sub-stance

COMMENT: The finest particulates in the airare the most dangerous pollutants as theyare easily inhaled into the bronchioles inthe lungs. Fine particulates from volcaniceruptions can enter the stratosphere andhave a cooling effect by preventing theheat from the Sun reaching the Earth’ssurface, i.e. the opposite of the green-house effect.

particulate matterparticulate matter noun any matter inthe atmosphere except water, includingdust particles, pollen or particles producedby internal combustion engines. Abbr PMparts per billionparts per billion noun a measure of theconcentration of a substance in a gas, liquidor solid. Abbr ppbparts per millionparts per million noun a measure of theconcentration of a substance in a gas, liquidor solid. Abbr ppm


passage 158passagepassage noun 1. a long narrow channelor corridor 2. a movement from one placeto anotherpasserinepasserine noun a bird belonging to anorder of birds which typically come to reston branches. Order: Passeriformes. � ad-jective referring to a passerinepassivepassive adjective not actively participat-ing. Opposite activepassive smokingpassive smoking noun a situation inwhich someone breathes in tobacco smokefrom the atmosphere around them. Thisprocess may cause lung cancer.pastoralpastoral adjective 1. referring to agricul-ture based on grazing animals 2. referringto land available for pasturepastoralistpastoralist noun a farmer who keepsgrazing animals on pasture � The peoplemost affected by the drought in the Saharaare nomadic pastoralists.pasturepasture noun land covered with grass orother small plants, used by farmers as afeeding place for animals � a mixture ofpasture and woodland � Their cows are onsummer pastures high in the mountains. �to put cattle out to pasture to put cattleonto land covered with grass or other smallplants � verb to put animals onto land cov-ered with grass or other small plants �Their cows are pastured in fields high in themountains.pasture agronomistpasture agronomist noun a personwho specialises in the study of types ofplants grown in pasturespasturelandpastureland noun land covered withgrass or other small plants, used by farmersas a feeding place for animalspatch dynamicspatch dynamics noun a process inwhich the disturbance of a community cre-ates gaps which are then colonised by thesame or another speciespathpath noun 1. a way from one place to an-other, especially one travelled on foot. �bridle path, cycle path, footpath 2. a wayto achieve somethingpatho-patho- prefix diseasepathogenpathogen noun an agent, usually a mi-croorganism, that causes a diseasepathogenesispathogenesis noun the origin, produc-tion or development of a diseasepathogeneticpathogenetic adjective referring topathogenesispathogenicpathogenic adjective able to cause orproduce a diseasepathogenicitypathogenicity noun the ability of a path-ogen to cause a diseasepathogenic organismpathogenic organism noun an organ-ism responsible for causing a disease

pathologicalpathological adjective 1. referring to adisease 2. caused by a disease 3. indicatinga diseasepathologistpathologist noun 1. a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of diseases 2. a personwho checks tissue and other samples for ev-idence of disease 3. a doctor who examinesdead bodies to find out the cause of deathpathologypathology noun the study of diseases andthe changes in structure and function whichdiseases can causepathwaypathway noun 1. a path, especially a foot-path, or a route 2. the route by which a con-taminant can reach a receptor and causeharmPbPb symbol leadPBBPBB abbr polybrominated biphenylPCBPCB abbr polychlorinated biphenylPCFPCF abbr process(ed) chlorine-freePCWPCW abbr post-consumer wastePEPE abbr production efficiencypeakpeak noun 1. the top of a mountain 2. thehighest point of something � The intensityof solar radiation reaches a peak aroundnoon.peak averagepeak average noun the average of all thehighest points on a graph or in a series offigurespeak trafficpeak traffic noun the largest number ofvehicles that travel in an area within a spe-cific period � The hours of peak traffic atthe junction are 8–9 a.m. and 5–7 p.m.peasouperpeasouper noun a type of thick dark yel-low fog caused by sulfur particles fromburning coal, formerly common in the win-ter time in London before the 1960s(informal)peatpeat noun the accumulated partly decayedmosses and other plants which form the soilof a bog, often forming a deep layer (NOTE:Peat was used as a fuel in some areas andwas widely used in gardens to improve thetexture of the soil or mixed with soil or othermaterials to grow plants in pots. Thesepractices are now discouraged in order toprevent the overuse of peat bogs.)peat bogpeat bog noun an area of wet acidic land,low in nutrients, in which peat has formedpeat-freepeat-free adjective referring to materialthat does not contain peatpeat-free compostpeat-free compost noun material inwhich plants can be grown in pots that doesnot contain peat � Coir fibre from coconutshells can be used as a peat-free compost.peatlandpeatland noun an area of land coveredwith peat bog


159 permaculturepeaty

peaty adjective containing peat � peatysoil � peaty waterpebblepebble noun a small, often rounded pieceof rock, less than 64mm in diameterpedestrianpedestrian noun a person who travels bywalkingpedestrian areapedestrian area, pedestrian zonenoun a part of a town where only peoplewho are walking are allowedpedestrianisation

pedestrianisation, pedestrianizationnoun the process of making part of a towninto an area where only people who arewalking are allowedpedestrianisepedestrianise, pedestrianize verb tomake part of a town into an area where onlypeople who are walking are allowedpedicelpedicel noun a stalk that carries a singleflower within a flower head (inflores-cence)pedunclepeduncle noun 1. a stalk-like structuresuch as that attaching a polyp to the rock onwhich it lives 2. the main flower stalk of aplantpelagicpelagic adjective referring to the top andmiddle layers of sea water. Compare de-mersalpelagic deposits

pelagic deposits plural noun materialthat has fallen to the sea floor. Also calledpelagic sedimentpelagic speciespelagic species noun fish that live at ornear the surface of the sea, e.g. swordfish,tuna, anchovies and sardinespelagic zonepelagic zone noun the part of the seathat is not near the shore and not immedi-ately above the seabedPelton wheelPelton wheel noun a type of water tur-bine that has specially shaped buckets at-tached to the edge of a wheel which arestruck by a jet of waterpenaltypenalty noun a fine or other action takento punish someone for doing something �The government has imposed penalties onindustrial concerns which emit too muchpollution.peneplainpeneplain noun a plain formed aftermountains have been completely erodedpeninsulapeninsula noun a long narrow piece ofland, surrounded on three sides by seapeninsularpeninsular adjective referring to a penin-sulapentadpentad noun a five-day period (NOTE:This term is used especially in meteorolog-ical forecasting and recording.)perper preposition for each or every � the rec-ommended daily dose per person

perceived noise levelperceived noise level noun a measure-ment of the loudness of a sound as heard bythe human ear. Abbr PNLperceived noise level in decibelsperceived noise level in decibelsnoun a measurement of sound pressure indecibels. Abbr PNdBpercentagepercentage noun 1. the proportion orrate equivalent to a total divided by a hun-dred � Some 20% of infected plants died, amuch higher percentage than expected. 2.an inexact proportion or amount � Devel-oping countries possess the largest per-centage of the world’s rainforest.percentilepercentile noun one of a series of 99 fig-ures below which a particular percentage ofthe total fallspercolatepercolate verb to move slowly through aquantity of solid particles � Water perco-lates through the soil.perennialperennial adjective lasting for manyyears � noun a plant that lives for a longtime, flowering each year without dying. �annual, biennial (NOTE: In herbaceousperennials the parts above ground die backin winter, but the plant persists under theground and produces new shoots in thespring. In woody perennials, permanentstems remain above the ground in the win-ter.)perfluorocarbonsperfluorocarbons plural noun a groupof synthetic chemical compounds that arepotent greenhouse gases. Abbr PFCsperformperform verb to carry out an action or role� to perform a biological experiment �The kidneys perform the function of elimi-nating nitrogenous waste.perianthperianth noun the outer parts of a flower,made up of a calyx, corolla or bothpericarppericarp noun the part of a fruit that en-closes the seed or seedsperiodperiod noun 1. a length of time � a 24hour period � a period of 3 minutes 2. aninterval of geological time, the subdivisionof an era and itself divided into epochs �the Cretaceous periodperiodicperiodic adjective happening from timeto time � a periodic review of the compa-ny’s performanceperiphytonperiphyton noun a dense mass of strandsof algal growth that covers the water sur-face between emerging aquatic plantsperi-urbanperi-urban adjective on the edge of abuilt-up areapermaculturepermaculture noun a system of perma-nent agriculture, which involves carefullydesigning human habitats and food produc-tion systems


permafrost 160permafrostpermafrost noun ground that is perma-nently frozen, as in the Arctic regions(NOTE: Although the top layer of soil meltsand softens in the summer the soil beneathremains frozen.)permanentpermanent adjective lasting or remain-ing without changepermanent grasslandpermanent grassland, permanentpasture noun land that remains as grass-land for a long time and is not ploughedpermeabilitypermeability noun 1. the ability of a rockto allow water to pass through it 2. the abil-ity of a membrane to allow fluid or chemi-cal substances to pass through itpermeablepermeable adjective with a degree ofpermeability (NOTE: The US term is pervi-ous.)peroxyacetyl nitrateperoxyacetyl nitrate noun a substancecontained in photochemical smog, which isextremely harmful to plants. Abbr PANpersistpersist verb 1. to continue to exist �Snow cover tends to persist on north-facingslopes of mountains. 2. (of a chemicalcompound ) to remain active without break-ing down in the environment for a period oftime � The chemical persists in the soil. 3.(of a plant) to grow for several seasonspersistencepersistence noun 1. the ability to persist� The persistence and movement of cols isgoverned by the movement of the adjacentpressure systems. 2. the ability of a chemi-cal to remain active without breaking downin the environment for a period of time 3.(of a plant) the ability to grow for severalseasonspersistentpersistent adjective 1. continuing forsome time � persistent flickering of thescreen 2. remaining active without break-ing down for some time � persistent chem-icals 3. growing for several seasons � per-sistent speciespersistent insecticidepersistent insecticide, persistentpesticide noun a chemical compound usedto kill insect or other pests that remainswithout breaking down in the soil or in thebody of an animal and is passed from ani-mal to animal through the food chainpersonalpersonal adjective referring to direct re-lationships between people � The informa-tion came through a personal contact.personal communicationpersonal communication noun infor-mation given by one person directly to an-otherperviouspervious adjective US same as permea-blepestpest noun an organism that carries diseaseor harms plants or animals � a spray to re-move insect pests

pesticidepesticide noun a chemical compoundused to kill pests such as insects, other ani-mals, fungi or weedspesticide residuepesticide residue noun the amount of apesticide that remains in the environmentafter applicationPesticides TrustPesticides Trust noun a group thatworks to minimise and eventually eliminatethe hazards of pesticidespesticide taxpesticide tax noun a proposed tax to re-strict the use of pesticidesPETPET abbr polyethylene terephthalatepetalpetal noun a single part of the corolla of aflower � A buttercup flower has yellow pet-als.petiolepetiole noun the stalk of a leafpetrifactionpetrifaction noun the process of turninga substance into stonepetrifypetrify verb to turn a substance into stonepetrochemicalpetrochemical noun a chemical derivedfrom petroleum or natural gaspetrochemistrypetrochemistry noun 1. the scientificstudy of the chemical composition of petro-leum and substances derived from it 2. thescientific study of the chemical composi-tion of rockspetrolpetrol noun a liquid made from petrole-um, used as a fuel in internal combustionengines � We are looking for a car with alow petrol consumption. (NOTE: The USterm is gasoline.)petroleumpetroleum noun oil that is extracted fromthe groundpetrologypetrology noun the study of rocks andminerals (NOTE: Petrology has no directconnection with petrol.)PFAPFA abbr pulverised fuel ashPFBCPFBC abbr pressurised fluidised-bedcombustionPFCsPFCs abbr perfluorocarbonspHpH noun a measure of the acidity of a solu-tion, determined as the negative logarithmof the hydrogen ion concentration, on ascale from 0 to 14 � soil pH (NOTE: A pHless than 7 is acid, and a pH more than 7 isalkaline.)phalanxphalanx noun a plant species that invadesa community as a dense mass. Compareguerrillaphasephase noun a stage or part of a largerprocess � the vegetative phase � A resultmay occur during any phase of the experi-ment.phenologyphenology noun the effect of climate onannually recurring phenomena such as ani-mal migration or plant flowering


161 photo-oxidationphenomenon

phenomenon noun an event that existsand is experienced � Chemical reactions inthe atmosphere generate phenomena suchas acid rain and photochemical smog.(NOTE: The plural is phenomena.)phenotypephenotype noun the physical character-istics of an organism, produced by itsgenes. Compare genotypephenotypicphenotypic adjective relating to a phe-notypephenotypic plasticity

phenotypic plasticity noun the abilityof a phenotype to vary as a result of envi-ronmental influences on its genetic makeuppheromonepheromone noun a chemical substanceproduced and released into the environmentby an animal, influencing the behaviour ofanother individual of the same species �Some insects produce pheromones to at-tract mates.pH factorpH factor noun � pH-philia

-philia suffix attraction towards or likingfor somethingphiloprogenitivephiloprogenitive adjective referring toan organism that produces many offspringphloemphloem noun the vascular tissue in a plantthat is formed of living cells and conductsorganic substances from the leaves to therest of the plant. � xylemphosphatephosphate noun a salt of phosphoricacid which is formed naturally by weather-ing of rocks (NOTE: It is an essential plantnutrient.)

COMMENT: Natural organic phosphatesare provided by guano and fishmeal, oth-erwise phosphates are mined. Artificiallyproduced phosphates are used in agricul-ture and are known as superphosphatesbecause they are highly concentrated.Phosphates escape into water from sew-age, especially waste water containing de-tergents, and encourage the growth of al-gae by eutrophication.

phosphorousphosphorous adjective containingphosphorusphosphorusphosphorus noun a chemical elementthat is essential to biological life (NOTE:The chemical symbol is P; the atomicnumber is 15 and the atomic weight is30.97.)phosphorus cycle

phosphorus cycle noun a cycle bywhich phosphorus atoms are circulatedthrough living organismsphot-phot- prefix same as photo- (NOTE: usedbefore vowels)photic zonephotic zone noun same as euphoticzone. Compare aphotic zonephoto-photo- prefix light

photoautotrophicphotoautotrophic adjective using lightenergy to create a source of food. Comparechemoautotrophicphotocellphotocell noun same as photoelectriccellphotochemicalphotochemical adjective referring to achemical reaction that is caused by light �Gases rise into the upper atmosphere andundergo photochemical change.photochemical oxidantphotochemical oxidant noun a sub-stance which is produced by a chemical re-action with light, e.g. ozonephotochemical pollutionphotochemical pollution noun pollu-tion caused by the action of light on chem-icals in the lower atmosphere

COMMENT: When the atmosphere nearground level is polluted with nitrogen ox-ides from burning fossil fuels together withhydrocarbons, ultraviolet light from theSun sets off a series of reactions that re-sult in photochemical pollution, containing,among other substances, ozone.

photochemical reactionphotochemical reaction noun achemical reaction started by the absorptionof light (NOTE: Photosynthesis and photo-chemical smog are examples of such a re-action.)photochemical smogphotochemical smog noun air pollu-tion caused by the effect of strong sunlighton nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbonsemitted by motor vehicles, creating a harm-ful haze of minute droplets in the airphotochemistryphotochemistry noun the study ofchemical changes brought about by lightand other forms of radiationphotoconverterphotoconverter noun a device that con-verts energy from light into electric energyphotodecompositionphotodecomposition noun the break-ing down of a substance by the action oflightphotoelectric cellphotoelectric cell noun a cell in whichlight falling on the cell is converted to elec-tricity. Also called photocellphotogenicphotogenic adjective 1. produced by theaction of light 2. referring to an organismproducing lightphotolysisphotolysis noun the breakdown of achemical by light or other electromagneticradiationphotonasticphotonastic adjective referring to pho-tonastyphotonastyphotonasty noun a response of plants tolight without movement towards the lightsource. � phototaxisphoto-oxidantphoto-oxidant noun a chemical com-pound produced by the action of sunlighton nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbonsphoto-oxidationphoto-oxidation noun a change in thechemical constitution of a compound by the


photoperiod 162action of sunlight � Photo-oxidationbreaks down polluted air and converts thegases to sulfur dioxide.photoperiodphotoperiod noun the period in every 24hours when an organism is exposed to day-light � Short-day plants require a photope-riod of less than 12 hours for flowering.(NOTE: Photoperiod has an effect on activi-ties such as flowering and mating.)photoperiodicityphotoperiodicity noun the degree towhich plants and animals react to changesin the length of the period of daylight fromsummer to winterphotoperiodismphotoperiodism noun the response ofan organism in its growth and behaviour tothe amount of daylight it receives in every24 hoursphotophilicphotophilic, photophilous adjective re-ferring to an organism that grows best instrong lightphotorespirationphotorespiration noun a reaction thatoccurs in plants, alongside photosynthesis,in which the plant fixes oxygen from the airand loses carbon dioxide (NOTE: Photores-piration reduces the production of sugarsby photosynthesis. Some crop plants havebeen bred to reduce their photorespirationrate.)photosensitivephotosensitive adjective 1. sensitive tolight 2. stimulated by lightphotosensitivityphotosensitivity noun the state of be-ing sensitive to or stimulated by lightphotosynthesisphotosynthesis noun the process bywhich green plants convert carbon dioxideand water into sugar and oxygen using sun-light as energyphotosynthesisephotosynthesise, photosynthesizeverb to carry out photosynthesis � Acidrain falling on trees reduces their ability tophotosynthesise.photosyntheticphotosynthetic adjective referring tophotosynthesisphotosynthetic capacityphotosynthetic capacity noun thecalculation of the efficiency of conversionof solar energy by photosynthesisphototaxisphototaxis noun a movement of all orpart of an organism in response to light ei-ther towards or away from itphototrophphototroph noun an organism that ob-tains its energy from sunlight. Comparechemotrophphototrophicphototrophic adjective obtaining energyfrom sunlight. Compare chemotrophic(NOTE: Plants are phototrophic.)phototropicphototropic adjective referring to a plantor a cell that turns or grows towards oraway from light

phototropismphototropism noun the response ofplants or cells to light by turning or grow-ing towards or away from it (NOTE: Mostplant shoots show positive phototropism,i.e. they grow towards the light.)photovoltaicphotovoltaic adjective converting theenergy from electromagnetic radiation suchas light into electricityphotovoltaic cellphotovoltaic cell, photovoltaic panelnoun a device that converts the energy fromlight into electricity. Also called photo-voltaic, photovoltaic panel (NOTE: As lightstrikes the cell the electrons in it becomemobile and create electricity.)phreaticphreatic adjective referring to the watertablephreatophytephreatophyte noun a plant whose rootsgo down into the water tablephthalatephthalate noun a chemical compoundused to soften plastics and in many toilet-ries (NOTE: It is reported as a possiblecause of reproductive or developmentalproblems because its action is similar tothat of the hormone oestrogen.)pH valuepH value noun � pHphycologyphycology noun the scientific study ofalgaephylogenesisphylogenesis, phylogeny noun the ev-olutionary history of an organism or groupof organismsphylumphylum noun a major subdivision in theclassification of organisms, below kingdom(NOTE: The plural is phyla.)physicalphysical adjective 1. referring to matterand energy or the sciences dealing withthem, especially physics 2. referring to thebody rather than the mind � physical dis-comfort � describe its physical appearance3. being touched or able to be touched orfelt � physical contactphysicsphysics noun the scientific study of mat-ter, including electricity, radiation, magnet-ism and other phenomena that do notchange the chemical composition of matterphysio-physio- prefix physiologyphysiologicalphysiological adjective referring tophysiologyphysiological ecologyphysiological ecology noun the studyof the physiology of an individual and theeffects on function and behaviour in itshabitatphysiological specialisationphysiological specialisation noun aphenomenon whereby some members of apopulation look identical but differ bio-chemicallyphysiologistphysiologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of the functions of liv-ing organisms


163 pitphysiologyphysiology noun the scientific study ofthe functions of living organismsphyto-phyto- prefix plantphytoaccumulationphytoaccumulation noun same asphytoextractionphytobenthosphytobenthos noun the plants that liveon the bottom of the sea, lake or riverphytochemicalphytochemical noun a substance occur-ring naturally in a plant � adjective refer-ring to phytochemistryphytochemistryphytochemistry noun the study of thechemistry of substances found in plantsphytochromephytochrome noun a pigment moleculein plants which is sensitive to slight chang-es in day length and controls the plant’sgrowth timetablephytoextractionphytoextraction noun the absorption byplants of metal contaminants through theirroots and subsequent storage in their upperparts, allowing the decontamination ofland. Also called phytoaccumulationphytogeographyphytogeography noun the study ofplants and their geographical distributionphytomephytome noun a plant communityphytonutrientphytonutrient noun a substance inplants that is beneficial to human health,e.g. a vitamin or antioxidantphytophagousphytophagous adjective referring to ananimal that eats plantsphytoplankterphytoplankter noun a single microscop-ic plant that floats in the sea or in a lakephytoplanktonphytoplankton plural noun microscopicplants that float in the sea or in a lake (NOTE:Phytoplankton, formed mainly of diatomsand using the sunlight in the surface layersof the water to photosynthesise, are the ba-sis of the food chain of almost all aquaticanimals.)phytoplankton bloomphytoplankton bloom noun a largemass of plankton that develops regularly atdifferent periods of the year and floats onthe surface of the sea or of a lakephytoplanktonicphytoplanktonic adjective referring tophytoplanktonphytoremediationphytoremediation noun the decontam-ination of land by growing plants to absorbheavy metals or other soil contaminantsphytosociologyphytosociology noun the branch ofecology concerned with the identification,analysis, and classification of the speciescomposition of plant communities or plantassociationsphytostabilisationphytostabilisation, phytostabiliza-tion noun the use of plants to trap soil con-taminants in their roots and prevent themfrom polluting ground waterphytotoxicphytotoxic adjective poisonous to plants

phytotoxicantphytotoxicant noun a substance that isphytotoxicphytotoxinphytotoxin noun a poisonous substanceproduced by a plantPICPIC abbr product of incomplete combus-tionpicogrampicogram noun one trillionth of a grampiezometerpiezometer noun an instrument formeasuring the pressure of a liquidpiezometricpiezometric, piezometrical adjectivereferring to the level reached by water un-der its own pressure in a borehole or in a pi-ezometerpigmentpigment noun a substance that gives col-our to a part of an organism, e.g. melanin inanimals or chlorophyll in plantspigmentarypigmentary adjective referring to or pro-ducing pigmentpigmentationpigmentation noun the colouring of ananimal’s body, especially that produced bydeposits of pigmentpileuspileus noun 1. the domed or bell-shapedpart of the body of a jellyfish 2. the cap ofa mushroom or toadstoolpilot projectpilot project noun a small-scale projectcarried out to see whether a large-scaleproject will work � They are running a pi-lot project in the area for three months be-fore deciding on the next stage.pinepine noun an evergreen coniferous tree.Genus: Pinus. � The north of the country iscovered with forests of pine.pine conepine cone noun a hard scaly structurebearing the seeds of a pine treepine forestpine forest noun a large wooded areacontaining mainly pinespine treepine tree noun same as pinepinetumpinetum noun an area where differenttypes of pine have been plantedpinewoodpinewood noun a wooded area contain-ing mainly pinespinnapinna noun 1. a thin, flat, tapering bodypart such as a feather or fin 2. one of thesmall leaves on a pinnate leafpinnatepinnate adjective with small leaves ar-ranged on each side of a central stalkpioneerpioneer, pioneer species noun a speciesthat is one of the first to begin to grow in apreviously unoccupied site, e.g. a mossgrowing on a scree slopepipelinepipeline noun a long tube through whicha fluid or gas flows from one place to an-otherpisciculturepisciculture noun the breeding of ediblefish in special pools for sale as foodpitpit noun 1. a large hole in the ground, e.g.for burying or planting something 2. an


pitch 164area of land from which minerals, especial-ly coal, are removed, and the buildings as-sociated with the activity. Also called mine3. a small indentation in a surfacepitchpitch noun 1. the frequency of a sound(NOTE: A low-pitched sound has a low fre-quency and a high-pitched sound has ahigh frequency.) 2. a dark sticky substanceobtained from tar, used to make objects wa-tertight 3. the angle of the blades of a windor water turbine in relation to the flow ofwind or waterpithpith noun the tissue found in the centre ofplant stems. Also called medullapittedpitted adjective with small indentations �a pitted surfaceplacental mammalplacental mammal noun same as euth-erian (NOTE: All mammals are placental ex-cept for monotremes and marsupials.)plagioclimaxplagioclimax noun a stage in the devel-opment of a plant ecosystem where the sys-tem is kept stable by human intervention, asin managed woodlandsplagiosereplagiosere noun a succession of plantsthat takes a new course because of the ef-fect of a biotic factorplagueplague noun 1. an infectious disease thatoccurs in epidemics which kill many organ-isms 2. a widespread infestation by a pest �A plague of locusts has invaded the regionand is destroying crops.plainplain noun a level area of land with fewtrees � plural noun plains a large area offlat country with few trees, especially in themiddle of North Americaplanplan noun 1. an organised way of doingsomething 2. a drawing that shows howsomething is arranged or how somethingwill be built � verb to organise carefullyhow something should be doneplaneplane noun a deciduous hardwood tree,frequently grown in towns because of its re-sistance to air pollution. Genus: Platanus.planetplanet noun a large body in the solar sys-tem, e.g. Earth, Mars or Mercuryplanetaryplanetary adjective referring to a planetplankterplankter noun a single microscopic ani-mal or plant that lives and drifts in water(NOTE: The plural is plankton.)planktivorousplanktivorous adjective referring to ananimal that eats planktonplanktonplankton plural noun the microscopic an-imals and plants that drift near the surfaceof the water, belonging to two groups: zoo-plankton, which are microscopic animals,and phytoplankton, which are microscopicplants capable of photosynthesis (NOTE: Asingle organism is a plankter.)

planktonicplanktonic adjective referring to plank-ton � Blooms are population explosions ofplanktonic plants.plannerplanner noun a person responsible forplanning an activity or developmentplanningplanning noun 1. the careful organisationof how something should be done 2. the or-ganisation of how land and buildings are tobe usedplanning authorityplanning authority noun a local au-thority which gives permission for develop-ment such as changes to existing buildingsor new use of landplanning controlsplanning controls plural noun legisla-tion used by a local authority to controlbuildingplanning departmentplanning department noun a sectionof a local authority which deals with re-quests for planning permissionplanning inquiryplanning inquiry noun a hearing beforea government inspector relating to a deci-sion of a local authority in planning mattersplanning permissionplanning permission noun an officialagreement allowing a person or company toplan new buildings on empty land or to alterexisting buildingsplantplant noun 1. an organism containingchlorophyll with which it carries out photo-synthesis 2. a very large factory or industri-al site � A nuclear power plant is to be builtnear the town. 3. large heavy equipmentand vehicles � verb to put plants in theground � to plant a crop of riceplantationplantation noun 1. an estate, especiallyin the tropics, on which large-scale produc-tion of cash crops takes place (NOTE: Plan-tations specialise in the production of a sin-gle crop such as cocoa, coffee, cotton, teaor rubber.) 2. an area of land planted withtrees for commercial purposes. Also calledplantation forestplant breedingplant breeding noun the practice of pro-ducing new forms of ornamental and cropplants by artificial selectionplant communityplant community noun a group ofplants growing together in an areaplant coverplant cover noun the percentage of anarea occupied by plants � Plant cover atthese altitudes is sparse.plant ecologyplant ecology noun the study of the re-lationship between plants and their envi-ronmentplant genetic resourcesplant genetic resources plural nounthe gene pool of plants, especially of plantsregarded as of value to humans for food orpharmaceuticalsplant healthplant health noun the areas related to theprevention of pests and diseases affecting


165 poachingplants and plant produce, including thecontrol of imports and exportsplant hormoneplant hormone noun a hormone that af-fects plant growthplant kingdomplant kingdom noun the category of allorganisms classified as plantsplantletplantlet noun BOT a young plantPlantNetPlantNet noun a national network of bo-tanic gardens, arboreta and other docu-mented plant collections in Britain and Ire-landplant nutrientplant nutrient noun a mineral whosepresence is essential for the healthy growthof plantsplant planktonplant plankton plural noun same as phy-toplanktonplant populationplant population noun the number ofplants found in a particular areaplant protectionplant protection noun the activity ofprotecting plants from disease by biocon-trol, cultivation practices and especially bythe application of pesticidesplant scienceplant science noun the scientific studyof plantsplant scientistplant scientist noun a scientist whostudies plantsplant sociologyplant sociology noun the study of com-munities of plantsplasticplastic noun an artificial, usually organic,material made from petroleum and used tomake many objects

COMMENT: Plastics are moulded by heat-ing a substance under pressure and theyretain their shape after being formed.Thermoplastics are heated while beingshaped and can be heated and shapedagain for re-use. Thermosetting plasticsare heated while being shaped but cannotbe reheated for recycling. Waste plasticscontaining chlorine can produce hydrogenchloride when incinerated. Plastics formedfrom ethylene or propylene (i.e. polyethyl-ene and polypropylene) are not degrada-ble and must be recycled or destroyed byincineration.

plastic foamplastic foam noun same as foam plasticplasticiserplasticiser, plasticizer noun a sub-stance, usually a synthetic organic chemi-cal, that is added to a material to make itmore flexibleplasticityplasticity noun variability in the growthof a plant in response to differences in thesupply of resourcesplateplate noun same as tectonic plateplateauplateau noun an area of high flat land(NOTE: The plural is plateaux.)platinumplatinum noun a rare metallic elementthat does not corrode (NOTE: The chemical

symbol is Pt; atomic number is 78 and theatomic weight is 195.09.)PleistocenePleistocene, Pleistocene epoch nounthe period in the Earth’s evolution that last-ed until about ten thousand years ago, in-cluding the main Ice Agesploughplough noun an agricultural implementused to turn over the surface of the soil inorder to cultivate crops � verb to turn overthe soil with a plough (NOTE: [all senses]The US spelling is plow.)plugplug noun a round block of igneous rockforming the central vent of an old volcanicopeningplumbismplumbism noun lead poisoning causedby taking in lead saltsplumeplume noun 1. a tall cloud of smoke or gasescaping from a factory chimney � a gasplume 2. a tall cloud of smoke or gas escap-ing from a volcano 3. a long expanse of pol-lution in ground water or an aquifer 4. acloud of powdered snow blowing from amountain crest 5. a large featherplumuleplumule noun the tiny structure in a plantembryo from which a shoot will developplutoniumplutonium noun a toxic and carcinogenicradioactive element extracted from urani-um ore (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Pu;the atomic number is 94 and the atomicweight is 244.)PMPM abbr particulate matterPNdBPNdB abbr perceived noise level in deci-belspneum-pneum- prefix same as pneumo- (NOTE:used before vowels)pneumatophorepneumatophore noun a root growingdown from a branch in plants such as man-grove growing in wet groundpneumo-pneumo- prefix air, the lungs or breathingpneumoconiosispneumoconiosis noun a lung diseasein which fibrous tissue forms in the lungsbecause the patient has inhaled particles ofstone or dust over a long periodPNLPNL abbr perceived noise levelPoPo symbol poloniumPoaceaePoaceae noun a very large family ofplants, the grasses, including bamboo andcereals such as wheat and maize. Formername Gramineaepoachpoach verb to catch animals, birds or fishillegally on someone else’s landpoacherpoacher noun a person who catches ani-mals, birds or fish illegally on someoneelse’s landpoachingpoaching noun the illegal activity catch-ing animals, birds or fish on someone else’sland


pod 166podpod noun 1. a container for several seeds,e.g. a pea pod or bean pod 2. a small groupof whales, dolphins, or sealspodsolpodsol, podzol noun a type of acid soilwhere oxides have been leached from thelight-coloured top layer into a darker lowerlayer through which water does not flowand which contains little organic matterpodsolicpodsolic, podzolic adjective referring topodsolpodsolic soilpodsolic soil noun a soil that has formeda podsol. Also called podsolised soilpodsolisationpodsolisation, podsolization noun theprocess by which a podsol formspodsolised soilpodsolised soil, podsolized soil nounsame as podsolic soilpoikilo-poikilo- prefix irregular or variedpoikilosmoticpoikilosmotic adjective referring to anaquatic animal whose body fluids changeby osmosis depending on the compositionof the surrounding waterpoikilothermpoikilotherm noun same as ectothermpointerpointer noun an indication of how some-thing will develop � a pointer to future re-search prioritiespoint outpoint out verb to make someone aware ofa piece of informationpoint sourcepoint source noun a discharge of a pol-lutant or radiant energy from a single place,e.g. a pipe, ship or installation. Comparenon-point sourcepoisonpoison noun a substance which can kill orharm a person or animal when eaten, drunk,breathed in or touched � verb to expose anorganism to a poison � They were poisonedby toxic fumes.poisoningpoisoning noun the act of killing orharming an organism with a poisonpoisonouspoisonous adjective containing poison� a poisonous gas � Some fungi are goodto eat and some are poisonous.polarpolar adjective referring to the North Poleor South Pole � polar air � a polar regionpolar ice cappolar ice cap noun a large area of thickice covering the regions around the Northor South Pole, which is slowly disappear-ing as the Earth warmspolar vortexpolar vortex noun same as circumpolarvortexpolderpolder noun a piece of low-lying landwhich has been reclaimed from the sea andis surrounded by earth banks, especially inthe Netherlandspolepole noun 1. one of two opposite points onan axis 2. the extreme north or south pointof the Earth’s axis � A meridian is a linejoining pole to pole.

policypolicy noun a plan for dealing with a situ-ation � transport policypoliticalpolitical adjective concerning politicspoliticianpolitician noun a person actively in-volved in politics, especially a member of aparliament or assemblypoliticspolitics noun the practice or study of howto govern a countrypollardpollard noun a tree of which the brancheshave been cut back to a height of about 2mabove the ground � verb to cut back thebranches on a tree every year or every fewyears to a height of about 2m above theground. Compare coppicepollenpollen noun the mass of small grains inthe anthers of flowers which contain themale gametespollen analysispollen analysis noun same as palynol-ogypollen countpollen count noun a measurement of theamount of pollen in a sample of air (NOTE:A high pollen count is bad for people whohave hay fever.)pollinatepollinate verb to transfer pollen from an-ther to stigma in a flowerpollinationpollination noun the action of pollinatinga flower (NOTE: There is no English noun‘pollinisation’.)pollinatorpollinator noun 1. an organism whichhelps pollinate a plant, e.g. a bee or bird �Some apple trees need to be planted withpollinators as they are not self-fertile. �Birds are pollinators for many types oftropical plant. 2. a plant from which pollenis transferred by bees to pollinate anotherplant, especially a fruit tree, that is not self-fertile � Some apple and pear trees need tobe planted with pollinators.pollinosispollinosis noun inflammation of thenose and eyes caused by an allergic reac-tion to pollen, fungal spores or dust in theatmosphere. Also called hay feverpollutantpollutant noun 1. a substance that causespollution 2. noise, smell or another unwant-ed occurrence that affects a person’s sur-roundings unfavourablypollutepollute verb to discharge harmful sub-stances in unusually high concentrationsinto the environment � Polluting gases re-act with the sun’s rays. � Polluted soil mustbe removed and buried.polluterpolluter noun a person or company thatcauses pollutionpolluter-pays principlepolluter-pays principle noun the prin-ciple that, if pollution occurs, the person orcompany responsible should be required topay for the consequences of the pollution


167 polytheneand for avoiding it in future. Abbr PPP. �user-pays principlepolluting agentpolluting agent noun a substance thatcauses pollutionpollutionpollution noun the presence of unusuallyhigh concentrations of harmful substancesor radioactivity in the environment, as a re-sult of human activity or a natural processsuch as a volcanic eruption, or the unwant-ed presence of noise or artificial light � Interms of pollution, gas is by far the cleanestfuel. � Pollution of the atmosphere has in-creased over the last 50 years. � Soil pol-lution round mines poses a problem forland reclamation.pollution abatementpollution abatement noun a reductionof pollutionpollution alertpollution alert noun a warning that pol-lution levels are or will be highpollution chargespollution charges plural noun the costsof repairing or stopping environmental pol-lutionpollution controlpollution control, pollution preven-tion noun the activity of taking measures tolimit the human activities that produce pol-lutionpoloniumpolonium noun a natural radioactive ele-ment (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Po;the atomic number is84 and the atomicweight is 209.)poly-poly- prefix manypolyandrypolyandry noun a breeding arrangementin which a female has several matespolybrominated biphenylpolybrominated biphenyl noun ahighly toxic aromatic compound contain-ing benzene and bromine. It is used in plas-tics, electrical equipment and fire-retardantmaterials and is either banned or very re-stricted in use in many countries. AbbrPBBpolychlorinated biphenylpolychlorinated biphenyl, polychlo-robiphenyl noun one of a group of com-pounds produced by chlorination of biphe-nyl. Abbr PCB

COMMENT: PCBs are stable compoundsand formerly were extensively used inelectrical fittings and paints. Although theyare no longer manufactured they are ex-tremely persistent and remain in largequantities in landfill sites. They are not wa-ter-soluble and float on the surface of wa-ter where they are eaten by aquatic ani-mals and so enter the food chain. PCBsare fat-soluble, and are therefore easy totake into the system, but difficult to ex-crete.

polycondensed plasticpolycondensed plastic noun a type ofplastic which can be recycled, e.g. nylonpolycrystalline siliconpolycrystalline silicon noun siliconused to manufacture photovoltaic panels

polyculturepolyculture noun the rearing or growingof more than one species of plant or animalon the same area of land at the same timepolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonnoun one of a group of chemical com-pounds which are carcinogenic. Abbr PAHpolyethylenepolyethylene noun same as polythenepolyethylene terephthalatepolyethylene terephthalate noun atype of plastic that can be recycled, used tomake artificial fibres and plastic bottles.Abbr PETpolygamypolygamy noun a breeding arrangementin which a male has several mates. Com-pare monogamypolyhalinepolyhaline adjective (of water ) contain-ing almost as much salt as sea water. Com-pare mesohaline, oligohalinepolymorphicpolymorphic adjective existing in differ-ent formspolymorphismpolymorphism noun 1. the existence ofdifferent forms during the life cycle of anorganism, as in the example of a butterfly,which exists as a caterpillar, then a pupa,before becoming a butterfly 2. the exist-ence of different forms of an organism in asocial system, as in the example of bees,which exist as workers, queens and dronespolymorphouspolymorphous adjective same as poly-morphicpolynyaspolynyas noun in a frozen sea, an area ofwater that is not frozen, created by localwater currents in northern oceanspolyppolyp noun a water animal that does notswim about, e.g. a sea anemonepolyphagouspolyphagous adjective referring to anorganism that eats more than one type offood � a polyphagous animal Comparemonophagouspolyphagypolyphagy noun the practice of eatingmore than one type of food. Comparemonophagypolypropylenepolypropylene noun a type of plasticused to make artificial fibres, bottles, pipes,and other articles, which is not degradableand must be recycled or destroyed by incin-erationpolysaprobepolysaprobe noun an organism whichcan survive in heavily polluted waterpolysaprobicpolysaprobic adjective referring to or-ganisms that can survive in heavily pollutedwaterpolystyrenepolystyrene noun a type of plastic whichcan be made into hard lightweight foam byblowing air or gas into it, used as an insu-lating and packaging materialpolythenepolythene noun a type of plastic used tomake artificial fibres, packaging, boxes andother articles. Also called polyethylene


polyvinyl chloride 168polyvinyl chloridepolyvinyl chloride noun full form ofPVCpomepome noun a fruit with a core containingthe seeds enclosed in a fleshy part that de-velops from the receptacle of a flower andnot from the ovary (NOTE: The fruit of ap-ples and pears are pomes.)pomologypomology noun the study of fruit cultiva-tionpondpond noun 1. a small area of still waterformed artificially or naturally. � dew pond2. an open storage area for liquids used inindustrial processespond lifepond life noun the community of organ-isms that live in a pondpond scumpond scum noun a layer of green fresh-water algae on the surface of stagnant waterpondweedpondweed noun a small plant that growsin a pondpoolpool noun 1. a small area of still water, es-pecially one formed naturally 2. an area ofoil or gas which collects in porous sedi-mentary rock 3. a group or combination ofthings or people. � gene poolPOPPOP abbr persistent organic pollutantpopulatepopulate verb to fill an area with organ-isms � Starlings soon populated the wholeeastern seaboard of the USA.populationpopulation noun 1. a number of peopleliving in a country or town � The govern-ment has decided to screen the whole pop-ulation of the area. � Population growth isa major threat to conservation efforts. 2. anumber of individuals of the same speciesliving and breeding in a specific area � Thefish population has been severely reduced.population age structurepopulation age structure noun thenumbers of individuals of each age in apopulationpopulation changepopulation change noun the change ina population caused by births and deathspopulation concentrationpopulation concentration noun thenumber of individuals found in one placepopulation controlpopulation control noun the process oflimiting the number of individuals living ina specific areapopulation cyclepopulation cycle noun a series of regu-lar changes in the population of a species,usually a cycle in which the populationgradually increases and then falls awayagainpopulation decreasepopulation decrease noun a reductionin the number of individuals living in a spe-cific areapopulation densitypopulation density noun the numberof individuals living in a specific area

population dispersionpopulation dispersion noun thespreading out of the members of a popula-tion over an areapopulation distributionpopulation distribution noun the pat-tern of the spread of a population across anareapopulation dynamicspopulation dynamics noun the studyof changes in the number of individuals liv-ing in a specific areapopulation ecologypopulation ecology noun the study ofthe factors determining abundance andfluctuations in the population of a speciespopulation equilibriumpopulation equilibrium noun a situa-tion in which the population stays at thesame level, because the number of deaths isthe same as the number of birthspopulation explosionpopulation explosion noun a rapid in-crease in the number of individuals in apopulationpopulation growthpopulation growth noun an increase inthe size of a populationpopulation momentumpopulation momentum noun a con-tinuation of population growth for severalgenerations after the population hasachieved the ability to replace itselfpopulation pyramidpopulation pyramid noun a graphicalrepresentation showing the distribution of apopulation according to age, sex or othercharacteristicspopulation transferpopulation transfer noun a movementof individuals from one place to anotherporepore noun 1. a tiny space in a rock forma-tion or in the soil 2. same as stomaporosityporosity noun the degree to which a sub-stance is porous � Clay has a lower poros-ity than lighter soils.porousporous adjective 1. referring to a sub-stance with many holes or spaces 2. refer-ring to rock which has many small pores init and can absorb water (NOTE: Porous rockis not necessarily permeable.) 3. referringto tissue which allows fluid to pass throughit � a porous membranepositivepositive adjective having a value of morethan 0. Symbol +. Opposite negativepost-post- prefix after or laterpostclimaxpostclimax noun a climax communitythat still exists in a place where the environ-mental conditions are no longer suitable foritpost-consumer wastepost-consumer waste noun any mate-rial that has been used by someone and thenthrown away. Abbr PCW. Compare indus-trial wastepotablepotable adjective referring to water that issuitable for drinkingpotamologypotamology noun the scientific study ofrivers


169 predationpotamoplanktonpotamoplankton plural noun planktonthat live in riverspotamouspotamous adjective referring to animalsthat live in riverspotashpotash noun any potassium salt (NOTE:Potash salts are crude minerals and con-tain much sodium chloride.)potash fertiliserpotash fertiliser noun a fertiliser basedon potassium, e.g. potassium sulfatepotassiumpotassium noun a soft metallic element,essential to biological life (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is K; the atomic number is19 and the atomic weight is 39.10.)potentpotent adjective having a strong effect �a potent drugpotential evapotranspiration ratepotential evapotranspiration ratenoun the amount of water transpired from asite assuming that there is no soil water lim-itation and complete vegetation coverpotentially renewable resourcespotentially renewable resourcesplural noun resources that could be re-placed by natural environmental processesif they are depletedpotentiatepotentiate verb (of two substances) toincrease each other’s toxic effectspotentiationpotentiation noun the degree of proba-ble increased damage caused by the com-bined action of toxic substances comparedwith their individual effectspotting compostpotting compost noun a mixture usual-ly of soil and fibrous matter used to fill con-tainers in which plants are grown (NOTE:Peat has often been used in such com-posts, but alternatives such as coir fibrefrom coconut husks are being introduced inan attempt to conserve peat bogs.)powderpowder noun a substance made of groundor otherwise finely dispersed solid particles� Dry chemical fire-extinguishers containa non-toxic powder.powderedpowdered adjective crushed to a fine drydustpowderypowdery adjective having the texture orappearance of powder � The fungus formsas a powdery layer on leaves.powerpower noun the energy, especially elec-tricity, which makes a machine or deviceoperatepower cablepower cable noun a wire carried acrossthe countryside on pylons along whichelectric current travels from the power sta-tion where it was generated. Also calledpower line-powered-powered suffix operated by a particulartype of energy � a wind-powered pumppower failurepower failure noun a loss of electricalpower supply

power generationpower generation noun the productionof electricity from various energy sourcespower linepower line noun same as power cablepower stationpower station, power plant noun abuilding with machines that make electric-itypower surgepower surge noun a sudden increase inthe flow of electricityppbppb abbr parts per billionppmppm abbr parts per millionPPPPPP abbr polluter-pays principleprairieprairie noun a large area of grass-coveredplains in North America, mainly withouttrees (NOTE: The prairies of the UnitedStates and Canada are responsible formost of North America’s wheat production.In Europe and Asia, the equivalent term issteppe.)pre-pre- prefix before or in front ofprecautionary approachprecautionary approach, precau-tionary principle noun a decision-makingpolicy to take action to prevent possible en-vironmental damage even before there isscientific evidence that damage will cer-tainly occurprecessionprecession noun the tendency of theEarth’s axis to wobble in space over a peri-od of 23000 years (NOTE: The Earth’s pre-cession is one of the factors that results inthe planet receiving different amounts ofsolar energy over long periods.)precipitantprecipitant noun a substance added to asolution to make solid dissolved particlesseparate from itprecipitateprecipitate noun the mass of solid parti-cles that separate from a solution during achemical reaction � verb to make solid dis-solved particles separate from a solutionprecipitationprecipitation noun 1. water which fallsfrom clouds as rain, snow or hail � Annualprecipitation is high in the mountain areas.2. the action of forming solid particles in asolutionprecipitation scavengingprecipitation scavenging noun theremoval of particles of polluting substancesfrom the air in the form of acid rainpreciseprecise adjective exact or accurateprecisionprecision noun 1. exactness or accuracy2. the accuracy to which a calculation isperformed, indicated as a specific numberof significant figuresprecursorprecursor noun a substance or cell fromwhich another substance or cell is devel-oped � The biggest share of ozone precur-sors comes from emissions from vehicles.predationpredation noun the killing and eating ofother animals


predator 170predatorpredator noun an animal that kills andeats other animals � The larvae are preda-tors of aphids. Opposite preypredatorypredatory adjective referring to a preda-tor � predatory animals such as lions andtigerspredictive agriculturepredictive agriculture noun same asintensive agriculturepredominancepredominance noun the condition ofbeing more powerful than otherspredominantpredominant adjective 1. more powerfulthan others � The predominant airstream isfrom the west. 2. most common � The pre-dominant hair colour in this population isblack.predominatepredominate verb 1. to be more power-ful than others 2. to be more common thanothers � A cold northerly airstream pre-dominates during the winter.preferendumpreferendum noun the area where a spe-cies flourishes bestpreservationpreservation noun the process of pro-tecting something from damage or decay �the preservation of herbarium specimens �Food preservation allows some types ofperishable food to be eaten during the win-ter when fresh food is not available.preservationistpreservationist noun a person who isconcerned to preserve things of natural orhistorical interest for future generationspreservation orderpreservation order noun an order froma local government department that stops abuilding from being demolished or a treefrom being cut downpreservativepreservative noun a substance added tofood to preserve it by slowing natural decaycaused by microorganisms (NOTE: In theEU, preservatives are given E numbersE200 – E297.)preservepreserve noun US same as reserve 2 �verb to protect something from damage ordecaypressurepressure noun 1. the physical action ofsqueezing or forcing 2. the force of some-thing on its surroundings � populationpressure � pressure of numbers too manyof something � The park is suffering frompressure of numbers – it’s too popular withvisitors. 3. strong influence to make some-one take or change an actionpressure grouppressure group noun a group that triesto influence governments and public opin-ion on a specific issue � The environmentalassociation set up a pressure group to lob-by parliament.pressurisepressurise, pressurize verb to increasethe atmospheric pressure in a container

pressurised fluidised-bed combustionpressurised fluidised-bed com-bustion noun an economic method ofburning low-grade coal in a furnace inwhich air is blown upwards through theburning fuel. Abbr PFBCpressurised water reactorpressurised water reactor noun atype of nuclear reactor in which water isheated to steam under high pressure to turnturbines to generate electricity. Abbr PWRprevailing windprevailing wind noun the wind directionthat is most frequent in a specific place �The prevailing wind is from the south.prevalenceprevalence noun frequency of occur-rence � the prevalence of malaria in sometropical countries � the prevalence of cas-es of malnutrition in large townsprevalentprevalent adjective occurring frequently� a fungus which is more prevalent in de-ciduous forests � The disease is prevalentin some African countries.preventprevent verb to stop something happen-ingpreventionprevention noun an act or process ofstopping something from happeningpreyprey noun an animal which is killed andeaten by another � Small mammals are theprey of owls. Opposite predator � verbprey on to kill and eat another animal �Water snakes prey on frogs and small fish.primaryprimary adjective 1. first, basic or mostimportant 2. being first or before somethingelse. � secondary, tertiaryprimary commodityprimary commodity noun a basic rawmaterial or foodprimary consumerprimary consumer noun an animal thateats plants, which are producers in the foodchain. � secondary consumerprimary forestprimary forest noun a forest which orig-inally covered a region before changes inthe environment brought about by humanactivityprimary hostprimary host noun a host which a para-site settles on finallyprimary particulatesprimary particulates plural noun parti-cles of matter sent into the air from fires, in-dustrial processes, vehicle emissions, espe-cially diesel, volcanic eruptions, sand-storms and similar phenomenaprimary producerprimary producer noun an organismwhich takes energy from outside an ecosys-tem and channels it into the system, e.g. agreen plant (NOTE: Primary producers arethe first level in the food chain and are eat-en by herbivores, which are secondary pro-ducers.)primary productprimary product noun a product whichis a basic raw material, e.g. wood, milk orfish


171 productiveprimary productionprimary production noun the amountof organic matter formed by photosynthesisprimary productivityprimary productivity noun 1. the rateat which plants produce organic matterthrough photosynthesis 2. the amount of or-ganic matter produced in a specific areaover a specific period, e.g. the yield of acrop during a growing seasonprimary sereprimary sere noun the first plant com-munity that develops on ground such ascooled lava from a volcano where no plantshave grown beforeprimary successionprimary succession noun an ecologi-cal community that develops in a placewhere nothing has lived beforeprimary treatmentprimary treatment noun the first stagein a treatment. In primary treatment of sew-age, suspended solids are removed.primateprimate noun a mammal such as a mon-key, ape or human beingprime meridianprime meridian noun a line of longitudesituated at 0° and passing through Green-wich, Englandprimitiveprimitive adjective 1. referring to veryearly or prehistoric times 2. referring to anearly stage in an organism’s developmentprimitive areaprimitive area noun an area of undevel-oped land such as a forest that is protectedas a national park or reserveprimordialprimordial adjective in a very early stageof developmentprincipalprincipal adjective most importantpriority effectpriority effect noun a situation wherethe individual that arrives at a site first hasthe best chance of establishing itselfpriority habitatpriority habitat noun a habitat that ur-gently needs to be protected because of itsrarity or functional importancepriority speciespriority species noun a species that isreducing in numbers and urgently needs tobe protectedprisereprisere noun the succession of plantsfrom bare earth to climax vegetationprobabilityprobability noun a statistical assessmentof how likely something is � It is importantto identify the most significant threats to thepopulation and what actions might be takento reduce the probability of extinction.probability refugeprobability refuge noun a situationwhere the number of competing species inan environment is limited by the bad stateof the environmentprobeprobe noun a device inserted into some-thing to investigate the inside or to obtaininformation � verb to investigate the insideof somethingprocessprocess noun a series of actions orchanges that achieve a particular result �

the cooling process � verb 1. to deal withsomething in a particular way � The coresamples are being processed by the labora-tory. 2. to produce something by treating araw material in a factory 3. to make a sub-stance undergo a chemical reaction 4. to ex-amine or to test samplesprocess chemicalprocess chemical noun a chemical thatis manufactured by an industrial processprocess chlorine-freeprocess chlorine-free, processedchlorine-free adjective referring to paperthat has been made or recycled without theuse of chlorine to bleach it. Abbr PCFprocessingprocessing noun the activity of treatinga raw material in a factory to make it intosomething differentproduceproduce verb to make something � a fac-tory producing agricultural machinery � adrug which increases the amount of milkproduced by cows � noun what is produced� a stall selling fruit and other farm pro-duceproducerproducer noun 1. a person or companythat produces something 2. an organismthat takes energy from outside an ecosys-tem and channels it into the system, e.g. agreen plants (primary producers) and her-bivores (secondary producers). Compareconsumer (NOTE: Producers are the firstlevel in the food chain.)producer gasproducer gas noun same as air gasproducer responsibilityproducer responsibility noun theduty of manufacturers or producers to beresponsible for their products when theseeventually become waste, e.g. by takingthem back from consumersproductproduct noun 1. something that is pro-duced by manufacture or in a chemical re-action 2. the result or effect of a processproductionproduction noun 1. the act of manufac-turing or producing something 2. theamount of heat or energy produced by thebiomass in an areaproduction ecologyproduction ecology noun the study ofgroups of organisms from the point of viewof the food which they produceproduction efficiencyproduction efficiency noun theamount of energy which is taken into thebiomass after consumption. Abbr PEproduction residueproduction residue noun the waste leftafter a production processproductiveproductive adjective 1. producing a lotof something that can be used or sold �highly efficient and productive forms �making productive use of waste ground 2.giving a good outcome � a productive col-laboration


productive agriculture 172productive agricultureproductive agriculture noun same asintensive agricultureproductivityproductivity noun the rate at whichsomething is produced � With new strainsof rice, productivity per hectare can be in-creased.product of incomplete combustionproduct of incomplete combustionnoun a compound formed when combus-tion does not destroy all the material beingincinerated. Abbr PICprofessionprofession noun all the chemical, physi-cal and biological characters that determinethe position of an organism or species in anecosystem (NOTE: Examples are ‘aquaticpredator’ or ‘terrestrial herbivore’.)profundal zoneprofundal zone noun an area of water ina lake below the limnetic zoneprogrammeprogramme noun a planned course ofaction � a research programme � verb 1. toanalyse or plan something � The review isprogrammed to take place next month. 2. tomake an organism behave in a particularway � Some plants are naturally pro-grammed to respond to day length.prohibitprohibit verb 1. to say that somethingshould not be done � prohibit the gatheringof bulbs from the wild for sale � Smoking isprohibited in this area. 2. to prevent some-thing from happening � The persistence ofDDT prohibits its general use for malariacontrol.projectproject noun a plan or scheme of work �a land reclamation project � verb 1. tostick out � The groynes project into the sea.2. to estimate something in the future fromcurrent information � Research costs areprojected to rise sharply.projectileprojectile adjective 1. moving forwardswith force 2. able to push suddenly for-ward, as are the jaws of some fish or themouthparts of a dragonfly larvaprojectionprojection noun 1. a part that sticks out2. an estimate or assessment of somethingthat will happen in the future 3. a techniquefor making a mapprokaryoteprokaryote noun a simple organism suchas a bacterium whose DNA is not containedwithin a nucleus. Compare eukaryoteprokaryoticprokaryotic adjective referring toprokaryotes. Compare eukaryoticprolongedprolonged adjective lasting for a longtime � prolonged droughtpromontorypromontory noun an area of high landwhich projects into the seapromotepromote verb to encourage or enablesomething to take place � Growth-promot-ing hormones are used to increase theweight of beef cattle.

promoterpromoter noun a substance that increasesthe activity of a catalystpromotionpromotion noun the activity of encour-aging or enabling something to take place� the promotion of recycling schemespropagatepropagate verb 1. to reproduce 2. to pro-duce new plants by a technique such as tak-ing cuttings, grafting, budding or layering� fuschias propagated from cuttingspropagationpropagation noun the production of newplants � propagation by runners � vegeta-tive propagationpropagatorpropagator noun a closed but transpar-ent container in which seed can be sown orcuttings grown in a moist, warm atmos-pherepropellantpropellant noun 1. a gas used in an aero-sol can to make the spray come out 2. a sub-stance used to make something move for-wards, e.g. rocket fuelpropenepropene noun same as propylenepropertyproperty noun 1. something which be-longs to someone � The institute is theproperty of a large corporation. � Inven-tions are regarded as intellectual property.2. land and buildingsprophylacticprophylactic adjective referring to anactivity that helps to prevent the develop-ment of disease or infectionprophylaxisprophylaxis noun the practice of takingof measures to prevent disease or infectionproportionality principleproportionality principle noun theconcept that control measures or responseto a situation should generally be propor-tional to the risk identifiedpropylenepropylene noun a substance obtainedfrom petroleum, used in the manufacture ofplastics and chemicals. Formula: C3H6.Also called propeneprotectprotect verb to stop something beingdamaged or harmedprotectedprotected adjective referring to a speciesthat has been legally identified as in dangerof extinction, or an area of sea or land thathas special value for the maintenance of bi-ological diversity and natural resourcesprotectionprotection noun the act or an instance ofkeeping something from harm, injury ordamageprotectiveprotective adjective intended or able tokeep something else from harm, injury ordamageproteinprotein noun a nitrogen compoundformed by the condensation of amino acidsthat is present in and is an essential part ofliving cellsprotestprotest noun an act of showing disagree-ment � There was a protest against cutting


173 putrefydown the trees. � verb � to protest againstsomething to show you disagree withsomething � Crowds protested against thekilling of seals.proto-proto- prefix firstprotocolprotocol noun an addition to an interna-tional legal measure � the Montreal proto-col on CFCsprotozoanprotozoan adjective referring to organ-isms in the Protozoa � noun a single-celledorganism that is able to move and feeds onorganic nitrogen and carbon compounds,e.g. an amoeba (NOTE: Protozoans are nowregarded as part of the kingdom Protoctis-ta.)provinceprovince noun a biogeographical areawithin a region that is defined by the plantsand animals that inhabit itproximalproximal adjective nearer to the centre orpoint of attachment. Compare distalpseudo-pseudo- prefix similar to something, butnot the samepseudokarstpseudokarst noun a terrain like karst,but not in limestone country and not due toweatheringPtPt symbol platinumpteridophytepteridophyte noun a plant that does notproduce flowers or seeds and reproduces bymeans of spores, e.g. ferns or some mosses.Division: Pteridophyta.PuPu symbol plutoniumpublicpublic adjective concerning or availableto all people in generalpublic amenitiespublic amenities plural noun facilitiesthat make the surroundings more pleasantand are open to the general publicpublic amenity pointpublic amenity point noun a placewhere people can take their householdwaste for recycling or safe disposalpublic domainpublic domain noun the condition of notbeing protected by copyright and availableto all people in general � The informationis now in the public domain.public enquirypublic enquiry noun 1. a set of officialmeetings that members of the public mayattend to investigate why something hap-pened or whether something should happenin future � They called for a public enquiryon the road plans. 2. a request for informa-tion to an organisation made by a memberof the publicPublic Health InspectorPublic Health Inspector noun an offi-cial of a local authority who examines theenvironment and tests for air pollution, badsanitation or noise pollutionpublic transportpublic transport noun a system of bus-es, trains, aircraft, trams or boats whicheveryone may use for travel

public utilitypublic utility noun an essential servicewhich is available to all people in general,e.g. electricity, gas, water, telephone, rail-waypuddingstonepuddingstone noun a type of stonewhich is formed from other stones fused to-getherpulppulp noun 1. the soft inside of a fruit orvegetable 2. a thick soft substance made bycrushing � wood pulppulsepulse noun 1. a short burst of current orvoltage 2. a pressure wave that can be feltin an artery each time the heart beats topump blood 3. any regular recurring varia-tion in quantity 4. a leguminous plant thatproduces seeds eaten as food, e.g. a bean orpea � Pulses provide a large amount ofprotein.pulverisepulverise, pulverize verb to reducesomething to small particlespulverised fuel ashpulverised fuel ash noun fine ash fromfurnaces used to make construction blocks.Abbr PFApumicepumice, pumice stone noun a lightglass-like substance formed from foam atthe edge of a lava flowpumppump noun a machine which forces liquidor air into or out of something � a waterpump � a bicycle pump � verb to force liq-uid or air into or out of somethingpupapupa noun a stage in the development ofsome insects such as butterflies when thelarva becomes encased in a hard shell(NOTE: The plural is pupae.)pupalpupal adjective referring to a pupapupatepupate verb (of an insect) to move fromthe larval to the pupal stagepurepure adjective uncontaminated or un-mixed � Magnesium does not possess suf-ficient strength in its pure state for structur-al uses.purebredpurebred adjective referring to an animalwhich is the offspring of parents which arethemselves the offspring of parents of thesame breedpure strainpure strain noun a group of plants bredby self-fertilisation whose characteristicsremain always the samepurificationpurification noun the action of makingsomething pure or of removing impurities� Activated sludge speeds up the process ofpurification.purifypurify verb to make something pure or re-move impurities from somethingpuritypurity noun the state of being pureputrefactionputrefaction noun the decomposition ofdead organic substances by bacteriaputrefyputrefy verb to decompose or rot


putrescibility 174putrescibilityputrescibility noun the ability of wastematter to decompose or rotputrescibleputrescible adjective referring to wastematter that can decompose or rotPVCPVC noun a type of plastic that is not bio-degradable, used for floor coverings,clothes, shoes, pipes, etc. Full form polyvi-nylchloridePWRPWR abbr pressurised water reactorpylonpylon noun a tall metal construction forcarrying high-tension electric cables from apower stationpyr-pyr- prefix same as pyro- (NOTE: used be-fore vowels)pyramid of biomasspyramid of biomass noun a graphicalrepresentation of the different amounts ofbiomass at each trophic level, with thehighest biomass at producer level and thelowest at secondary consumer level. Alsocalled pyramid (NOTE: The biomass ateach level is about 10% of that of the levelbeneath.)

pyramid of energy

pyramid of energy noun a graphicalrepresentation of the amounts of energyconsumed at each trophic levelpyramid of numbers

pyramid of numbers noun a graphicalrepresentation of the structure of an ecosys-tem in terms of what eats what (NOTE: Thebase is composed of producer organisms,usually plants, then herbivores, then carni-vores.)pyrethrum

pyrethrum noun an organic pesticide,developed from a form of chrysanthemum,which is not very toxic and is not persistentpyrite

pyrite, pyrites noun a gold-coloured formof iron sulfide. Formula: Fe2S.pyro-

pyro- prefix burningpyroclastic flow

pyroclastic flow noun the flow of lavafrom a volcanopyrolysis

pyrolysis noun the decomposition orconversion of one substance into another byheat

Qquadrantquadrant noun a device for measuringthe height of stars, formerly used in calcu-lating direction at seaquadrantalquadrantal adjective referring to a quar-ter of a circlequadratquadrat noun an area of land measuringone square metre, chosen as a sample forresearch on plant populations � The vege-tation of the area was sampled using quad-rats.quakequake noun same as earthquake(informal)qualitativequalitative adjective referring to qualityqualityquality noun how good or bad somethingis � quality of life the set of characteristicsthat determine the type of life that peoplelive or hope to live � The aim of the ban onemitting polluting gases is to improve thequality of life in the surrounding regions. �Trees in urban areas improve the quality oflife for people living there. � adjective of ahigh standard � a quality product � qualityfarm produce farm produce of the bestqualityquality assurancequality assurance noun the system ofprocedures used in checking that the quali-ty of a product is good

quangoquango noun a group set up by a govern-ment to investigate or deal with a specificproblem. Full form quasi-autonomousnon-governmental organisation. � non-departmental public bodyquantifiablequantifiable adjective able to be shownin figures � The effect of the change in thewaste disposal systems is not easily quanti-fiable.quantifyquantify verb to state something as aquantity or in figures � to quantify the ef-fect of the new legislation on pollution lev-els � The environmental benefits are diffi-cult to quantify.quantitativequantitative adjective referring to quan-tityquantityquantity noun an amount or number ofitems � He bought a large quantity of spareparts. � to carry out a quantity survey toestimate the amount of materials and thecost of the labour required for a construc-tion projectquarantinequarantine noun the period when an an-imal, person, plant or ship just arrived in acountry is kept separate in case it carries aserious disease, to allow the disease time todevelop and so be detected


175 radioactive wastequarryquarry noun a place where rock is re-moved from the ground for commercialpurposes � verb to remove rock from theground for commercial purposesquartilequartile noun one of three figures belowwhich 25%, 50% and 75% of a total fallsquartzquartz noun a mineral form of silica, of-ten found as crystals in igneous rocks(NOTE: Pure quartz is known as rock crys-tal.)quasi-quasi- prefix almost � a quasi-officialbodyquaternaryquaternary adjective consisting of fourparts

Quaternary periodQuaternary period noun the geologicalperiod which is still currently in existencequicklimequicklime noun a calcium compoundmade from burnt limestone (NOTE: It is usedin the composition of cement and in manyindustrial processes.)quicksilverquicksilver noun same as mercuryquiescentquiescent adjective 1. referring to a vol-cano that is not active 2. referring to a seedthat is not germinating because the condi-tions for germination are unsatisfactoryquotaquota noun a fixed amount of somethingwhich is allowed � A quota has been im-posed on the fishing of herring.

RRaRa symbol radiumracerace noun a group of individuals within aspecies that are distinct, especially physio-logically or ecologically, from other mem-bers of the species � the human race allpeopleracemeraceme noun an inflorescence in whichflowers are borne on individual stalks on amain flower stem with the youngest flow-ers at the top of the main stalkrachisrachis noun the main stem that supportsan inflorescence or a compound leafradrad noun a former unit of measurement ofabsorbed radiation dose. � gray, becquerel(NOTE: The gray is now used for 100 rad.)radarradar noun a method of detecting distantobjects and establishing their position, ve-locity or other characteristics by analysis ofradio waves reflected from their surfaces.Full form radio detection and rangingradiantradiant adjective sent out in the form ofraysradiateradiate verb 1. to spread out in all direc-tions from a central point 2. to send out rays� Heat radiates from the body. � Beta raysare radiated from a radioactive isotope.radiationradiation noun 1. the process or state ofspreading out in all directions from a cen-tral point 2. the waves of energy which aregiven off when heat is transferred 3. thewaves of energy which are given off by aradioactive substanceradiation ionisationradiation ionisation noun same as ion-ising radiation

radiation pollutionradiation pollution noun the contami-nation of the environment by radiationfrom a radioactive agentradiation sicknessradiation sickness noun an illnesscaused by exposure to a radioactive agentradiation zoneradiation zone noun an area that is con-taminated by radiation and which peopleare not allowed to enterradiative forcingradiative forcing noun a change in bal-ance between incoming solar radiation andoutgoing infrared radiationradicleradicle noun the tiny structure in a plantembryo from which the root will developradio-radio- prefix 1. radiation 2. radioactivesubstancesradioactiveradioactive adjective referring to a sub-stance whose nucleus disintegrates andgives off energy in the form of radiationthat can pass through other substances

COMMENT: The most common naturally ra-dioactive substances are radium and ura-nium. Other substances can be made radi-oactive for industrial or medical purposesby making their nuclei unstable, so formingradioactive isotopes. Radioactive wastesare classified as low-level, i.e. not consid-ered to be very dangerous, intermediateand high-level, i.e. emitting dangerous lev-els of radiation.

radioactive isotoperadioactive isotope noun a natural orartificial isotope which gives off radiationradioactive wasteradioactive waste noun used radioac-tive materials produced by nuclear powerstations, industrial plants, hospitals andother installations


radioactive waste conditioning 176radioactive waste conditioningradioactive waste conditioningnoun the processing of radioactive waste touse it again or to make it safe for disposalradioactive waste isolationradioactive waste isolation nounkeeping radioactive waste separate so that itdoes not contaminate other thingsradioactivityradioactivity noun the energy in theform of radiation emitted by a radioactivesubstanceradiobiologistradiobiologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in radiobiologyradiobiologyradiobiology noun the scientific study ofradiation and its effects on living thingsradiocarbonradiocarbon noun a radioactive isotopeof carbon with an atomic number of 14radiodermatitisradiodermatitis noun an inflammationof the skin caused by exposure to a radioac-tive agentradio detection and rangingradio detection and ranging nounfull form of radarradiogenic heatradiogenic heat noun the heat generat-ed by the decay of a radioactive substanceradiumradium noun a naturally radioactive me-tallic element (NOTE: The chemical symbolis Ra; atomic number is 88 and the atomicweight is 226.)radonradon noun an inert naturally radioactivegas formed by the radioactive decay of ra-dium that occurs naturally in soil, in con-struction materials and ground water. It canseep into houses and cause radiation sick-ness. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Rn;the atomic number is 86 and the atomicweight is 222.)rainrain noun 1. water that falls from clouds assmall drops (NOTE: Rain is normally slightlyacid, about pH 5.6, but becomes more acidwhen pollutants from burning fossil fuelsare released into the atmosphere.) 2. a pe-riod of wet weather � plural noun rains insome countries, repeated heavy falls of rainduring a season of the yearrainbowrainbow noun a natural phenomenon thatoccurs when light strikes water droplets,especially when sunlight hits rain or sprayfrom a waterfall, creating a semicircle ofrings of each of the colours of the spectrumraincloudraincloud noun a cloud that carries mois-ture in droplet form which can fall as rainraindropraindrop noun a drop of water that fallsfrom a cloudrainfallrainfall noun the amount of water thatfalls as rain on an area over a period of time� an area of high/low rainfallrainforestrainforest noun a thick tropical forestwhich grows in regions where the rainfall isvery high

rainmakingrainmaking noun the attempt to createrain by releasing crystals of salt, carbon di-oxide and other substances into cloudsrainoutrainout noun a process whereby particlesin the atmosphere act as centres roundwhich water can form drops which then fallas rain. Compare washoutrainstormrainstorm noun a period of heavy rainaccompanied by windrainwashrainwash noun the erosion of soil by rainrainwaterrainwater noun the water which falls asrain from cloudsrainy seasonrainy season noun the period in somecountries when a lot of rain falls. Alsocalled wet season. Compare dry seasonraiseraise verb 1. to make something higher 2.to make plants germinate and nurture themas seedlings � The plants are raised fromseed. 3. to breed and keep livestockrametramet noun a single cloned organism suchas one produced by tissue cultureram pumpram pump noun a water pumping devicethat is powered by falling waterRamsar siteRamsar site noun a site designated bythe Ramsar convention on the conservationof wetland habitats and speciesranchingranching noun the raising of cattle onlarge grassland farmsrangerange noun 1. a series of different butsimilar things � a range of books on biolo-gy 2. the difference between the lowest andhighest values in a series of data � The tem-perature range is over 50°C. 3. an areawithin two or more points � The geograph-ical range of the plant is from the ArcticCircle to southern Europe. 4. a large area ofgrass-covered farmland used for raisingcattle or sheep 5. a group of mountains �verb 1. to vary between limits � The tem-perature ranges from 13°C to 18°C in thatmonth. 2. to include many things � The lec-ture ranged over the whole area of medicaland agricultural genetic modification. 3. tomove over a wide arearangerranger noun a person in charge of themanagement and protection of a forest,park or reserveraperape, rapeseed noun same as oilseedraperapidrapid adjective acting, moving or chang-ing quicklyraptorraptor noun a bird of preyraptorialraptorial adjective referring to raptorsrarerare adjective 1. not common 2. (of a spe-cies) existing only in small local popula-tions 3. (of air ) not containing much oxy-gen, especially at high altitudesrare gasrare gas noun same as noble gas


177 recessivenessrarityrarity noun the state of being rareraterate noun 1. an amount or proportion ofsomething compared to something else 2.the number of times something happensrate of natural increaserate of natural increase noun the dif-ference between the crude birth rate and thedeath raterate of population growthrate of population growth noun theincrease in population in a specific area di-vided by the initial populationratingrating noun a classification according to ascaleratioratio noun a relationship between twoquantities expressed as the quotient of onedivided by the other � The air/fuel ratio is15:1. � Chart scale is the ratio of the chartdistance to Earth distance. (NOTE: The ratioof 7 to 4 is written 7:4 or 7/4.)rationration noun an amount of food given to ananimal or personrawraw adjective 1. (of food) uncooked 2. (of asubstance) unprocessed or unrefined 3. (ofsewage, water or waste) untreated 4. (ofdata) not yet subjected to analysisraw materialraw material noun a substance which isused to manufacture something, e.g. ore formaking metals or wood for making furni-turerayray noun 1. a line of light, radiation or heat2. an arm of a starfish 3. a distinct radialband of tissue in the stem of a plant 4. sameas ray floretray floretray floret noun a long thin part amongthose around a flower head of a plant be-longing to the Compositae such as a daisyor sunflower. Compare disc floretRBERBE abbr relative biological effectivenessRDARDA noun Recommended Daily AmountRDFRDF abbr refuse-derived fuelRDZRDZ abbr resource depletion zoneREACHREACH abbr Registration, Evaluation,Authorisation and Restrictions of Chemi-calsreactreact verb 1. to act in response to an action2. to change chemical composition on con-tact with a substance � Ozone is producedas a result of oxides reacting with sunlight.� to react with something to change be-cause of the presence of another substance� ozone is produced as a result of oxidesreacting with sunlightreactionreaction noun 1. an action that takesplace because of something that happenedearlier 2. an effect produced by a stimulus3. a chemical change that occurs when twosubstances come into contact and causeeach other to change

reactivereactive adjective referring to a chemicalthat reacts easily with other substancesreactivityreactivity noun the degree to which asubstance reactsreadingreading noun a piece of information indi-cated by an instrument or gaugereafforestreafforest verb to plant trees again in anarea which was formerly covered by forestreafforestationreafforestation noun the planting oftrees in an area which was formerly cov-ered by forestreagentreagent noun a chemical substance whichreacts with another substance, especiallyone used in an experiment, test or processrealised nicherealised niche noun the portion of a fun-damental niche that is actually occupied bya species, resulting from the sharing of re-sources in an ecosystemreal timereal time noun � in real time happeningat the same time as something else, withouta time delay � The scan allowed us towatch the baby moving in real time.real-timereal-time adjective referring to somethingthat happens at the same time as somethingelse, such as the processing of data as soonas they are receivedrearrear verb to look after young animals untilthey are old enough to look after them-selvesreceiving watersreceiving waters plural noun rivers,lakes, oceans, streams or other bodies ofwater into which waste water or treated ef-fluent is dischargedreceptaclereceptacle noun 1. the top part of a flow-er stalk that supports the flower (NOTE: Insome plants such as strawberry it developsinto the fruit.) 2. the plant part that carriesthe reproductive organs in lower plantssuch as mosses and liverwortsreceptorreceptor noun 1. a nerve ending whichsenses a change such as cold or heat in thesurrounding environment or in the bodyand reacts to it by sending an impulse to thecentral nervous system 2. a site on a cellsurface to which a specific molecule suchas an antigen binds 3. someone or some-thing adversely affected by a pollutant �The ground water is the receptor in thiscase of land contamination.recessiverecessive adjective (of a gene or geneti-cally controlled characteristic) suppressedby the presence of a corresponding domi-nant gene. Compare dominantrecessivenessrecessiveness noun the characteristicof a gene that leads to its not being ex-pressed in the individual carrying it when acorresponding dominant gene is present.Compare dominance


recharge 178rechargerecharge verb 1. to restore the electriccharge of a battery 2. to replace or renewsomethingrechargeable batteryrechargeable battery noun a type ofbattery that uses a reversible chemical reac-tion to produce electricity, allowing it to berecharged and used again � A rechargeablebattery is used for backup when the systemis switched off.recharge arearecharge area noun an area of landwhere there is a net transfer of water eachyear from the surface to ground waterrecharge wellrecharge well noun a well throughwhich surface water is introduced to an un-derground aquiferreclaimreclaim verb 1. to make available for ag-ricultural or commercial purposes marshyland, a waste site, land which has previous-ly been built on or used for industry, or landwhich has never been cultivated � to re-claim land from the sea 2. to recover usefulmaterials from wastereclamationreclamation noun 1. the act of reclaim-ing land � land reclamation schemes in ur-ban centres 2. land which has been re-claimed 3. the recovery of useful materialsfrom wasterecognitionrecognition noun 1. the ability to recog-nise someone or something 2. respect or of-ficial acceptance � in recognition of or foras a mark of respect for � He was awardedthe Nobel prize in recognition of his workon the human genome.recombinationrecombination noun any process thatresults in offspring that have combinationsof genes different from those of either par-ent, e.g. the crossing-over and independentassortment of chromosomes during gameteformationrecommendrecommend verb to suggest that some-thing should be done � The report recom-mended excluding deer from the woodlandin order to protect the young growth ofplants.recommendationrecommendation noun a strong sug-gestion that something should be done �The council accepted the committee’s rec-ommendations about disposal of waste.reconstitutereconstitute verb to put something backinto its original state � The mining compa-ny should reconstitute the site after theopen-cast mining operation has closeddown.recordrecord noun a written account of facts andinformation for future reference � verb towrite down information or data � Recordthe results in this column. � Measure the

angles and distances and record them in alog.recoverrecover verb 1. to return to a more usualcondition � The fish populations may neverrecover from overfishing. 2. to obtain met-als or other useful materials from waste byseparating and purifying itrecoveryrecovery noun 1. a return to a more usualcondition � The area has been overfishedto such an extent that the recovery of thefish population is impossible. 2. the processof obtaining metals or other useful materi-als from wasterecrystallisationrecrystallisation noun the purificationof a substance by repeatedly forming crys-tals from a solutionrectificationrectification noun the purification of aliquid by distillationrectifyrectify verb to purify a liquid by a repeat-ed processrecyclablerecyclable adjective referring to wastethat can be processed so that it can be usedagainrecyclerecycle verb to process waste so that itcan be used again � The glass industry re-cycles tonnes of waste glass each year.recycledrecycled adjective made from waste � re-cycled aluminiumrecycled paperrecycled paper noun paper made fromwaste paperrecyclingrecycling noun the activity of processingwaste so that it can be used again

‘Waste production in the UK continues to rise at3% per year – faster than GDP growth. Defra’starget is to enable 25% of household waste to berecycled or composted by 2005/6. (Deliveringthe evidence. Defra’s Science and InnovationStrategy 2003–06).’

redred adjective referring to a colour like thecolour of bloodRed Data BookRed Data Book noun a catalogue for-merly published by the IUCN, listing spe-cies which are rare or in danger of becom-ing extinct. The information is now availa-ble in a searchable database. � Red listredevelopredevelop verb to demolish the buildingson an area of land and build new ones �The company has put forward a plan to re-develop the area around the railway sta-tion.redevelopmentredevelopment noun the act of redevel-oping an area of land � The council’s plan-ning committee has approved the redevel-opment plan for the town centre.redistribution of landredistribution of land noun the prac-tice of taking land from large landownersand splitting it into smaller plots for manypeople to own


179 refuse-derived fuelred leadred lead noun a poisonous red oxide oflead, used as a colouring in paints. Formu-la: Pb3O4.Red listRed list noun 1. a searchable databasemaintained by IUCN that records the con-servation status of different organisms inthroughout the world. Full form IUCN RedList of Threatened Species. � IUCN 2. alist recording the conservation status of aparticular type of organism in a specific ge-ographical area � the Red list of the epi-phytic lichens of Switzerlandredoxredox noun same as oxidation–reduc-tionredox potentialredox potential noun 1. a measure ofthe ability of the natural environment tobring about an oxidation or a reductionprocess 2. the cell potential required rela-tive to a standard hydrogen electrode tocause oxidation at an anode and reductionat a cathode � abbr rHreducereduce verb 1. to make something less,smaller or lower, or to become less, smalleror lower. Opposite increase 2. to add elec-trons or hydrogen to a substancereducerreducer noun an organism that breaksdown dead organic matter, e.g. an earth-worm, fungus or bacteriumreducing atmospherereducing atmosphere noun an atmos-phere that does not contain free oxygen gasand in which compounds combine chemi-cally with hydrogenreductionreduction noun 1. the process of makingsomething less, smaller or lower, or of be-coming less, smaller or lower � The key tocontrolling acid rain must be the reductionof emissions from fossil-fuelled power sta-tions. Opposite increase 2. the addition ofelectrons or hydrogen to a substanceredundancyredundancy noun the situation of notbeing needed because other similar thingsexistredundantredundant adjective no longer useful �recycling redundant containersredwoodredwood noun a tall North Americanconifer. Latin name: Sequoia sempervirens.reedreed noun a grass that grows in water nearthe shores of lakes (NOTE: The commonreed Phragmites communis is used forthatching roofs. The Spanish reed Arundodonax has been used in musical instru-ments for more than 5000 years.)reedbedreedbed noun a mass of reeds growingtogetherreedbed filterreedbed filter noun a reedbed used aspart of a system of cleaning sewage or dirtywater

reefreef noun a series of low rocks or coralnear the surface of the seare-emergingre-emerging adjective starting to reap-pearrefinerefine verb 1. to process something to re-move impurities � a by-product of refiningoil 2. to make changes in order to improvesomething � We’ve refined the procedures.refinedrefined adjective having had impuritiesremoved � refined oilrefinementrefinement noun the process of remov-ing impurities in somethingrefineryrefinery noun a processing facility whereimpurities are removed from raw materialssuch as ore, oil or sugarreflectionreflection noun the process of light,sound or heat being transmitted back to-wards its sourcereflexreflex noun a rapid automatic reaction to astimulusrefluxreflux noun a backward flow of a liquidfrom a boiler in the opposite direction tonormal flow, collecting vapour and con-densing it so that it can return to the boileragainreforestreforest verb same as reafforestreforestationreforestation noun same as reafforesta-tionrefractrefract verb to cause a wave such as lightor sound to change direction or turn as itpasses from one medium into another ofdifferent density � On reaching the iono-sphere, a direct wave is refracted and re-turns to the Earth’s surface.refrigerantrefrigerant noun a substance used to pro-vide cooling or freezing either as the work-ing substance of a refrigerator or by directabsorption of heatrefrigeraterefrigerate verb to keep something coldto prevent deteriorationrefrigerationrefrigeration noun the process of keep-ing something cold to prevent deteriorationrefrigeratorrefrigerator noun a machine whichkeeps things coldrefugerefuge noun a safe place where a speciescan escape environmental change and con-tinue to exist as beforerefugiumrefugium noun same as refuge (NOTE:The plural is refugia.)refuserefuse noun rubbish or other forms ofwasterefuse collection and disposalrefuse collection and disposal nounthe action of gathering waste together andgetting rid of itrefuse-derived fuelrefuse-derived fuel noun a fuel that ismade or processed from refuse. Abbr RDF


refuse disposal 180refuse disposalrefuse disposal noun same as wastedisposalrefuse dumprefuse dump noun a place where wasteis thrown awayregenerateregenerate verb to grow again, or growsomething again � A forest takes about tenyears to regenerate after a fire. � Salaman-ders can regenerate limbs.regenerationregeneration noun the process of vege-tation growing back on land which has beencleared or burnt � Grazing by herbivoresprevents forest regeneration.regenerativeregenerative adjective 1. restoring or re-newing � regenerative capacity 2. allowingnew growth to replace damaged tissueregimeregime noun a general pattern or system� a strict dietary regime � The two rivershave very different flow regimes: one hasrapid flow down from high mountains,while the other is slower and mainly cross-es fertile plains.regionregion noun 1. a large area of land withdistinct geographic, political, or biologicalcharacteristics � the polar regions � Thetroposphere is deepest over equatorial re-gions and shallowest near the Poles. 2. anarea of a surface � the outer region of thestained area � in the region of approxi-mately � The burning temperature of thefuel is in the region of 2000° C.registerregister verb 1. to show or display infor-mation or data � Several lakes have regis-tered a steady increase in acidity levels un-til their natural fish populations have start-ed to decline. � The earthquake registered6.2 on the Richter scale. 2. to make some-thing known formally or officially � Weregistered our concern about the proce-dure. � noun an official record, or a list ofitems � a register of authorized usersregolithregolith noun a layer of weathered rockfragments which covers most of the Earth’sland arearegressregress verb to return to a more primitiveearlier stateregressionregression noun the process of returningto a more primitive earlier state, e.g. whencultivated land returns to a wild stateregressiveregressive adjective (of a water level)getting lowerregrowthregrowth noun the growth that occurs af-ter a cut or harvest, or after accidental dam-age or fireregulateregulate verb 1. to control a process oractivity 2. to change or maintain somethingby law � Development is regulated by localauthorities.

regulationregulation noun 1. the control of a proc-ess or activity 2. a rule � The pamphlet liststhe regulations concerning visits to naturereserves.regulatorregulator noun 1. something or someonecontrolling a process or activity 2. a deviceused to limit the current and voltage in acircuit � Regulators allow the correctcharging of batteries from solar panels andwind generators.regulatoryregulatory adjective controlling a proc-ess or activity according to specific rules �a regulatory bodyrehabilitationrehabilitation noun reclaiming and re-developing land and buildings which havebeen abandonedreheaterreheater noun a section of a power sta-tion where steam which has been used toturn the first turbine is heated again to cre-ate enough pressure to turn the second tur-binereintroducereintroduce verb to help a species to livesuccessfully again in an area it had former-ly inhabitedreintroductionreintroduction noun the process ofhelping a species to live successfully againin an area it had formerly inhabitedrelaterelate verb to make a connection or linkbetween two things � Orientating the chartrelates the direction of land features totheir representation on the chart and aidsrecognition.-related-related suffix connected to � a heat-re-lated changerelationshiprelationship noun the way in whichsomeone or something is related to anotherrelativerelative noun something such as a speciesthat has developed from the same origin asanother similar thing � onions and theirwild relatives � adjective describing howone thing is compared with anotherrelative abundancerelative abundance noun the numberof individual specimens of an animal orplant seen over a period in a specific placerelative biological effectivenessrelative biological effectivenessnoun a measure of the different degrees ofeffectiveness of different types of radiationin producing effects in biological systems,used in radiation protection contexts. AbbrRBErelative humidityrelative humidity noun a ratio betweenthe amount of water vapour in air and theamount that would be present if the air wassaturated, shown as a percentagereleaserelease verb 1. to let something go thathas been contained � Acid rain leaches outnutrients from the soil and releases harmfulsubstances such as lead into the soil. � Us-


181 reprocessinging an aerosol spray releases CFCs into theatmosphere. 2. to allow a bird or other ani-mal that has been reared or kept in captivityto live freely in the environment � They re-leased 93 birds and there are now 177breeding pairs. 3. to make something avail-able, especially for the first time � noun 1.the act of letting something out from whereit is contained � The report points out thedanger of radiation releases from nuclearpower stations. 2. the act of making some-thing available for the first timereleaserreleaser noun a stimulus that provokes areaction in an animal, e.g. the sight of ahawk or the sound of a gunrelevérelevé noun a small plot into which a larg-er area is divided, used as a sample for an-alysing vegetationreliablereliable adjective referring to someone orsomething that can be trusted � It is not avery reliable method of measuring thedepth.relictrelict noun a species that still exists, eventhough the environment in which it origi-nally developed does notreliefrelief noun a difference in height betweenpoints on the Earth’s surfacerely onrely on verb to trust someone or some-thing � He relies on his skill and experi-ence to identify poisonous fungi. (NOTE: re-lies – relying – relied)remrem abbr roentgen equivalent manremedial investigationremedial investigation noun investi-gation of a polluted site, including takingsamples of soil or water, to determine whatsort of action needs to be taken to improveit. Abbr RIremediationremediation noun a course of action in-tended to reverse environmental damage. �bioremediationremote sensingremote sensing noun the collection ofinformation via satellite observation andaerial photography about physical aspectsof the Earth such as the location of mineraldeposits, or the movement of water or pestsrenewrenew verb to replace somethingrenewablerenewable adjective referring to some-thing that can be replaced or can renew it-self by regrowing, reforming or breeding �Herring stocks are a renewable resource ifthe numbers being caught are controlled. �renewable sources of energy energy fromthe sun, wind, waves, tides or from geother-mal deposits or from burning waste, noneof which uses up fossil fuel reservesrenewable resourcerenewable resource noun a natural re-source that replaces itself unless overused,

e.g. animal or plant life, fresh water or windenergyrenewables obligationrenewables obligation noun the re-quirement for power generators to reducetheir use of fossil fuels and replace themover time with sources of energy that can berenewedrepelrepel verb to push something away byforce, or to resist something (NOTE: repel-ling – repelled)repellentrepellent adjective referring to a sub-stance that causes something to which it isapplied to resist something � a repellent in-secticide � noun a substance that causessomething to which it is applied to resistsomething � The coating of wax on theleaves acts as a repellent to pollutants.-repellent-repellent suffix resisting something � awater-repellent coatingreplacement fertilityreplacement fertility noun the fertilityrate needed to ensure that a population re-mains constant as each set of parents is re-placed by its offspringreplantreplant verb to grow plants in an areaagain � After the trees were felled the landwas cleared and replanted with mixed con-ifers and broadleaved species.replicatereplicate verb 1. to do something again inthe same way � The routine will replicateyour results with very little effort. 2. (of acell or microorganism) to reproducereplicationreplication noun 1. the process in the di-vision of a cell during which DNA makescopies of itself 2. the process of reproduc-tion of a cell or microorganism � virus rep-lication 3. the repetition of an experimentseveral times in order to achieve a reliablyconsistent resultreportreport noun a document giving an ac-count of something, stating what action hasbeen taken, what the current state is or whatthe results of a test or experiment are � areport on global warming � verb to give anaccount of somethingrepositoryrepository noun US a place where some-thing can be stored � a nuclear waste re-positoryrepowerrepower verb to rebuild an old power sta-tion, converting it to a more modern com-bustion systemreprocessreprocess verb to process somethinginto another formreprocessingreprocessing noun the processing ofsomething such as spent nuclear fuel andsubjecting it to chemical processes whichproduce further useful materials such asplutonium


reproduce 182reproducereproduce verb 1. to produce offspring2. (of bacteria) to produce new cells 3. to doa test again in exactly the same wayreproductionreproduction noun the production ofoffspringreproductivereproductive adjective referring to theproduction of offspring � Pollination is areproductive process.reproductive cloningreproductive cloning noun the use ofcloning techniques to produce new individ-ualsreproductive valuereproductive value noun the number ofoffspring an individual can be expected toproduce during a lifetimereptilereptile noun a cold-blooded animal thatlays eggs and has a scaly skin, e.g. a croco-dile, tortoise or snake. Class: Reptilia.requirementrequirement noun something that isneeded � a change in water requirements� The regulations contain a requirementfor regular monitoring.researchresearch noun a scientific study that in-vestigates something new � recent re-search into the relationship between skincancer and exposure to sunlight � environ-mental research � a research programmereservationreservation noun an area of land setaside for a special purposereservereserve noun 1. an amount stored or keptback for future use 2. an area of land main-tained for the benefit of plant or animal lifewhere no commercial exploitation is al-lowed. � game reserve, nature reserve,wildlife reservereservoirreservoir noun 1. an artificial or naturalarea of water, used for storing water for do-mestic or industrial use � The town’s watersupply comes from reservoirs in the moun-tains. � After two months of drought thereservoirs were beginning to run dry. 2. anatural hole in rock that contains water, oilor gasreservoir rockreservoir rock noun rock that is porousand permeable, from which oil or naturalgas may be extractedresidence timeresidence time noun the amount of timeduring which something remains in thesame place or in the same state until it islost or transformed into something elseresidentresident adjective referring to an organ-ism or a person living in a place, especiallyfor a long time � The introduced specieswiped out the resident population of flight-less birds. � noun a bird, insect or other an-imal that does not migrate � The birds areyear-round residents in this particular ar-ea.

residential environmentresidential environment noun an areacharacterised principally by the presence ofhouses and apartment blocksresidualresidual adjective referring to the amountof something that is left behindresidual riskresidual risk noun a risk which still re-mains after pollution-prevention measureshave been appliedresidueresidue noun the material left after aprocess has taken place or after a materialhas been usedresilienceresilience noun 1. the ability of an organ-ism to resist or recover from adverse condi-tions 2. the ability of an ecosystem to returnto its usual state after being disturbedresinresin noun 1. a sticky oil secreted by someconifers or other trees, especially whenthey are cut 2. a solid or liquid organiccompound used in the making of plasticresinousresinous adjective referring to resinresistanceresistance noun the ability of an organ-ism not to be affected by something such asa disease, stress factor, process or treatment� Increasing insect resistance to chemicalpesticides is a major problem. � Cropplants have been bred for resistance to dis-ease.resistantresistant adjective referring to somethingwhich is unaffected by a disease, stress fac-tor, process or treatment � Some alloys areless resistant to corrosion than others. �The plants were not resistant to mildew.-resistant-resistant suffix not adversely affected bysomething � heat-resistant � a DDT-re-sistant strain of insects � disease-resistantgenetic material � a new strain of virus-re-sistant riceresorptionresorption noun 1. the absorption of asubstance already produced back into theorganism that produced it 2. the melting ofsolid rock which falls into magmaresourceresource noun 1. a useful source ofsomething � reference resources such asencyclopaedias 2. anything in the environ-ment which can be used � Fossil fuel re-sources are being depleted. � Woodland isa valuable resource. � natural resourceresource depletion zoneresource depletion zone noun anarea where a resource is depleted, e.g.where water is removed from the soilaround a plant. Abbr RDZresource economicsresource economics noun the studyof the economics of an ecosystem, showingthe value of the services provided by thatsystem in financial termsresource partitioningresource partitioning noun the way inwhich resources in an ecosystem are divid-


183 riched up by the species who need them, eachusing them in a different wayrespiratory heat

respiratory heat noun the energy lost toa community in plant respirationrespondrespond verb to react to somethingresponseresponse noun a reaction to a stimulusresponsibilityresponsibility noun the state of beinganswerable for something, or in charge ofsomething � the responsibility of usinglimited resources wisely � take responsibil-ity for stewardship of the countrysideresponsibleresponsible adjective answerable forsomething or in charge of something � re-sponsible for safety checksresponsible careresponsible care noun an initiative ofthe chemical industry which requires mem-ber firms to follow codes of conduct onsuch matters as toxic materials, waste re-duction, chemical-accident minimisation,worker safety and community consultationrestockrestock verb to provide another supply ofsomething that has been used up, or providesomewhere with a new supply � We’ll re-stock next year. � So many animals diedthat they had to restock the farm in thespring.restorationrestoration noun the act or process ofgiving something back, or putting some-thing back to a previous state or positionrestorerestore verb to give something back, orput something back to a previous state orpositionresult

result noun a consequence or outcome �The abundance and diversity of flowers inthe meadow was the result of careful man-agement.returnablereturnable adjective referring to some-thing such as a bottle which can be takenback to the place where it was bought andthen be reused or recycledreusereuse noun the use of a product or a ma-terial for an additional time or a differentpurpose, usually as an alternative to throw-ing it away � verb to use a product or a ma-terial for an additional time or a differentpurpose, usually as an alternative to throw-ing it awayreverse

reverse adjective referring to an object ora process going backwards or in the oppo-site direction � verb to change a decisionand do the opposite of what was done be-fore � The decision of the planning com-mittee was reversed and the planning appli-cation went ahead.reversed faultreversed fault noun same as thrustfault

reverse osmosisreverse osmosis noun a process inwhich water is forced through a membranewhich removes impuritiesrHrH abbr redox potentialrhinorhino noun same as rhinoceros (NOTE:The plural is rhinos.)rhinocerosrhinoceros noun a very large herbivo-rous animal with thick skin and either onehorn or two horns, one behind the other, ona projecting part of its head above the noseand mouth (NOTE: The plural is rhinoceros-es or rhinoceros.)

COMMENT: There are five species of rhi-noceros, three found Asia (two of whichhave only one horn) and two in Africa, andall are in danger of extinction. Althoughthey have few natural predators, 97% ofrhinos have been lost in the last 30 yearsand is believed there are only about 11000wild rhinos in existence. Rhinos have beenhunted especially for their horn which isused in traditional Chinese medicine andfor carving.

rhizobiumrhizobium noun a bacterium that lives insoil and forms nodules on plant roots, tak-ing up nitrogen from the atmosphere andfixing it in the soilrhizofiltrationrhizofiltration noun the use of plants toabsorb or precipitate ground-water contam-inants in their rootsrhizoidrhizoid noun a thin structure in lowerplants such as mosses and liverworts thatresembles a rootrhizomerhizome noun a plant stem that lies on orunder the ground and has leaf buds and ad-ventitious rootsrhizosphererhizosphere noun the soil surroundingthe roots of a plantRhodophytaRhodophyta plural noun a phylum of redalgae, mainly found on the seabedRIRI abbr remedial investigationriaria noun a valley that has been filled by thesearibbon developmentribbon development noun the buildingof houses in an uninterrupted row along amain road, usually with fields remainingbehind themribonucleic acidribonucleic acid noun full form of RNAricerice noun a plant that is the most importantcereal crop and the staple food of half thepopulation of the world. Latin name: Oryzasativa.richrich adjective 1. (of soil) having many use-ful nutrients for plant growth 2. (of food)having a high calorific value 3. (of a mix-ture of fuel and air) having a high ratio offuel to air 4. � rich in having a lot of some-thing � Green vegetables are rich in miner-


-rich 184als. � The forests are rich in mosses andother forms of moisture-loving plants.-rich-rich suffix having a lot of something � anutrient-rich detergent � a protein-richdiet � a species-rich habitat � oil-richseedsrichnessrichness noun the quality of having a lotof something. � species richnessRichter scaleRichter scale noun a scale of measure-ment of the force of an earthquake from 0to 10, earthquakes of 5 or more causingdamage � There were no reports of injuriesafter the quake which reached 5.2 on theRichter scale. (NOTE: The Richter scalemeasures the force of an earthquake: thedamage caused is measured on the Modi-fied Mercalli scale. The strongest earth-quake ever recorded was 8.9.)ridgeridge noun 1. a long raised section ofground, occurring as part of a mountainrange, in a field, on a beach or on the oceanfloor 2. a long narrow band of high pressureleading away from the centre of an anticy-clone � A ridge of high pressure is lyingacross the country.rift valleyrift valley noun a long valley with steepwalls, formed when land between two faultlines sinks or possibly when a fault widensas plates forming the Earth’s crust moveapartright of commonright of common noun the right to walkon land, graze animals on it, or gather woodrigidrigid adjective hard or stiff and not easy tobend � rigid pipes � a rigid structurerigidityrigidity noun 1. hardness or stiffness andan inability to bend � Extra strength and ri-gidity must be provided in the tail sectionfor aircraft with a tail wheel unit. 2. strict-ness of control or adherence to a way of do-ing something � the rigidity of the guide-linesrillrill noun a very narrow streamrimerime noun the feathery ice formed whenfreezing fog settles on surfacesringring verb to attach a numbered ring to theleg of a bird so that its movements can berecordedRingelmann chartRingelmann chart noun a chart whichuses numbers from 0 to 5 to identify theblackness of smokering roadring road noun a road which goes rounda town centre, usually quite close to built-up areas, allowing traffic to bypass the townand not go through the middle. Compareorbital roadRio DeclarationRio Declaration noun a statement lay-ing down the broad principles of environ-

mentally sound development adopted at theEarth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992riparianriparian adjective referring to the bank ofa river � riparian faunarip currentrip current noun same as riptiderippleripple noun a little wave on the surface ofwater � Ripple marks can be seen in somesedimentary rocks showing where the sandwas marked by the movement of water.riptideriptide noun 1. an area of rough water inthe sea where currents meet 2. a current thatflows against the flow of the incomingwaves � also called rip currentriskrisk noun 1. a combination of the likeli-hood of injury, damage or loss being causedby a potentially dangerous substance, tech-nology or activity, or by a failure to dosomething, and the seriousness of the pos-sible consequences 2. something that is re-garded as likely to cause injury, damage orloss � a fire risk � a health risk Comparehazard

COMMENT: A substance or practice mayhave the potential to cause harm, i.e. maybe a hazard, but risk only arises if there isa likelihood that something will be harmedby it in a specific set of circumstances. Ahighly dangerous thing may in fact presentonly a small risk. Risk assessment is usedto decide what the degree and nature ofthe risk, if any, may be so that measures toreduce or avoid it can be taken.

risk assessmentrisk assessment noun a process used todetermine the risk from a substance, tech-nology or activityrisk managementrisk management noun the activity ofcontrolling the factors affecting riskriverriver noun a large flow of water, runningfrom a natural source in mountains or hillsdown to the sea � river in flood a river thatcontains an unusually large amount of wa-terriver authorityriver authority noun an official bodywhich manages the rivers in an areariverineriverine adjective referring to a river �The dam has destroyed the riverine faunaand flora for hundreds of kilometres.river terraceriver terrace noun same as alluvial ter-raceRnRn symbol radonRNARNA noun a nucleic acid chain that takescoded information from DNA and trans-lates it into specific proteins. Full form ri-bonucleic acid. � DNARORO abbr renewables obligationroadside vergeroadside verge noun � vergeroad userroad user noun a person who drives onpublic roads


185 ruralrockrock noun a solid mineral substance whichforms the outside crust of the Earthrock poolrock pool noun a pool of salt water left inrocks by the searodentrodent noun a mammal that has sharpteeth for gnawing, e.g. a rat or mouseroentgenroentgen, röntgen noun a unit of meas-urement of the amount of exposure to X-rays or gamma rays. Symbol Rroentgen equivalent manroentgen equivalent man noun a unitof measurement of ionising radiationequivalent to the effect of absorbing oneroentgen. Abbr rem (NOTE: It has been re-placed by the sievert.)rolerole noun the set of characters, chemical,physical and biological, that determine theposition of an organism or species in an ec-osystem, e.g. aquatic predator or terrestrialherbivorerootroot noun a part of a plant which is usuallyunder the ground and absorbs water and nu-trients from the surrounding soil � verb (ofa plant) to produce roots � The cuttingsroot easily in moist sand.root croproot crop noun a plant that stores ediblematerial in a root, corm or tuber and isgrown as food (NOTE: Root crops includecarrots, parsnips, swedes and turnips.Starchy root crops include potatoes, cassa-vas and yams.)root cuttingroot cutting noun a piece of root cutfrom a living plant and put in soil, where itwill sprout and grow into a new plantrootstockrootstock noun a plant with roots ontowhich a piece of another plant is grafted. �scionroot systemroot system noun all the roots of a plantrotrot verb (of organic tissue) to decay or be-come putrefied because of bacterial or fun-gal actionrotaterotate verb 1. to turn around on an axis orfixed point � The Earth rotates on its axisapproximately every 24 hours. 2. to growdifferent crops from year to year in a field(NOTE: The advantages of rotating crops in-clude: different crops utilising soil nutrientsdifferently, pests specific to one crop beingdiscouraged from spreading, and somecrops such as legumes increasing the nitro-gen content of the soil if their roots are leftin the soil after harvesting.)rotationrotation noun the process of turningaround an axis or fixed point � the rotationof the Earth � The speed of rotation deter-mines the frequency of the generator out-put.rotation of cropsrotation of crops noun same as croprotation

rotenonerotenone noun the active ingredient ofthe insecticide derrisrotorrotor noun 1. a rapidly turning mass of air,surrounded by clouds 2. the central shaft ofa generator, which turns inside the statorroughrough adjective having an irregular sur-face or actionroughageroughage noun fibrous matter in food,which cannot be digested. Also called die-tary fibrerough fishrough fish noun fish which are not usedfor sport or foodroundwormroundworm noun a type of worm with around body, some of which are parasites ofanimals, others of roots of plantsROWROW abbr rest of the worldRoyal Society for Nature ConservationRoyal Society for Nature Conser-vation noun a UK charity that supportsenvironmental projects and coordinates theactivities of Wildlife Trusts. Abbr RSNCRoyal Society for the Protection of BirdsRoyal Society for the Protection ofBirds noun a UK charity that works to en-sure a good environment for birds and wild-life. Abbr RSPBRSNCRSNC abbr Royal Society for NatureConservationR strategyR strategy noun a form of reproductionwhere the mother produces large numbersof offspring which need little attention.Compare K strategyrubberrubber noun a material which can bestretched and compressed, made from athick white fluid (latex) from a tropical treerubbishrubbish noun things that are of no longerof any use and are thrown awayruderalruderal adjective growing in rubbish oron wastelandruminantruminant noun an animal that has a stom-ach with several chambers, e.g. a cowruminationrumination noun the process by whichfood taken to the stomach of a ruminant isreturned to the mouth, chewed again andthen swallowedrunoffrunoff noun 1. the removal of water froma system by opening sluices 2. the flow ofrainwater or melted snow from the surfaceof land into streams and rivers 3. the flow ofexcess fertiliser or pesticide from farmlandinto rivers � Nitrate runoff causes pollutionof lakes and rivers. � Fish are extremelysusceptible to runoff of organophosphates.runoff raterunoff rate noun the amount of excessfertiliser or pesticide from farmland thatflows into rivers in a specific periodruralrural adjective referring to the country, asopposed to the town � Many rural areashave been cut off by floods.


rural affairs 186rural affairsrural affairs noun the activities and con-cerns of rural communitiesrural arearural area noun an area in the countrysidewhere the main activities are farming orforestry and where relatively few peopleliverural developmentrural development noun a programmeof activities undertaken to ensure that ruralareas remain economically and sociallysustainablerural economyrural economy noun farming and otherbusinesses in rural areasRural Enterprise SchemeRural Enterprise Scheme noun a sys-tem of government support for the adapta-tion and development of the rural economy,community, heritage and environment. It ispart of the England Rural DevelopmentProgramme.rural environmentrural environment noun the country-siderural migrationrural migration noun a movement ofpeople away from the country and intotowns in order to find workrural planningrural planning noun same as countryplanningrural recreationrural recreation noun same as country-side recreationRural Stewardship SchemeRural Stewardship Scheme noun inScotland, a scheme of payments to encour-age farmers to be involved in the protectionand enhancement of the environment, tosupport sustainable rural development and

to maintain the prosperity of rural commu-nitiesrural tourism

rural tourism noun holiday and leisureactivities carried out in the countrysiderurban

rurban adjective referring to areas thatcombine the characteristics of agriculturalactivities found in rural zones with those ofsuburban living areas and industrialisedzones

COMMENT: Rapid extension of urbanisa-tion the world over has created areas thathave both urban and rural characteristics.Land planning specialists talk about ‘rur-ban areas’ and the ‘rurbanisation’ process.

rurbanisation

rurbanisation noun the process of ruralareas becoming more like urban areas inthe type of housing and activities that de-veloprust

rust noun 1. a reddish powder that formson the surface of iron and iron compoundson contact with damp air 2. a fungal diseasethat gives plants a reddish powdery cover-ing � verb to become covered with reddishpowder through contact with damp airR-value

R-value noun a unit of measurement ofresistance to the flow of heat (NOTE: An in-sulated outside wall has an R-value of R-11, while an internal ceiling has a value ofR-19.)rye

rye noun a hardy cereal crop grown in tem-perate areas. Latin name: Secale cereale.


SSS symbol sulfurSACSAC abbr Special Area of Conservationsafesafe adjective not likely to hurt or causedamage � It is not safe to drink the waterhere.safetysafety noun the condition of being safe orwithout danger � to take safety precau-tions to take measures which make youractions or condition safesafety guidelinessafety guidelines plural noun a seriesof recommendations indicating appropriatepractices and procedures to ensure safeconditionssafety zonesafety zone noun an area in which peo-ple are not at riskSaharaSahara noun a large desert region inNorth AfricaSaharanSaharan adjective referring to the SaharaSahelSahel noun a semi-desert region south ofthe Sahara where desert conditions arespreadingSahelianSahelian adjective referring to the Sahelsalinationsalination noun a process by which thesalt concentration of soil or water increas-es, especially as a result of irrigation in hotclimates. Also called salinisationsalinesaline adjective referring to saltsaline lagoonsaline lagoon noun an area of water par-tially or completely separated from the seaby sandbanks, shingle, rocks or sea defenc-es and containing a mixture of sea waterand freshwater. It may be tidal or non-tidal,but always contains water even at very lowtide.saline lakesaline lake noun a low-lying inland lakewith water that contains a lot of salt be-cause of evaporation and a lack of fresh wa-ter flowing into it. Also called salt lakesalinisationsalinisation, salinization noun same assalinationsalinisedsalinised, salinized adjective referringto soil where evaporation leaves salts as acrust on the dry surfacesalinitysalinity noun the concentration of salt inan amount of water or soilsalinometersalinometer noun an instrument formeasuring the amount of salt in a saline so-lution or in sea watersalmonsalmon noun a large sea fish that returnsto a freshwater river to lay its eggs

salmonidsalmonid noun a fish belonging to a fam-ily that is sensitive to pollution in water andwhose presence indicates that the water ispure, e.g. a troutsaltsalt noun 1. a chemical compound formedfrom an acid and a metal 2. sodium chlorideas part of the diet � a salt-restricted diet �He should reduce his intake of salt. � ad-jective same as saltysalt domesalt dome noun an area where salt frombeneath the surface of the soil has risen toform a small hillsaltingsalting noun an area of land that is regu-larly flooded with salt watersalt lakesalt lake noun same as saline lakesalt licksalt lick noun 1. a naturally occurring de-posit of salt which animals lick 2. a block ofsalt given to animals to licksalt marshsalt marsh noun an area of land overwhich the sea flows at high tidesaltpansaltpan noun an area where salt from be-neath the soil surface rises to form crystalson the surfacesalt watersalt water noun water which containssalt, e.g. sea water. Compare fresh watersaltwatersaltwater adjective 1. containing salt wa-ter 2. living in salt watersaltysalty adjective 1. containing salt � Excessminerals in fertilisers combined with natu-rally saline ground to make the land sosalty that it can no longer produce crops. 2.tasting of saltsamplesample noun a small amount which isrepresentative of the whole � A sample ofwater was taken from the lake for analysis.� A seed sample was tested for germina-tion. � Factories were asked to providesamples from outflow pipes. � verb to takea small quantity of something to testsanctuarysanctuary noun an area where the wild-life it contains is protected � A bird sanctu-ary has been created on the island.sandsand noun fine grains of weathered rock,usually round grains of quartz, found espe-cially on beaches and in the desertsand barsand bar noun a long bank of sand inshallow water either in a river or the seasand beachsand beach noun same as sandy beachsand dunesand dune noun an area of sand blownby the wind into a small hill or ridge, oftencrescent-shaped in the desert and some-


sandpit 188times covered with sparse grass when nearthe seasandpitsandpit noun a place where sand is ex-tracted from the groundsandstonesandstone noun a sedimentary rockformed of round particles of quartzsandstormsandstorm noun a high wind in thedesert, which carries large amounts of sandwith itsandy beachsandy beach noun a beach covered withsand rather than pebbles or shingle. Alsocalled sand beachsandy soilsandy soil noun soil containing a highproportion of sand particlessanitarysanitary adjective referring to hygiene orto healthsanitary landfillsanitary landfill, sanitary landfillingnoun a method of disposing of solid wasteon land in lined pits to avoid contaminatingsurface or ground water and other publichealth and environmental riskssanitationsanitation noun the systems of waste dis-posal and water provision that are the basisof public hygiene � Poor sanitation incrowded conditions can result in the spreadof disease.sapsap noun a liquid carrying nutrients whichflows inside a plantSAPSAP abbr Species Action Plansapelesapele noun a fine African hardwood,formerly widely exploited but now becom-ing rarer. Genus: Entandrophragma.saplingsapling noun a young treesappysappy adjective referring to tree trunks orbranches, or wood, that are full of sapsapro-sapro- prefix decay or rottingsaprobesaprobe noun a bacterium that lives inrotting mattersaprobicsaprobic adjective referring to a classifi-cation of organisms according to the way inwhich they tolerate pollution. � mesos-aprobic, oligosaprobic, polysaprobicsaprogenicsaprogenic, saprogenous adjective re-ferring to organisms that grow on decayingorganic mattersapropelsapropel noun a layer of decaying organ-ic matter at the bottom of a body of watersaprophagoussaprophagous adjective referring to or-ganisms that feed on decaying organic mat-tersaprophytesaprophyte noun an organism that livesand feeds on dead or decaying organic mat-ter, e.g. a fungussaprophyticsaprophytic adjective referring to organ-isms that live and feed on dead or decayingorganic matter

saproplanktonsaproplankton plural noun planktonthat live and feed on dead or decaying or-ganic mattersaproxylicsaproxylic adjective referring to inverte-brate animals, fungi and other organismsthat live in the rotting wood of dead treessapwoodsapwood noun an outer layer of wood onthe trunk of a tree, which is younger thanthe heartwood inside and carries the sap. �heartwoodsarcomasarcoma noun a cancer of connective tis-sue such as bone, muscle or cartilageSargasso SeaSargasso Sea noun an area of still waterin the North Atlantic Ocean, which is sur-rounded by currents and contains driftingweedsatellitesatellite noun 1. an astronomical objectthat orbits a larger body in space � TheMoon is the Earth’s only satellite. 2. a man-made device that orbits the Earth, receiv-ing, processing and transmitting signalsand generating images such as weather pic-turessaturatesaturate verb to fill something with themaximum amount of a liquid that can beabsorbed � Nitrates leached from forestsoils, showing that the soils are saturatedwith nitrogen.saturationsaturation noun the state of being filledwith the maximum amount of somethingwhich can be absorbed � The various typesof fog are classified by the manner in whichsaturation is reached.saturation zonesaturation zone noun the ground belowthe water tablesaturnismsaturnism noun same as plumbismsavannasavanna, savannah noun a dry grass-covered plain with few trees, especially inSouth America or Africa, where growth isabundant during the rainy season but vege-tation dies back during the dry seasonsave-allsave-all noun a container for keepingwaste products so that they can be reused orrecycledscalescale noun 1. a series of marks at fixed in-tervals used as a reference standard inmeasurement � This rule has scales ininches and centimetres. 2. a small overlap-ping plate of tissue on the skin of reptilesand fish 3. a hard white calcium layer thatforms in containers and pipes carrying hotwater in areas where the water supply con-tains a lot of calciumscalyscaly adjective covered in flakes of tissue,like a reptile or fishscarcescarce adjective 1. not available in suffi-cient amounts 2. uncommon or rare


189 sea levelscarcityscarcity noun 1. a shortage in the supplyof something 2. the infrequency with whichsomething occursscavengescavenge verb 1. (of organisms) to feedon dead and decaying matter 2. to removeimpurities or pollutants from a substancescavengerscavenger noun 1. a mammal or birdthat feeds on animals which have beenkilled by lions or other predators 2. same asdetritivore 3. generally, any organismwhich feeds on dead animals, dead plantsor refuse left unconsumed by other organ-isms 4. a substance added to a chemical re-action or mixture to remove impurities orneutralise somethingscavengingscavenging noun 1. the activity of eat-ing organic matter or dead animals � Vul-tures and hyenas sometimes feed by scav-enging. 2. the removal of impurities from agassceneryscenery noun the landscape or surround-ings, especially when regarded as attractive� beautiful mountain sceneryscentscent noun 1. a smell given off by a sub-stance that stimulates the sense of smell 2.a pleasant smell � the scent of flowersschistschist noun a type of metamorphic rockthat splits easily into flakesschistosomiasisschistosomiasis noun a tropical dis-ease caused by flukes taken in from wateraffecting the intestine or bladder. Alsocalled bilharziasisschoolschool noun a group of water animalswhich all move together and keep an equaldistance apart, e.g. fish or whalesSCISCI abbr Site of Community Importancescientific methodscientific method noun the systematicmethod used in investigations of the naturalworld, which include designing controlledexperiments, collecting data and develop-ing and testing hypothesesscionscion noun a piece of a plant which isgrafted onto a rootstocksclerophyllsclerophyll noun a woody plant thatgrows in hot dry regions, with thick leath-ery evergreen leaves that lose very littlemoisture-scope-scope suffix an instrument for examiningby sightScots pineScots pine noun a common commercial-ly grown European conifer. Latin name: Pi-nus sylvestris.Scottish Natural HeritageScottish Natural Heritage noun anofficial body responsible for the conserva-tion of fauna and flora in Scotlandscrapscrap noun 1. waste material � scrap pa-per � scrap metal � Some 50% of steel ismade from recycled scrap. (NOTE: no plural)

2. a small piece of something � Scraps ofpaper had blown all over the grass.scrapiescrapie noun a brain disease of sheep andgoatsscreescree noun an area of loose rocks andstones at the base of the side of a mountainscreenscreen noun 1. something which protects2. a display device capable of showing aquantity of information, e.g. a computermonitor 3. a hedge or row of trees grown toshelter other plants, to protect somethingfrom the wind or to prevent something frombeing seen � verb 1. to examine people, an-imals or plants to test for the presence ofsomething � All air passengers, parcelsand freight will be screened for the pres-ence of radioactivity. 2. to select somebodyor something as suitable for a particularpurposescreeningscreening noun 1. the process of testingfor the presence of something 2. the proc-ess of selecting somebody or something assuitable for a particular purposescree slopescree slope noun a part of a mountainside covered with loose rock and stonesscrubscrub noun 1. small trees and bushes 2. anarea of land covered with small trees andbushes � verb to remove sulfur and otherpollutants from waste gases produced bypower stationsscrubberscrubber noun a device for removingsulfur and other pollutants from waste gas-esscrublandscrubland noun land covered with smalltrees and bushesSeSe symbol seleniumseabedseabed noun the bottom of the sea �These fish feed on minute debris on the sea-bed.seabirdseabird noun a bird which lives near thesea and eats fish, e.g. a seagullseaboardseaboard noun an area of land along astretch of sea � the eastern seaboard of theUSAsea defencessea defences plural noun same ascoastal defencessea fogsea fog noun fog that forms when cold airis above much warmer waterseagullseagull noun a bird, of several species,that lives near the sea and has a heavy build,a rather hooked beak and webbed feetsea levelsea level noun the average level of thesurface of the sea. � mean sea level

COMMENT: Sea level is taken as the basefor references to altitude: a mountain 300m high is three hundred metres above sealevel. The Dead Sea is 395 m below sealevel. Sea levels in general have risen over


sea loch 190the past 100 years and much more rapidrises are forecast if the greenhouse effectresults in the melting of the polar ice caps.Sea level is also used as a basis for meas-uring barometric pressure.

sea lochsea loch noun a long inlet of the sea inScotlandseamseam noun a layer of mineral in rock be-neath the Earth’s surface � The coal seamsare 2m thick. � The gold seam was workedout some years ago.sea mistsea mist noun mist that forms over thesea when the air is colder than the waterseasonseason noun one of the four parts intowhich a year is divided, i.e. spring, sum-mer, autumn and winter � verb to allow thesap in timber to dry so that the wood can beused for making thingsseasonalseasonal adjective referring to or occur-ring at a season � seasonal changes in tem-perature � Plants grow according to a sea-sonal pattern.seasonal boundary layerseasonal boundary layer noun thelayer of water immediately above the ther-moclineseasonalityseasonality noun the characteristic ofbeing seasonalsea wallsea wall noun a wall built along a stretchof coast to protect it against erosion by theaction of the wavesseawaterseawater noun the salty water in the seaseaweedseaweed noun any of the large algae thatgrow in the sea and are usually attached toa surfacesecondsecond noun 1. a base SI unit of measure-ment of time, equal to one sixtieth of aminute 2. a unit of measurement of the cir-cumference of a circle, equal to one sixtiethof a degree � adjective coming after thefirstsecondarysecondary adjective 1. less importantthan something else � a secondary reason2. coming after something else � second-ary thickening of stems in plants � primary,tertiarysecondary consumersecondary consumer noun an animalsuch as a carnivore that eats other consum-ers in the food chain. � primary consumersecondary forestsecondary forest noun natural growthoccurring in a forest after a major disrup-tion such as fire damage or logging activi-tiessecondary hostsecondary host noun a host which aparasite settles on before moving to its pri-mary hostsecondary particulatessecondary particulates plural nounparticles of matter formed in the air bychemical reactions such as smog

secondary productivitysecondary productivity noun the rateat which primary material is converted intoanimal tissue by a herbivoresecondary substancesecondary substance noun a chemi-cal substance found in plant leaves, be-lieved to be a form of defence against her-bivoressecondary successionsecondary succession noun an eco-logical community which develops in aplace where a previous community hasbeen removed as a result of fire, flooding,cutting down of trees or some other eventsecond homesecond home noun same as holidayhomesecretesecrete verb (of a gland) to produce asubstance such as a hormone, oil or enzymesecretionsecretion noun a substance produced bya glandsedentarysedentary adjective 1. referring to ma-rine invertebrates that do not swim aboutand remain attached to a rock for most oftheir lives 2. referring to animals that do notmigrate 3. referring to a person who re-mains seated for long periods or takes littleexercise in a way that can be bad for health� a sedentary lifestylesedimentsediment noun a mass of solid particles,usually insoluble, that fall to the bottom ofa liquidsedimentarysedimentary adjective referring to rockformed from material deposited by water,wind or ice and then subjected to pressure.� igneous, metamorphicsedimentationsedimentation noun 1. the process offormation of sedimentary rock 2. the proc-ess of solid particles falling to the bottom ofa liquid, e.g. in the treatment of sewagesedimentation tanksedimentation tank noun a tank inwhich sewage is allowed to stand so thatsolid particles can sink to the bottomseedseed noun a fertilised ovule that forms anew plant on germination � to set seed toproduce seed � plants left after floweringto set seed � verb 1. (of a plant) to produceoffspring by dropping seed which germi-nates and grows into plants in followingseasons � The poppies seeded all over thegarden. � The tree was left standing to al-low it to seed the cleared area around it. 2.to sow seeds in an area � The area of wood-land was cut and then seeded with pines. 3.to drop crystals of salt, carbon dioxide andother substances onto clouds from an aero-plane in order to encourage rain to fallseed bankseed bank noun 1. all the seeds existingin the soil 2. a collection of seeds fromplants, kept for conservation or researchpurposes


191 semiconductorseedcaseseedcase noun a hard outside cover thatprotects the seeds of some plantsseedlingseedling noun a young plant that has re-cently grown from a seedseed treeseed tree noun a tree left standing whenothers are cut down, to allow it to dropseeds on the cleared land around itseepseep verb (of a liquid) to flow slowlythrough a substance � Water seepedthrough the rock. � Chemicals seeped outof the container.seepageseepage noun the action of flowing slow-lyseepage tankseepage tank, seepage pit noun insome septic tank systems, a deep hole intowhich partly decomposed sewage drainsbefore dispersing slowly into the surround-ing soilSEERADSEERAD abbr Scottish Executive Envi-ronment and Rural Affairs Departmentseicheseiche noun a tide in a lake, usuallycaused by the wind or by movements in wa-ter levelseismseism noun an earthquakeseismicseismic adjective referring to earth-quakesseismographseismograph noun an instrument formeasuring earthquakes. � Richter scaleseismologicalseismological adjective referring to thestudy of earthquakesseismologistseismologist noun a scientist who stud-ies earthquakesseismologyseismology noun the scientific study ofearthquakesseismonastyseismonasty noun a response of plantsto a physical stimulus such as touchselectselect verb to identify plants or animalswith desirable characteristics such as highyield or disease resistance as part of the ac-tivity of breeding new varietiesselectionselection noun 1. the process of identify-ing plants or animals with desirable charac-teristics such as high yield or disease resist-ance as part of the activity of breeding newvarieties 2. an individual chosen from agroup in a breeding programme on the ba-sis of distinctive characteristicsselective herbicideselective herbicide, selective weed-killer noun a weedkiller which is designedto kill only plants with specific characteris-tics and not othersseleniumselenium noun a non-metallic trace ele-ment, used in photoelectric cells. SymbolSe (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Se; theatomic number is 34 and the atomic weightis 78.96.)self-self- prefix 1. of itself 2. automatic

self-fertilisationself-fertilisation, self-fertilizationnoun the fertilisation of a plant or inverte-brate animal with its own pollen or spermself-pollinationself-pollination noun the pollination ofa plant by pollen from its own flowers.Compare cross-pollinationself-purificationself-purification noun the ability of wa-ter to clean itself of polluting substancesself-regulatingself-regulating adjective controlling it-self without outside intervention � Mosttropical rainforests are self-regulating en-vironments.self-seededself-seeded adjective referring to a plantthat grows from seed that has fallen to theground naturally rather than being sown in-tentionally � Several self-seeded poppieshave come up in the vegetable garden.self-sterileself-sterile adjective referring to a plantthat cannot fertilise itself from its ownflowersself-sterilityself-sterility noun the inability of a plantto fertilise itselfself-sufficiencyself-sufficiency noun a simple tradi-tional way of farming with little use ofmodern technology that provides onlyenough food and other necessary materialsfor a familyself-sufficientself-sufficient adjective 1. able to pro-vide enough food and other necessary ma-terials for a family, often by means of asimple traditional way of farming with littleuse of modern technology � We’re self-suf-ficient in salad crops from the garden in thesummer time. 2. referring to provision ofthe required quantity of a product locally orfor yourself, without needing to purchaseor import it � The country is self-sufficientin barley.self-thinningself-thinning noun a process by whichonly a few individuals survive in a group ofplants of the same age, since plants cannotescape competition by moving away to adifferent placesell-by datesell-by date noun a date on the label of afood product which is the last date onwhich the product should be sold and beguaranteed as of good qualityselvaselva noun tropical rainforest in the Ama-zon basinsemeloparitysemeloparity noun a form of reproduc-tion where the animal or plant reproducesonce only, as in the case of salmonsemi-semi- prefix halfsemi-aridsemi-arid noun receiving very little rainsemiconductorsemiconductor noun a material withconductive properties between those of aconductor such as a metal and an insulator


semi-desert 192semi-desertsemi-desert noun an area of land whichhas very little rainsemi-natural forestsemi-natural forest noun a woodedarea that contains mainly native trees andshrubs which have not been plantedsemiochemicalsemiochemical adjective a chemical re-leased by animals, especially insects, as ameans of communication, e.g. a pherom-onesemi-parasiticsemi-parasitic adjective referring to anorganism living as a parasite but also un-dergoing photosynthesissemi-permeablesemi-permeable adjective referring tosomething such as a membrane that allowsa liquid to pass through but not substancesdissolved in the liquidsenescencesenescence noun the process of grow-ing oldersensitisesensitise, sensitize verb to make some-one sensitive to a substance such as an al-lergen or drugsensitivesensitive adjective 1. referring to theability to respond to stimuli � The leaves ofthe plant are sensitive to frost. 2. referringto devices that are able to record very smallchanges � The earthquake was a small oneand only registered on the most sensitiveequipment.sensitivitysensitivity noun 1. the ability or tenden-cy to respond to stimuli. Also called irrita-bility 2. the ability to record very smallchanges � the scanner’s sensitivity to smallobjectssensorysensory adjective referring to the sensesSEPASEPA abbr Scottish Environment Protec-tion Agencysepalsepal noun a part of the calyx of a flower,usually green and sometimes hairyseparateseparate adjective 1. distinct and not re-lated 2. not joined or together � verb 1. tomove or keep something apart 2. to distin-guish one thing from another 3. to divide orsplit something into its partsseparate collectionseparate collection, separated col-lection noun the collection of differenttypes of solid waste separately, often incontainers of different colours, so that theycan be recycled, reused or disposed of indifferent waysseparate systemseparate system noun a drainage sys-tem where sewage and rainwater are notcollected together but drain through differ-ent channelsseparatorseparator noun a device which removesa component from a mixture or combina-tion � The water separator will extract apercentage of free moisture from the air.

septicseptic adjective referring to the process ofdecomposition of organic matterseptic tankseptic tank noun 1. an underground tankfor household sewage that is not connectedto the main drainage system and in whichhuman waste is decomposed by the actionof anaerobic bacteria 2. a tank at a sewagetreatment works in which sewage is collect-ed to begin its treatment by anaerobic bac-teriaseresere noun a series of plant communitieswhich succeed one another in an areasessilesessile adjective 1. attached directly to abranch or stem without a stalk � Theacorns of a sessile oak tree have no stalksor very short stalks. 2. permanently at-tached to a surfaceset asideset aside verb to use a piece of formerlyarable land for something other than grow-ing food crops. It may be allowed to lie fal-low, be planted as woodland or with indus-trial crops, or be used for recreation.set-asideset-aside noun a piece of formerly arableland used for something other than growingfood cropssettlesettle verb 1. to stop moving and stay inone place 2. (of sediment) to fall to the bot-tom of a liquidsettlementsettlement noun 1. a place where peoplehave established a community 2. (of sedi-ment) the process of falling to the bottom ofa liquidsettling basinsettling basin, settling pond noun atank in which a liquid is allowed to stand sothat solid particles can sink to the bottomSevesoSeveso noun a town in Italy, scene of adisaster in 1976 when tetrachlorodibenzo-paradioxin gas escaped from a chemicalfactory during the manufacture of 2,4,5-Tsewagesewage noun waste water and other ma-terial such as faeces, carried away in sew-ers. Also called sewage wastesewage disposalsewage disposal noun the removal ofsewage from houses and other buildings forprocessingsewage effluentsewage effluent noun liquid or solidwaste carried away in sewerssewage lagoonsewage lagoon noun a pond used to pu-rify sewage by allowing sunlight, oxygenand bacteria to act on the mixture of sewageand watersewage sludgesewage sludge noun the solid or semi-solid part of sewagesewage treatment plantsewage treatment plant noun a placewhere sewage from houses and other build-ings is brought for processing. Also calledsewage farm, sewage works


193 SICCOMMENT: A modern sewage treatmentplant works by passing the sewagethrough a series of processes. It is firstscreened to remove large particles, thenpassed into sedimentation tanks wherepart of the solids remaining in the sewagesettle. The sewage then continues into anaerator which adds air to activate the bac-teria. The sewage then settles in a secondsedimentation tank before being dis-charged into a river or the sea and the re-sulting sludge is digested anaerobically bybacteria in digestion tanks before beingput on the land as biosolids, burnt, or oth-erwise disposed of.

sewage wastesewage waste noun same as sewagesewage workssewage works noun same as sewagetreatment plantsewersewer noun a large pipe or tunnel whichtakes waste water and material such as fae-ces away from buildingsseweragesewerage noun a system of pipes andtreatment plants which collect and disposeof sewage in a townshade plantshade plant noun a plant which toleratesand grows in shadeshadingshading noun the action of cutting off thelight of the sun � Parts of the field near talltrees suffer from shading.shaleshale noun sedimentary rock formed fromclay, which cracks along horizontal straightlinesshear waveshear wave noun a type of slow seismicwave that alters direction as it passesthrough different types of rockshedshed verb to let something fall off as partof a natural process � Deciduous trees shedtheir leaves in autumn. � Deer shed theirantlers after the mating season.sheepsheep noun an animal farmed for itswool, meat and milksheet lightningsheet lightning noun lightning whichlights up the sky rather than producing asingle visible flashshelfshelf noun a layer of rock or ice which jutsoutshelf-lifeshelf-life noun the number of days orweeks for which a product can stay on theshelf of a shop and still be good to useshellshell noun a hard outer covering of an an-imal, egg or seedshellfishshellfish noun a sea animal that has ahard shell and is used as foodsheltershelter noun a structure or feature provid-ing protection from wind, sun, rain or otherweather conditions � verb to protect some-thing from weather conditionsshelter beltshelter belt noun a row of trees plantedto give protection from wind

shelterwoodshelterwood noun a large area of treesleft standing when others are cut, to act asshelter for seedling treesshieldshield noun a large area of very old rocks� the Canadian shieldshifting cultivationshifting cultivation noun 1. an agricul-tural practice using the rotation of fieldsrather than crops, short cropping periodsfollowed by long fallows and the mainte-nance of fertility by the regeneration ofvegetation. � fallow 2. a form of cultivationpractised in some tropical countries, whereland is cultivated until it is exhausted andthen left as the farmers move on to anotherareashingleshingle noun the small pebbles found onbeaches, 1–7cm in diametershockshock noun a sudden violent impactshoreshore noun land at the edge of the sea ora lake

COMMENT: The shore is divided into differ-ent zones. The upper shore is the areawhich is only occasionally covered by seawater at the very highest tides. The middleshore is the main area of shore which iscovered and uncovered by the sea at eachtide. The lower shore is the area which isvery rarely uncovered and only at the low-est tides.

shorebirdshorebird noun a bird which lives andnests on the shoreshorelineshoreline noun an area of land at theedge of the sea or a lakeshoreline management planshoreline management plan noun aofficial plan for flood and coastal defencefor a specific area of coast, taking into ac-count local social and economic issues aswell as environmental concernsshort-day plantshort-day plant noun a plant that flow-ers as the days get shorter in the autumn,e.g. a chrysanthemum. Compare long-dayplantshort tonshort ton noun US same as tonshowershower noun a brief fall of rain or snowshrivelshrivel verb to become dry and wrinkled� The leaves shrivelled in the prolongeddrought.shrubshrub noun a perennial plant with severalwoody stemsshrubbyshrubby adjective growing like a shrubSiSi symbol siliconSISI noun the international system of metricmeasurements. Full form Système Inter-nationalsibsib, sibling noun one of the offspring ofthe same parents � Brothers and sisters areall siblings.SICSIC abbr Site of Community Importance


sick building syndrome 194sick building syndromesick building syndrome noun a set ofsymptoms that affect people when they arein a building and not when they leave thebuilding, but that cannot be traced to spe-cific pollutants or sources within the build-ing. Compare building-related illness

COMMENT: Symptoms of sick building syn-drome include headaches, sore throats,dry skin, general tired feeling and depres-sion. Some features that seem to be com-mon to the buildings causing these symp-toms are artificial ventilation systems withwindows that do not open and energy-effi-cient heating, bright lighting and carpetingon floors.

-side-side suffix side or edge � eroded hillsides� waterside plantsside effectside effect noun a secondary often unde-sirable effect � Draining the marsh hashad several unexpected side effects.sievertsievert noun a unit of measurement of theabsorbed dose of radiation, calculated asthe amount of radiation from one milligramof radium at a distance of one centimetrefor one hour. Symbol Svsignificantsignificant adjective 1. important, con-siderable or notable � There has been a sig-nificant reduction in the amount of rawsewage being released into the sea. 2. tooclosely linked statistically to be the resultof chance � The difference is not statisti-cally significant.significant figuressignificant figures plural noun the fig-ures in a decimal number that express accu-racy, beginning with the first non-zero fig-ure on the left and ending with the figure onthe right � shown to three significant fig-uressignificantlysignificantly adverb 1. to any considera-ble or notable degree � The amount has notbeen significantly reduced. 2. in a way thatis linked statisticallysilagesilage noun food for cattle formed ofgrass and other green plants, cut and storedin silossilencersilencer noun a device to reduce noise,fitted to a machinesilicasilica noun a mineral which forms quartzand sand, and is used to make glass. Alsocalled silicon dioxidesilicatesilicate noun 1. a chemical compound ofsilicon and oxygen, the most widespreadform of mineral found in most rocks andsoils 2. particles of silica found in claysiliconsilicon noun an element with semicon-ductor properties, used in crystal form as abase for the manufacture of integrated cir-cuits (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Si; the

atomic number is 14 and the atomic weightis 28.09.)silicon dioxidesilicon dioxide noun same as silicasilicosissilicosis noun a type of pneumoconiosiscaused by inhaling silica dust from miningor stone-crushing operations, which makesbreathing difficult and can lead to emphy-sema and bronchitissilosilo noun a large container for storinggrain or silagesiltsilt noun 1. soft mud which settles at thebottom of water 2. particles of fine quartzwith a diameter of 0.002–0.06mm � verb �to silt up (of a harbour or river) to becomefull of silt, so that boats can no longer sailsiltationsiltation, silting noun the action of de-positing silt at the bottom of water, or thestate of having a silt deposit � increasedsedimentation and siltation in backwaterssilversilver noun a white metallic elementwhich is not corroded by exposure to air(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ag; theatomic number is 47 and the atomic weightis 107.87.)silvi-silvi- prefix trees or woodssilvicidesilvicide noun a substance which killstreessilvicoloussilvicolous adjective living or growingin woodlandsilviculturalsilvicultural adjective referring to thecultivation of treessilviculturesilviculture noun the cultivation of treesas part of forestrysimazinesimazine a herbicide that kills germinat-ing seedling, used as a ground spray (NOTE:It is under review for withdrawal from use inthe European Union.)similarity coefficientsimilarity coefficient noun the degreeto which two things such as areas of vege-tation are alikesinksink verb to fall to the bottom of water �sank to the river bed (NOTE: sinks – sank –sunk) � noun 1. a place into which a sub-stance passes to be stored or to be absorbed.� carbon sink 2. a low-lying piece of landwhere water collects to form a pondsinkholesinkhole noun same as sink noun 2sireniansirenian noun a large marine animal liv-ing in warm estuaries, e.g. a manatee. Or-der: Sirenia.siroccosirocco noun a dry wind blowing fromthe desert northwards in North Africasitesite noun 1. a place or position of some-thing � The rare orchid grows on only twosites. � Hazardous chemicals found on thesite include arsenic, lead mercury and cya-nide. � honeypot site, landfill site 2. a ge-


195 smelterographically defined area whose extent isclearly markedSite of Community ImportanceSite of Community Importancenoun a place recognised by the EuropeanCommission as important in maintaining orrestoring the conservation status of the re-gion in which it occurs. Abbr SCISite of Special Scientific InterestSite of Special Scientific Interestnoun in England, Wales and Scotland, anarea of land which is officially protected tomaintain its fauna, flora or geology. AbbrSSSIsitingsiting noun the act of putting somethingor being in a particular place � Siting thewindfarm offshore has attracted criticismfrom bird conservation groups.Sitka spruceSitka spruce noun a temperate softwoodconiferous tree, that is fast-growing. It isused for making paper. Latin name: Piceasitchensis.skylineskyline noun a line of hills or buildingsseen against the sky � They want to protectmountain skylines from the planting of con-ifers.slackslack noun a valley with a high water tablebetween sand dunesslack waterslack water noun the part of the tidal cy-cle occurring between the ebb and floodtides at the point when the flows are revers-ing directionslagslag noun waste matter which floats ontop of the molten metal during smelting,used to lighten heavy soils, e.g. clay, andalso for making cementslag heapslag heap noun a large pile of waste ma-terial from an industrial process such assmelting or from coal miningslash and burn agricultureslash and burn agriculture noun aform of agriculture in which forest is cutdown and burnt to create open space forgrowing crops. Also called swidden farm-ing (NOTE: The space is abandoned afterseveral crops have been grown and thenmore forest is cut down.)slateslate noun a hard metamorphic rockwhich splits easily along cleavage lines,used especially for making roofsslaughterslaughter noun the killing of a largenumber of animals � verb 1. to kill animalsfor food 2. to kill large numbers of animals� Thousands of seals were slaughtered an-nually.sleetsleet noun icy rain � verb to fall as icyrainslickslick noun a patch of something thin orslippery on a surface, especially of oil float-ing on water

slimeslime noun 1. a mucous substance secret-ed by an organism such as a snail 2. a coat-ing of green algae on rocks or other surfac-es 3. an unpleasant slippery substanceslip-off slopeslip-off slope noun a gently slopingbank on the inside of a river with largebends (meanders)sloughslough noun dead tissue, especially deadskin, which has separated from healthy tis-sue � verb (of a snake) to let dead skin falloff as part of a natural processsludgesludge noun 1. a thick wet substance, es-pecially wet mud or snow 2. the solid orsemi-solid part of sewagesludge compostingsludge composting noun the decom-position of sewage for use as a fertiliser ormulchsludge digestionsludge digestion noun a final treatmentof sewage when it is digested anaerobicallyby bacteriasludge gassludge gas noun methane mixed withcarbon dioxide which is given off by sew-agesludge gulpersludge gulper noun a large truck whichremoves sludge from cesspits and septictankssludge processingsludge processing noun treatment ofthe solid or semi-solid part of sewage sothat it can safely be dumped or used as afertiliserslugslug noun an invertebrate animal withouta shell. It causes damage to plants by eatingleaves or underground parts, especially inwet conditions.slug pelletslug pellet noun a small hard piece of amixture containing a substance such asmetaldehyde which kills slugs. Slug pelletsare usually coloured blue-green.sluicesluice noun a channel for water, especial-ly through a dam or other barriersluice gatesluice gate noun a mechanism for con-trolling the amount of water that passesthrough a channelslumslum noun an area of a city where thebuildings are in bad condition and oftenwhere a lot of people live very closely to-gether � adjective referring to a slum �slum housing � slum conditionsslurryslurry noun liquid or semi-liquid wastefrom animals, stored in tanks or lagoonsand treated to be used as fertilisersmall-scalesmall-scale adjective small in size orlimited in scope. Compare large-scalesmeltsmelt verb to extract metal from ore byheating itsmeltersmelter noun a processing facility whereore is heated and metal extracted from it


smelting 196smeltingsmelting noun the process of extractingmetal from ore by heatingsmogsmog noun a form of air pollution intowns, caused by warm damp air combinedwith exhaust fumes from cars. � photo-chemical smogsmokesmoke noun a white, grey or black massof small particles in the air, produced bysomething which is burning � verb to emitsmoke � The volcano is still smoking.smoke control areasmoke control area noun an area of atown where it is not permitted to producesmoke from chimneys or firessmokelesssmokeless adjective 1. referring to aplace where there is no smoke or wheresmoking is not allowed 2. referring to a fuelwhich does not produce smoke when it isburnedsmokeless zonesmokeless zone noun an area of a townwhere it is not permitted to produce smokefrom chimneys or firessmokestacksmokestack noun a very tall industrialchimney, usually containing several fluessmokysmoky adjective 1. full of smoke � asmoky room 2. producing a lot of smoke �a smoky firesmutsmut noun 1. a small black piece of car-bon emitted from a fire � Smuts from the oildepot fire covered the town. 2. a disease ofcereal plants, caused by a fungus, that af-fects the development of the grain andmakes it look blackSnSn symbol tinSNFSNF abbr spent nuclear fuelsnowsnow noun water which falls as light piec-es of white ice in cold weather � verb to fallas snow � It snowed heavily during thenight.snowfallsnowfall noun a quantity of snow thatcomes down at any one time � A heavysnowfall blocked the main roads.snowflakesnowflake noun a small piece of snowformed from a number of ice crystalssnow-meltsnow-melt noun the melting of snow inspring, often the cause of floodssnowstormsnowstorm noun a heavy fall of snowaccompanied by windsnowysnowy adjective referring to weather or aperiod when a lot of snow falls � a periodof snowy weather � a snowy nightsoakawaysoakaway noun a channel in the groundfilled with gravel, which takes rainwaterfrom a downpipe or liquid sewage from aseptic tank and allows it to be absorbed intothe surrounding soilsoarsoar verb (of a bird) to fly high up or stayairborne without any movement of the

wings by floating on the upward movementof warm airSoCCSoCC abbr Species of Conservation Con-cernsocialsocial adjective referring to a group of an-imals or peoplesocial carnivoresocial carnivore noun a meat-eating an-imal that lives and hunts in a group, e.g. alion or wolf. Compare herbivore, omni-voresocial costsocial cost noun the full cost to societyof an activity, including hidden costs aswell as direct costssocial insectsocial insect noun an insect such as anant or termite that lives in a large groupsocial responsibilitysocial responsibility noun concern forthe effects upon society of activities that areundertaken, such as a concern for the ef-fects on people’s health of environmentalpollution and industrial processessocietysociety noun 1. a group of people or ani-mals that live together in an organised way2. a group of plants within a larger commu-nitysociologysociology noun the study of human orother societiessodasoda noun same as sodium hydroxidesoda lakesoda lake noun a salt lake with a highconcentration of sodium in the watersodiumsodium noun a chemical element whichis a constituent of common salt and essen-tial to animal life (NOTE: The chemical sym-bol is Na; the atomic number of 11 and theatomic weight is 22.99.)sodium chloridesodium chloride noun common salt.Formula: NaCl.sodium hydroxidesodium hydroxide noun a compoundof sodium and water which is used to makesoap and to clear blocked drains. Formula:NaOH. Also called caustic soda, sodasoftwoodsoftwood noun 1. the open-grained woodproduced by pine trees and other conifers 2.a pine tree or other conifer that producessuch wood. Compare hardwoodsoilsoil noun the earth in which plants grow. �chernozem, loess, podsol, subsoil, top-soil

COMMENT: Soil is a mixture of mineral par-ticles, decayed organic matter and water.Topsoil contains chemical substanceswhich are leached through into the subsoilwhere they are retained. Soils are classi-fied according to the areas of the world inwhich they are found, according to thetypes of minerals they contain or accord-ing to the stage of development they havereached.

Soil AssociationSoil Association noun a UK organisa-tion that certifies organically grown food


197 solidsoil compactionsoil compaction noun the process ofdeveloping a close, densely packed soilstructure, as a result of pressure or heavyloads, or the state of being densely packedsoil conservationsoil conservation noun the use of arange of methods to prevent soil from beingeroded or overcultivatedsoil creepsoil creep noun a slow movement of soildownhillsoil erosionsoil erosion noun the removal of soil bythe effects of rain, wind, sea or cultivationpracticessoil faunasoil fauna plural noun invertebrate ani-mals that live in soil, e.g. earthwormssoil fertilitysoil fertility noun the potential capacityof soil to support plant growth based on itscontent of nitrogen and other nutrientssoil florasoil flora plural noun microorganismssuch as fungi and algae that live in soilsoil horizonsoil horizon noun a layer of soil that is ofa different colour or texture from other lay-ers (NOTE: There are four soil horizons: theA horizon or topsoil containing humus; theB horizon or subsoil containing mineralsleached from the topsoil and little organicmatter; the C horizon or weathered rock;and the D horizon or bedrock.)soilless gardeningsoilless gardening noun same as hy-droponicssoil mapsoil map noun a map showing the differ-ent types of soil found in an areasoil nutritionsoil nutrition noun 1. the condition ofsoil in terms of the plant nutrients it con-tains 2. the application of fertilisers to soil� use muck and some seaweed for soil nu-tritionsoil organic mattersoil organic matter noun decayed ordecaying vegetation that forms part of soil.Abbr SOMsoil profilesoil profile noun a vertical sectionthrough the soil showing the different lay-ers. � soil horizonsoil salinitysoil salinity noun the quantity of mineralsalts found in a soil (NOTE: High soil salinityis detrimental to most agricultural crops, al-though some plants are adapted to suchconditions.)soil samplesoil sample noun a small quantity of soilused for testingsoil sciencesoil science noun the scientific study ofall aspects of soil, including its formation,distribution and structuresoil sterilantsoil sterilant noun something used to re-move microorganisms from soil, e.g. achemical or steamsoil structuresoil structure noun the arrangement ofsoil particles in groups or individually, giv-ing a loose or firm texture

soil texturesoil texture noun the structure of soilbased on the relative proportions of parti-cles of different sizes it is composed of(NOTE: There are four main classes of soiltexture: clay, silt, sand and loam. Loam,which contains a mixture of soil particles, isthe most suitable for growing crops.)solarsolar adjective 1. referring to the Sun 2.using the energy of the Sun or driven bypower from the Sunsolar cellsolar cell noun a photoelectric devicethat converts solar energy into electricitysolar collectorsolar collector noun same as solar pan-elsolar eclipsesolar eclipse noun a situation when theMoon passes between the Sun and theEarth during the daytime and the shadow ofthe Moon falls across the Earth, so cuttingoff the Sun’s light. Compare lunar eclipsesolar energysolar energy noun electricity producedfrom the Sun’s radiation. Also called solarpower, solar-generated energy, solar-generated power

COMMENT: The Sun emits radiation in theform of ultraviolet rays, visible light and in-frared heating rays. Solar energy can becollected by various methods, most oftenby heating water, which is then passedinto storage tanks. Although solar energyis easy to collect, the problem is in storingit in order to make sure that power is avail-able for use during the night or when it iscloudy.

solar gainsolar gain noun the amount of heat in abuilding derived from solar radiationthrough windows or transparent wallssolar-generated energysolar-generated energy, solar-gen-erated power noun same as solar energysolar heatingsolar heating noun the use of the Sun’senergy to heat water as it passes throughheat-absorbing panelssolarisationsolarisation, solarization noun expo-sure to the rays of the Sun, especially forthe purpose of killing pests in the soil, bycovering the soil with plastic sheets and let-ting it warm up in the sunshinesolar panelsolar panel noun a device with a darksurface which absorbs the sun’s radiationand uses it to heat water. Also called solarcollector, collector panelsolar powersolar power noun same as solar energysolar-poweredsolar-powered adjective powered byenergy derived from the Sun’s rays � a so-lar-powered steam pumpsolidsolid adjective not liquid or gaseous � alump of solid matter � a solid object � Vis-ibility is reduced by the presence of solidparticles such as dust or sand in the atmos-phere.


solidification 198solidificationsolidification noun the process of be-coming solidsolidifysolidify verb to become solid � Carbondioxide solidifies at low temperatures.solid wastesolid waste noun a type of waste matterthat is hard and not liquidsolifluctionsolifluction noun a gradual downhillmovement of wet soilsolsticesolstice noun one of the two times of yearwhen the Sun is at its furthest point, eithernorth or south, from the equatorsolubilitysolubility noun the ability of a substanceto dissolve in another substance or solventat a given temperature and pressuresolublesoluble adjective referring to a substancethat can be dissolved � fat-soluble � wa-ter-solublesolumsolum noun soil, including both topsoiland subsoilsolutesolute noun a solid substance which isdissolved in a solvent to make a solutionsolutionsolution noun 1. the act or means of solv-ing a problem or difficulty � The solutionwas to protect the plants from trampling. 2.the answer to or a way of removing a prob-lem or difficulty � found a solution 3. achange of a solid or gas into a liquid by dis-solving in water or some other liquid 4. amixture of a solid substance dissolved in aliquid � a dilute solution of sodium bicar-bonatesolventsolvent noun a liquid in which a solidsubstance can be dissolvedSOMSOM abbr soil organic mattersonarsonar noun a method of finding objectsunder water by sending out sound wavesand detecting returning sound waves re-flected by the objectsondesonde noun a device attached to a balloonor rocket, for measuring and taking sam-ples of the atmospheresonicsonic adjective referring to sound wavessootsoot noun a black deposit of fine particlesof carbon which rise in the smoke producedby the burning of material such as coal,wood or oilsorghumsorghum noun a drought-resistant cerealplant grown in semi-arid tropical regionssuch as Mexico, Nigeria and Sudan. Latinname: Sorghum vulgare.soundsound noun something that can be heardand is caused by vibration of the surround-ing airsound insulationsound insulation noun preventingsound escaping or enteringsourcesource noun 1. a substance or objectwhich produces something � Hot rocks are

a potential energy source. � Plants tend toturn towards a light source. 2. the placewhere a river starts to flow � The source ofthe Nile is in the mountains of Ethiopia.southern hemispheresouthern hemisphere noun the lowerhalf of the EarthSouthern LightsSouthern Lights plural noun a spectac-ular illumination of the sky in the southernhemisphere caused by ionised particlesstriking the atmosphere. Also called Auro-ra Australissowsow verb to put seeds into soil so that theywill germinate and growsoyasoya noun a plant that produces ediblebeans which have a high protein and fatcontent and very little starch. Latin name:Glycine max. Also called soya bean, soy-beansoya beansoya bean, soybean noun 1. a bean froma soya plant 2. same as soyasp.sp. abbr species (NOTE: The plural, for sev-eral species, is spp.)sparsesparse adjective having only a smallnumber of items or individuals in a specificarea � a few sparse bushes in the desert �a sparse populationspatespate noun � in (full) spate very full ofwater and overflowing its banks � The riv-er was in full spate.spathespathe noun a large funnel-shaped bract,often coloured, around a flower headspawnspawn noun a mass of eggs produced bya fish or reptile � Frog spawn develops intotadpoles. � verb (of a fish or reptile) to pro-duce a mass of eggsSPECSPEC abbr Species of European Conser-vation ConcernSpecial Area of ConservationSpecial Area of Conservation nouna site designated to meet the requirementsof the Habitats and Species Directive of theEuropean Union. Abbr SACspecialisationspecialisation, specialization noun 1.the activity of being concerned with oneparticular area of knowledge in detail 2. aparticular area of knowledgespecialisespecialise, specialize verb to be con-cerned with one particular area of knowl-edge in detail � She specialises in the studyof conifers.specialistspecialist noun 1. a person who special-ises in a particular area of knowledge �They have called in a contamination spe-cialist. 2. an organism which only lives onone type of food or in a very restricted hab-itatspecialist speciesspecialist species noun a specieswhich only lives on one type of food or in avery restricted habitat


199 spoilagespecialityspeciality noun a particular area ofknowledge that a person is concerned within detailspecial protection areaspecial protection area noun an areadesignated under the Birds directive for theconservation of wild birdsspecialtyspecialty noun US same as specialityspeciationspeciation noun the process of develop-ing new speciesspeciesspecies noun a group of organisms thatcan interbreed. A species is a division of agenus. Abbr sp. (NOTE: The plural is spe-cies.)Species Action PlanSpecies Action Plan noun a schemeaimed at protecting species that are at riskby collecting all the available ecologicaldata and listing appropriate conservationactionsspecies barrierspecies barrier noun the inability ofmembers of different species to producehealthy offspring if they mate or crossspecies diversityspecies diversity noun the range ofspecies found in an areaspecies of conservation concernspecies of conservation concernnoun a species that is in decline, rare orscarce in the wild. Abbr SoCCspecies of European concernspecies of European concern nouna species that is in decline, rare or scarce inEurope. Abbr SPECspecies poolspecies pool noun the group of allmembers of a speciesspecies richnessspecies richness noun the number ofspecies found in an areaspecies richness mapspecies richness map noun a mapshowing the distribution of species in anareaspecificspecific adjective 1. clearly defined anddefinite � The plants have specific require-ments for growth. 2. characteristic of some-thing 3. referring to species. � interspecif-ic, intraspecificspecificityspecificity noun the characteristic ofhaving a specific range or use � Parasitesshow specificity in that they live on only alimited number of hosts.specific namespecific name noun the scientific nameby which a species is differentiated fromother members of the genus (NOTE: It is thesecond name in the binomial classificationsystem, the first being the name whichidentifies the genus. It is written with asmall letter.)specimenspecimen noun 1. a representative of agroup, especially an animal or plant � arare double-flowered specimen 2. a smallquantity of something given for testing �

Scientists have taken away soil specimensfor analysis.spectrographyspectrography noun the recording of aspectrum on photographic filmspectroscopespectroscope noun an instrument usedto analyse a spectrumspent fuelspent fuel noun fuel which has been usedin a nuclear reactor but which is still fissileand can be reprocessed � Tonnes of spentfuel are sent for reprocessing.spent nuclear fuelspent nuclear fuel noun radioactivematerial that has undergone one year of de-cay since being taken from a nuclear reac-tor but has not been separated into its com-ponents by reprocessing. Abbr SNFspermsperm noun same as spermatozoon(NOTE: The plural is sperm.)spermatogenesisspermatogenesis noun the formationand development of spermatozoaspermatophytespermatophyte noun a seed-producingplant such as an angiosperm or a gymno-spermspermatozoonspermatozoon noun a mature male sexcell, which is capable of fertilising an ovum(NOTE: The plural is spermatozoa.)sperm whalesperm whale noun a large toothed whalewith a massive head inside which is a cavitycontaining sperm oil for which it was for-merly huntedsphagnumsphagnum noun a type of moss whichgrows in bogsspiderspider noun one of a large group of ani-mals, with two parts to their bodies andeight legs. Class: Arachnida.spikespike noun a tall pointed flower head (in-florescence) in which small flowers with-out stalks grow from a central flower stemspillspill noun a quantity of liquid which hasescaped from a container or confined areaspillagespillage noun 1. the process of escapingfrom a container or confined area � spill-age of the river onto the adjacent land 2. aquantity of liquid which has escaped froma container or confined areaspillwayspillway noun a channel down which wa-ter can overflow from the reservoir behinda damspirochaetespirochaete noun a bacterium with aspiral shapespitspit noun a long, narrow accumulation ofsand or gravel that projects from the shoreinto the seaspoilspoil noun waste left after minerals havebeen dug out of the groundspoilagespoilage noun the process of food be-coming inedible, especially because ofpoor storage conditions


spoil heap 200spoil heapspoil heap noun a large pile of waste leftafter minerals have been dug out of thegroundsporangiumsporangium noun the organ that produc-es spores in some fungi, ferns and someother non-flowering plants (NOTE: The plu-ral is sporangia.)sporespore noun the microscopic reproductivebody of fungi, bacteria and some non-flow-ering plants such as fernssporicidalsporicidal adjective able to kill sporessporicidesporicide noun a substance that killssporessporophyllsporophyll noun a leaf with spore-pro-ducing organs, e.g. the fertile frond of afernsporophytesporophyte noun the spore-producingnon-sexual phase in the life cycle of someplants such as fernssporozoonsporozoon plural noun a parasitic proto-zoan, e.g. Plasmodium, the cause of malar-ia (NOTE: The plural is sporozoa.)sports utility vehiclesports utility vehicle, sport utility ve-hicle noun a large strongly built car de-signed to carry people and equipment inrough countryside but usually used for eve-ryday driving. Abbr SUV (NOTE: There areenvironmental concerns about the poorfuel economy of such cars.)SPOTSPOT abbr Système Probatoire d’Obser-vation de la Terresprawlsprawl noun an area that has been built upin a disorderly way � urban sprawl � verbto spread out in a disorderly waysprayspray noun 1. a mass of tiny drops of liq-uid 2. special liquid for spraying onto aplant to prevent insect infestation or disease� verb 1. to send out a liquid in a mass oftiny drops � They sprayed the plants withwater at regular intervals. 2. to send out aspecial liquid onto a plant to prevent insectinfestation or disease � Apple trees aresprayed twice a year to kill aphids.sprayersprayer noun a machine which forces aliquid through a nozzle under pressure,used to distribute liquids such as herbi-cides, fungicides, insecticides and fertilis-ersspreadspread verb 1. to move out over a largearea � The locusts spread right across thecountry. � Invasive plants spread rapidly.2. to put something such as manure, fertilis-er or mulch on an area of groundspringspring noun 1. a place where water comesnaturally out of the ground 2. the season ofthe year following winter and before sum-mer, when days become longer and theweather progressively warmer

spring tidespring tide noun a tide which occurs atthe new and full moon when the influenceof the Sun and Moon act together and thedifference between high and low water ismore than normal. Compare neap tidespringwoodspringwood noun wood that developsjust below the bark of trees in spring. Com-pare summerwoodsproutsprout noun a little shoot growing outfrom a plant, with a stem and small leaves� verb (of a plant) to send out new growthsprucespruce noun a temperate softwood conif-erous tree. Genus: Picea.spurspur noun 1. a ridge of land that descendstowards a valley floor from higher landabove 2. a tubular projection from a flowersepal or petal often containing nectar 3. ashort leafy branch of a tree with a cluster offlowers or fruitssquallsquall noun a sharp gust of windsquallysqually adjective (of weather ) with sharpgusts of windSrSr symbol strontiumSSSISSSI abbr Site of Special Scientific Inter-eststabilisation lagoonstabilisation lagoon noun 1. a pondused for storing liquid waste 2. a pond usedfor purifying sewage by allowing sunlightto fall on a mixture of sewage and waterstabilisation pondstabilisation pond noun same as sew-age lagoonstabilisestabilise, stabilize verb 1. to becomesteady and not change, or to make some-thing remain without change 2. to takemeasures to prevent soil being eroded, es-pecially from a hillsidestabiliserstabiliser, stabilizer noun 1. an artificialsubstance added to processed food such assauces containing water and fat to stop themixture from changing (NOTE: In the EU,emulsifiers and stabilisers have E numbersE322 to E495.) 2. an artificial substanceadded to plastics to prevent degradationstabilising agentstabilising agent noun same as stabi-liserstabilitystability noun the state of being stableand not changingstablestable adjective 1. steady and not easilymoved � a stable surface 2. not changing �In parts of Southeast Asia, temperatures re-main stable for most of the year. 3. referringto a chemical compound that does not reactreadily with other chemicalsstable climaxstable climax noun a community ofplants and animals in equilibrium with itsenvironment, the final stage of an ecologi-cal succession


201 steno-stable populationstable population noun a populationwhich remains at a constant level becausebirths and deaths are equalstackstack noun 1. a very tall industrial chim-ney, usually containing several flues � Theuse of high stacks in power stations meansthat pollution is now more widely spread. 2.a steep-sided pillar of rock which stands inthe sea near a cliff 3. a large neat pile ofthings � a stack of boxes � verb to placethings in a neat pile one on top of the otherstainstain noun 1. a coloured mark on a surface2. a substance used to increase contrast inthe colour of something such as a piece oftissue or a bacterial sample before examin-ing it under a microscope � verb to treatsomething such as a piece of tissue or abacterial sample with a dye so as to in-crease contrast in the colour before examin-ing it under a microscopestakeholderstakeholder noun a person who has aninterest in seeing that something does ordoes not happen, e.g. a shareholder in abusiness, an employee or a supplierstalactitestalactite noun a long pointed growth ofmineral from the ceiling of a cave, formedby the constant dripping of water which isrich in mineralsstalagmitestalagmite noun a long pointed growthof mineral upwards from the floor of acave, formed by the constant dripping ofwater which is rich in minerals from the tipof a stalactitestalkstalk noun 1. the main stem of a plantwhich holds the plant upright 2. a subsidi-ary stem of a plant, branching out from themain stem or attaching a leaf, flower orfruitstamenstamen noun a male part of a flower con-sisting of a stalk (filament) bearing a con-tainer (anther) in which pollen is producedstandstand noun a group of plants or treesgrowing together � a stand of conifersstandardstandard noun 1. something which hasbeen agreed on and is used to measure otherthings by � set higher standards for waterpurity 2. a plant grown on a single longstem that is kept from forming branches ex-cept at the top 3. a large tree in a woodland� a coppice with standardsstanding cropstanding crop noun 1. a crop such aswheat which is still growing in a field 2. thenumbers and weight of the living vegeta-tion of an area, calculated by weighing thevegetation growing in a sample sectionstaphylococcalstaphylococcal adjective caused by sta-phylococci

staphylococcusstaphylococcus noun a bacterium thatcauses boils and food poisoning. Genus:Staphylococcus. (NOTE: The plural is sta-phylococci.)staple commoditystaple commodity noun a basic food orraw materialstarchstarch noun a substance composed ofchains of glucose units, found in greenplants (NOTE: It is the usual form in whichcarbohydrates exist in food, especially inbread, rice and potatoes, and is brokendown by the digestive process into forms ofsugar.)starchystarchy adjective containing a lot ofstarch � Potatoes are a starchy food.starfishstarfish noun one of a group of flat seaanimals that have five arms branching froma central bodystarvationstarvation noun the state of having verylittle or no foodstarvestarve verb to have little or no food ornourishmentstasisstasis noun a state when there is nochange, growth or movementstaticstatic adjective not changing, moving orgrowingstationstation noun a building used for a partic-ular purpose, e.g. a research station or rail-way stationstatisticsstatistics plural noun figures relating tomeasurements taken from samples � Popu-lation statistics show that the birth rate isslowing down.statorstator noun a fixed part of a rotary ma-chine � The low pressure compressor haslarge rotor blades and stator blades.steady statesteady state noun a situation where theinput, output and properties of a system re-main constant over timesteamsteam noun vapour that comes off boilingwater and condenses in the atmospherestearic acidstearic acid noun a colourless insolublefatty acid found in animal and vegetablefats. It is used for making candles and soap.Formula: C18H36O3.steelsteel noun an alloy mainly of iron and car-bonsteelworkssteelworks noun a factory where steel isproduced from iron orestelestele noun the core of roots and stems,consisting of vascular tissue arranged indifferent patterns in different types of plantstemstem noun 1. the main stalk of a plant thatholds it upright 2. a subsidiary plant stalk,branching out from the main stalk or at-taching a leaf, flower or fruitsteno-steno- prefix narrow or constricted


stenohaline 202stenohalinestenohaline adjective 1. referring to anorganism that cannot tolerate variations insalt concentration in its environment 2. re-ferring to an organism that cannot survivevariations in osmotic pressure of soil water� compare euryhalinestenothermousstenothermous adjective referring toan organism that cannot tolerate changes oftemperature. Compare eurythermoussteppesteppe noun a wide grassy plain with notrees, especially in Europe and Asia (NOTE:The North American equivalent of a steppeis a prairie.)sterilesterile adjective 1. free from microorgan-isms 2. infertile or not able to produce off-springsterilisationsterilisation, sterilization noun 1. theaction of making something free from mi-croorganisms 2. the action of making an or-ganism unable to produce offspringsterilisesterilise, sterilize verb 1. to make some-thing sterile by killing the microorganismsin it or on it � The soil needs to be sterilisedbefore being used for intensive greenhousecultivation. 2. to make an organism unableto have offspring (NOTE: This may be doneby various means including drugs, surgeryor irradiation.)sterilitysterility noun 1. the state of being freefrom microorganisms 2. the inability toproduce offspringStevenson screenStevenson screen noun a shelter thatcontains meteorological instruments, ar-ranged to give standard readingsstewardshipstewardship noun the protection of theenvironment for the future benefit of gener-ations of human beings by developing ap-propriate institutions and strategiesstigmastigma noun the part of a flower’s femalereproductive organ that receives the pollengrains (NOTE: It is generally located at thetip of the style.)stimulatestimulate verb to make an organism ororgan react or respondstimulusstimulus noun something that makes anorganism or organ react or respond, e.g.light, heat or noise (NOTE: The plural isstimuli.)stingsting noun 1. an organ with a sharp point,used by an insect or scorpion to pierce theskin of its victim and inject a toxic sub-stance into the victim’s bloodstream 2. theaction of using a sting 3. a raised area onthe skin produced by a sting 4. a small itchylump that is the result of touching a plantsuch a nettle that irritates the skin � verb 1.(of an insect or scorpion) to use a sting topierce a victim � Do not touch the scorpion

or it will sting you. 2. (of a plant) to producea small itchy lump on somebody’s skinstingerstinger noun a plant such as a nettle thatirritates the skinstockstock noun 1. animals or plants that arederived from a common ancestor 2. a plantwith roots onto which a piece of anotherplant, the scion, is grafted. � rootstock 3. asupply of something available for futureuse � Stocks of herring are being decimat-ed by overfishing. � verb to provide a sup-ply of something for future use � a well-stocked garden � We stocked the pondswith a rare breed of fish.stockpilestockpile noun a large supply of some-thing held for future usestolonstolon noun 1. a stem that grows along theground and gives rise to a new plant whenit roots 2. a structure found in some simpleanimals, sometimes used to anchor an or-ganism to a surfacestomastoma noun a pore in a plant, especially inthe leaves, through which carbon dioxide istaken in and oxygen is sent out. Each stomain a leaf is surrounded by a pair of guardcells, which close the stomata if the plantneeds to conserve water. (NOTE: The pluralis stomata.)stonestone noun 1. a single small piece of rock2. a mineral formation 3. a hard endocarpthat surrounds a seed in a fruit such as acherrystonegroundstoneground adjective referring to flourwhich has been made by grinding betweenflat heavy stonesstonystony adjective with many stonesstoragestorage noun the act of keeping some-thing until it is neededstorage organstorage organ noun a plant part thatstores food from the previous growing sea-son and allows the plant to survive withoutleaves over winter, e.g. a potato tuber or adaffodil bulbstorage tankstorage tank noun a large tank for stor-ing a liquidstorestore verb to keep something until it isneeded � Whales store energy as blubberunder the skin.stormstorm noun a period of violent weather,with wind and rain or snow � There was astorm during the night. � Storms swept thenorthern region. � Beaufort scalestorm cloudstorm cloud noun a dark-coloured cloudin which vigorous activity produces heavyrain or snow and sometimes other pro-nounced meteorological effects such assqualls of wind


203 structurestorm drainstorm drain noun a specially wide chan-nel for taking away large amounts of rain-water which fall during heavy stormsstorm sewagestorm sewage noun sewage mixed withstorm water after a heavy rainfallstorm sewerstorm sewer noun a specially large pipefor taking away large amounts of rainwaterstorm surgestorm surge noun a rise in sea level as ahurricane or other severe storm moves overwater, causing flooding when the stormcomes ashorestorm swellstorm swell noun a long, often massiveand wave or succession of waves withoutcrests caused by a hurricanestorm waterstorm water noun water that falls as rainduring a stormstraight fertiliserstraight fertiliser noun a fertiliser thatsupplies only one nutrient such as nitrogen.Compare compound fertiliserstrainstrain noun a group within a species withdistinct characteristics � They have devel-oped a new strain of virus-resistant rice.straitstrait noun a narrow passage of sea be-tween two larger areas of seastratastrata plural of stratumstrategic environmental assessmentstrategic environmental assess-ment noun an official assessment of theenvironmental effect of policies, plans andprojects. � environmental impact assess-mentstratificationstratification noun the formation of sev-eral layers in substances such as sedimenta-ry rocks, or water in a lake or air in the at-mospherestratifiedstratified adjective formed of several lay-ersstratigraphystratigraphy noun the science of study-ing rock stratastratocumulusstratocumulus noun a layer of small cu-mulus clouds below 3000mstratopausestratopause noun a thin layer of theEarth’s atmosphere between the strato-sphere and the mesospherestratospherestratosphere noun a layer of the Earth’satmosphere, above the troposphere and thetropopause and separated from the meso-sphere by the stratopause

COMMENT: The stratosphere rises fromabout 18 km to 50 km above the surface ofthe Earth. It is formed of nitrogen (80%),oxygen (18%), ozone, argon and tracegases. The ozone in it forms the ozone lay-er.

stratosphericstratospheric adjective referring to thestratosphere � CFCs are responsible fordamage to the ozone in the Earth’s strat-ospheric zone.

stratumstratum noun a layer of rock (NOTE: Theplural is strata.)stratusstratus noun a type of grey cloud, oftenproducing light rainstrawstraw noun 1. the dry stems and leaves ofcrops such as wheat and oilseed rape left af-ter the grains have been removed 2. grasswhich is mowed after flowering. Comparehaystreamstream noun a narrow and shallow riverstream erosionstream erosion noun the wearing awayof soil or rock by the effect of a stream ofwaterstreamflowstreamflow noun the amount and speedof water flowing in a streamstressstress noun a condition where an outsideinfluence changes the composition or func-tioning of something � Plants in dry envi-ronments experience stress due to lack ofwater. � verb to subject something to stressstress-tolerantstress-tolerant adjective referring to aplant which can survive some degree ofstressstriationstriation noun 1. a pattern of parallellines or grooves 2. a narrow groove orscratch on rock, caused by the action of aglacierstripstrip noun a long narrow piece, usually ofthe same width from end to end � a strip ofpaper � a strip of land � verb to remove acovering from something � Spraying withdefoliant strips the leaves off all plants.strip croppingstrip cropping noun a method of farm-ing in which long thin pieces of land acrossthe contours are planted with differentcrops in order to reduce soil erosionstrip cultivationstrip cultivation noun a method of com-munal farming in which each family has along thin piece or several long thin piecesof land to cultivatestrip miningstrip mining noun a form of miningwhere the mineral is dug from the surfaceinstead of digging underground. � open-cast miningstrontiumstrontium noun a radioactive metallic el-ement (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Sr;the atomic number is 38 and the atomicweight is 87.62.)structuralstructural adjective referring to the struc-ture of something � The structural limita-tions must never be exceeded.structurestructure noun 1. something that hasbeen constructed � a glass and steel struc-ture 2. the different parts that make up awhole, or the arrangement of parts � thestructure of DNA


stubble 204stubblestubble noun the short stems left in theground after a crop such as wheat or oilseedrape has been cutstuntstunt verb to reduce the growth of some-thing � The poor soil stunts the growth ofthe trees.stylestyle noun the elongated structure thatcarries the stigma at its tip in many flowerssub-sub- prefix less important thansubatomic particlesubatomic particle noun same as ele-mentary particlesubclasssubclass noun a division of a class in thescientific classification of organismssubclimaxsubclimax noun a stage in the develop-ment of a plant community where develop-ment stops before reaching its final stablestate or climaxsubcontinentsubcontinent noun a very large landmass, that is a distinct part of a continent �the Indian subcontinentsubculturesubculture noun a culture of microor-ganisms or cells that is grown from anotherculture � verb to grow a culture of micro-organisms or cells from another culturesubdivisionsubdivision noun a group within a divi-sion in the scientific classification of organ-ismssubdominantsubdominant adjective referring to aspecies that is not as important as the dom-inant speciessubductsubduct verb to pull something under-neath � The oceanic crust is being subduct-ed under the continents which surround it.subductionsubduction noun the process by which atectonic plate such as the oceanic crust isslowly being pulled under another platesubgroupsubgroup noun a small group distin-guished in some way from the larger groupto which it belongssublimatesublimate verb to transform directlyfrom the solid to the gaseous state or fromthe gaseous to the solid state without be-coming a liquid � At low temperatures wa-ter vapour is directly sublimated into icecrystals.sublimesublime verb same as sublimatesublittoralsublittoral adjective further inland froma shore than the littoral zonesubmarinesubmarine adjective situated or existingbeneath the sea � Shellfish collect roundwarm submarine vents.submergesubmerge verb to cover something withwater or to become covered with water �The coast is dangerous, with rocks sub-merged at intervals along it.submicroscopicsubmicroscopic adjective too small tobe seen with a light microscope

sub-Saharansub-Saharan noun referring to the areasouth of the Sahara � Rural supplies ofwood for fuel are falling in many countriesof sub-Saharan Africa.subseresubsere noun the development of a plantand animal community after destruction ofan existing community by fire, flood or hu-man actionsubsidesubside verb 1. to go down or to becomeless violent � After the rainstorms passed,the flood waters gradually subsided. 2. tosink or fall to a lower level � The officeblock is subsiding owing to the shrinkage ofthe clay it is built on.subsidencesubsidence noun 1. (of a piece ofground or a building) the process of sinkingor falling to a lower level � Subsidencecaused by the old mine shaft closed themain road. 2. a gradual downward move-ment of a mass of airsubsidysubsidy noun money given by a govern-ment or organisation to help an industry,charity or other organisation � The reformwill result in subsidies for farming beingreplaced by payments for caring for the en-vironment.subsistencesubsistence noun the condition of man-aging to live on the smallest amount of re-sources including food needed to stay alivesubsistence farmingsubsistence farming noun the activityof growing just enough crops to feed thefarmer’s family and having none left to sellsubsoilsubsoil noun a layer of soil under the top-soil (NOTE: The subsoil contains little or-ganic matter but chemical substances fromthe topsoil leach into it.)subspeciessubspecies noun a group of organismsthat is part of a species but which showsslight differences from the main group,with which it can still interbreedsubstancesubstance noun material of a particulartype � a sticky substance � a harmful sub-stance � toxic substancessubstitutesubstitute noun a thing used in place ofanother � verb to replace one thing withanother � Farmers have been told toplough up pastureland and substitutewoodlots.substitutionsubstitution noun the replacement ofone thing by another � the substitution ofnatural fibres by synthetic materialssubstitution effectsubstitution effect noun the effect onthe environment of substituting one form ofaction for anothersubstratesubstrate noun 1. a substance that is act-ed on by a catalyst such as an enzyme 2. thematter or surface on which an organismlives


205 supercellsubstratumsubstratum noun a layer of rock beneaththe topsoil and subsoil (NOTE: The plural issubstrata.)subterraneansubterranean adjective below thegroundsubtropicalsubtropical adjective referring to thesubtropics � The islands enjoy a subtropi-cal climate. � Subtropical plants grow onthe sheltered parts of the coast.subtropicssubtropics plural noun an area betweenthe tropics and the temperate zonesuburbsuburb noun a residential part of a town,away from the centre, but still within thebuilt-up areasuburbansuburban adjective referring to the sub-urbssuccessionsuccession noun a series of stages, oneafter the other, by which a group of organ-isms living in a community reaches its finalstable state or climaxsuccessivesuccessive adjective referring to eventsor things following on one after anothersucculentsucculent noun a plant that has fleshyleaves or stems in which it stores water, e.g.a cactussudden oak deathsudden oak death noun a serious dis-ease caused by the fungus Phytophthoraramorum that affects many tree species(NOTE: It has killed various species of oak inthe US states of California and Oregon, butEuropean species of oak appear to be lessat risk.)sufficiencysufficiency noun a large enough amountof somethingsuffrutescentsuffrutescent, suffruticose adjectivereferring to a perennial plant that is woodyat the base of the stem and does not diedown to ground level in wintersugarsugar noun any chemical of the saccha-ride groupsulfatesulfate noun a salt of sulfuric acid and ametalsulfidesulfide, sulphide noun an ion of sulfurpresent in chemical compounds and miner-al oressulfitesulfite, sulphite noun a salt of sulfuricacid that forms part of several chemicalcompounds and is used in processing papersulfonationsulfonation, sulphonation noun the in-corporation of sulfonic acid into an organicsubstancesulfonatorsulfonator, sulphonator noun an appa-ratus for adding sulfur dioxide to water toremove excess chlorinesulfursulfur, sulphur noun a yellow non-metal-lic chemical element that is essential to bi-ological life. It is used in the manufacture

of sulfuric acid and in the vulcanisation ofrubber. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is S;the atomic number is 16 and the atomicweight is 32.06. The usual and recom-mended scientific spelling of sulphur andderivatives such as sulphate, sulphide andsulphonate is with an -f-, though the spell-ing with -ph- is still common in general us-age.)

COMMENT: In the United Kingdom, the re-moval of sulfur from the atmospheremeans that some crops such as oilseedrape are deficient and sulfur needs to beadded to fertilisers.

sulfur cyclesulfur cycle, sulphur cycle noun theprocess by which sulfur flows from the en-vironment, through organisms and back tothe environment againsullagesullage noun 1. mud brought down bymountain streams 2. the liquid waste froma buildingsummersummer noun the season followingspring and before autumn, when the weath-er is warmest, the Sun is highest in the skyand most plants flower and set seed � verbto spend the summer in a place � The birdssummer on the shores of the lake.summerwoodsummerwood noun dense wood formedby trees during the later part of the growingseason. Compare springwoodsummitsummit noun 1. the highest point of a hillor mountain � The climber reached thesummit of the mountain. 2. a meeting be-tween heads of government. � Earth Sum-mitsunsun noun sunlight or the rays of the Sun �sitting in the sunSunSun noun a very hot star round which theEarth and other planets orbit and whichgives energy in the form of light and heatsunburnsunburn noun damage to the skin by ex-cessive exposure to sunlightsunlightsunlight noun the light from the Sunsunrisesunrise noun the time when the Sun ap-pears above the eastern horizonsunsetsunset noun the time when the Sun disap-pears below the western horizonsunshinesunshine noun bright light from the Sunsunspotsunspot noun a darker patch on the sur-face of the Sun, caused by a stream of gasshooting outwardssuper-super- prefix more thansuperbugsuperbug noun a bacterium that is resist-ant to most antibiotics that could be used totreat itsupercellsupercell noun the centre of a very largetornado or thunderstorm


supercool 206supercoolsupercool verb to reduce the temperatureof a substance below its usual freezingpoint without freezing actually occurringsuperficialsuperficial adjective referring to featureson or near the surface � superficialscratchessuperheatedsuperheated adjective referring tosteam that is heated to a high temperature ina power stationsuperinsulatesuperinsulate verb to equip a buildingwith completely effective insulationsuperordersuperorder noun one of the groups in thescientific classification of organisms, rank-ing next above ordersuperorganismsuperorganism noun a group or com-munity of individual organisms that func-tions as a single unit (NOTE: A forest, a ter-mite colony and even human society can allbe viewed as superorganisms.)superphosphatesuperphosphate noun a chemical com-pound formed from calcium phosphate andsulfuric acid, used as a fertilisersupersaturatedsupersaturated adjective referring toair which contains more moisture than theamount required to saturate itsuperweedsuperweed noun a weed resistant to her-bicides that might develop in future as hy-brid of a weed and a genetically modifiedplantsupplysupply noun 1. the provision of some-thing that is needed � safeguard the gener-ation and supply of power 2. a stock ofsomething that is needed � a year’s supplyof foodsupportsupport verb to provide what is necessaryfor an activity or way of life � These wet-lands support a natural community ofplants, animals and birds.supra-supra- prefix above or oversurfacesurface noun 1. the outer covering or toplayer of something 2. the land, water or seaof Earth’s surfacesurface-active agentsurface-active agent noun same assurfactantsurface air temperaturesurface air temperature noun thetemperature recorded in the shade at aheight just above ground levelsurface areasurface area noun the total of all the out-er surfaces of an object � a surface area of10 square metressurface drainagesurface drainage noun the removal ofsurplus water from an area of land bymeans of ditches and channelssurface evaporationsurface evaporation noun the evapo-ration of water from the surface of a bodyof watersurface heatingsurface heating noun the heating of theground by the Sun

surface runoffsurface runoff noun a flow of rainwater,melted snow or excess fertiliser from thesurface of land into streams and riverssurface soilsurface soil noun same as topsoilsurface watersurface water noun water that flowsacross the surface of the soil as a stream af-ter rain and drains into rivers rather thanseeping into the soil itself. Compareground watersurfactantsurfactant noun a substance that reducessurface tension. Also called surface-activeagentsurgesurge noun a sudden increase in the flowof something such as water or electricalpowersurplussurplus adjective excess � Surplus waterwill flow away in storm drains. � nounsomething that is more than is needed �produced a surplus of wheatsurplus yieldsurplus yield noun a yield which ismore than necessary for a populationsurveysurvey noun 1. an investigation or inspec-tion of something � a survey of gardenbirds � a survey of people’s views on smok-ing in public places 2. the taking of meas-urements of the height of buildings ormountains and the length of roads, riversand other features in order to make a de-tailed plan or map 3. a document, plan ormap showing the results of an investigationor of the measurements taken � verb 1. toinvestigate or inspect something 2. to askpeople for their opinion of somethingsurvivalsurvival noun the situation of continuingto live, especially if conditions are difficultsurvivesurvive verb 1. to continue to live in a dif-ficult situation � After the fire, only a fewtrees survived. 2. to overcome a difficultsituation � The plants can survive even thehottest desert temperatures.survivorsurvivor noun an individual that contin-ues to live when others have diedsurvivorshipsurvivorship noun the number of indi-viduals of a population surviving at a spe-cific timesuspendsuspend verb 1. to hang something fromabove � The bird-feeder was suspendedfrom a tree. 2. to hold particles in a liquid orin air � an aerosol of suspended particlessuspensionsuspension noun 1. the state of beingsuspended 2. a liquid with solid particles init, not settling to the bottom nor floating onthe surface � in suspension held in a liq-uid, not floating or settlingsustainsustain verb to provide the necessaryconditions for something � The land is fer-tile enough to sustain a wide variety of fau-na and flora.


207 synfuelsustainabilitysustainability noun the ability of a proc-ess or human activity to meet present needsbut maintain natural resources and leavethe environment in good order for futuregenerationssustainablesustainable adjective referring to an ac-tivity that does not deplete or damage natu-ral resources � hardwood from a sustaina-ble sourcesustainable agriculturesustainable agriculture noun envi-ronmentally friendly methods of farmingthat allow the production of crops or live-stock without damage to the ecosystemsustainable developmentsustainable development noun de-velopment that balances the satisfaction ofpeople’s immediate interests and the pro-tection of future generations’ interestssustainable energysustainable energy noun energy pro-duced from renewable resources that doesnot deplete natural resourcessustainable existencesustainable existence noun a way oflife that ensures that the resources of the ec-osystem are not depletedSustainable Farming and Food StrategySustainable Farming and FoodStrategy noun a strategy produced by De-fra to support farming and food industriesin working towards practices that will leadto a better environment and healthy andprosperous communitiessustainable societysustainable society noun a societywhich exists without depleting the naturalresources of its habitatsustainable tourismsustainable tourism noun the manage-ment of tourist activities to ensure mini-mum disruption of local infrastructure andenvironmentsustainable yieldsustainable yield noun the greatestproductivity that can be derived from a re-newable resource without depleting thesupply in a specific areaSUVSUV abbr sport(s) utility vehicleSvSv symbol sievertswallow holeswallow hole noun a hole that forms inlimestone rock as rainwater drains throughit, dissolving minerals in the rock andsometimes forming underground cavernsswampswamp noun an area of permanently wetland and the plants that grow on itswamplandswampland noun an area of land cov-ered with swampswampyswampy adjective referring to land that ispermanently wetswarmswarm noun a large number of insectssuch as bees or locusts flying as a group �verb (of insects) to fly in a large groupswashswash noun a rush of water up a beachfrom a breaking wave. Compare backwash

swidden farmingswidden farming noun same as slashand burn agricultureswollenswollen adjective 1. increased in size � Atuber is a swollen underground stem. 2.containing more water than usual � swol-len rivers or streamssycamoresycamore noun a large hardwood tree ofthe maple family. Latin name: Acer pseu-doplatanus.symbiontsymbiont noun one of the set of organ-isms living in symbiosis with each other.Compare commensalsymbiosissymbiosis noun a condition where twoor more unrelated organisms exist togetherenabling both to survive. Also called mutu-alismsymbioticsymbiotic adjective referring to symbio-sis � The rainforest has evolved symbioticmechanisms to recycle minerals.symbioticallysymbiotically adverb in symbiosis �Colonies of shellfish have parasites thatlive symbiotically with them.symbiotic relationshipsymbiotic relationship noun a rela-tionship of cooperation between two ormore unrelated organismssympatric speciationsympatric speciation noun the devel-opment of new species in the same areas asother new speciessymphilesymphile noun an insect or other organ-ism that lives in the nests of social insectssuch as ants or termites and is fed by themsymptomsymptom noun a change in the function-ing or appearance of an organism, whichshows that a disease or disorder is presentsymptomaticsymptomatic adjective referring to asymptomsyn-syn- prefix joint or fusedsynclinesyncline noun a concave downward foldof rock, with the youngest rock on the in-side. Compare anticlinesyndromesyndrome noun a group of symptomsand other changes in an organism’s func-tions which, when taken together, show thata particular disease or disorder is presentsynecologysynecology noun the study of communi-ties of organisms in their environments.Compare autecologysynergismsynergism noun a phenomenon wheretwo substances act more strongly togetherthan they would independentlysynergistsynergist noun a substance that increasesthe effect of anothersynfuelsynfuel noun a fuel similar to those pro-duced from crude oil but produced frommore plentiful resources, e.g. coal, shale ortar


synroc 208synrocsynroc noun an artificial mineral com-pound formed of nuclear waste fused intominerals and so will never deterioratesynthesissynthesis noun 1. the process of com-bining things to form a whole 2. the processof producing a compound by a chemical re-actionsynthesisesynthesise, synthesize verb 1. to com-bine things to form a whole 2. to produce acompound by a chemical reaction � Thebody cannot synthesise essential fatty acidsand has to absorb them from food.syntheticsynthetic adjective made in an industrialprocess and not occurring naturally � syn-thetic rubbersyntheticallysynthetically adverb by an industrialprocess � synthetically produced hor-monessynusiasynusia noun a group of plants living inthe same habitatsystemsystem noun 1. an arrangement of thingsor phenomena that act together � a weathersystem 2. an arrangement of parts of thebody that work together � the nervous sys-tem 3. a way of classifying something sci-entifically � the Linnaean systemsystematicsystematic adjective organised in aplanned way

systematicssystematics noun the scientific study ofsystems, especially of the system of classi-fying organismsSystème InternationalSystème International noun full formof SISystème Probatoire d’Observation de la TerreSystème Probatoire d’Observationde la Terre noun a French observationsatellite transmitting data which gives im-ages of the Earth. Abbr SPOTsystemicsystemic adjective affecting a whole or-ganismsystemic fungicidesystemic fungicide noun a fungicidethat is absorbed into a plant’s sap systemthrough its leaves or roots and protects theplant from infection by fungi without kill-ing the plant itself. � systemic pesticidesystemic herbicidesystemic herbicide noun a herbicidethat is absorbed into a plant’s sap systemthrough its leaves or roots and is transport-ed through the plant to kill the roots. Alsocalled systemic weedkillersystemic pesticidesystemic pesticide noun a pesticidethat is absorbed into a plant’s sap systemthrough its leaves or roots and protects theplant from pests without killing the plant it-selfsystemic weedkillersystemic weedkiller noun same assystemic herbicide


TTT symbol tera-TaTa symbol tantalumtablelandtableland noun an area of high flat landTACTAC abbr total allowable catchtaigataiga noun a forested region between theArctic tundra and the steppetailingstailings plural noun refuse or waste orefrom mining operationstailpipetailpipe noun US a tube at the back of amotor vehicle from which gases producedby burning petrol are sent out into the at-mosphere (NOTE: British English is exhaustpipe.)tall-grass prairietall-grass prairie noun same as long-grass prairietanktank noun a large container for storing flu-id � water tank � fuel tanktankertanker noun 1. a large ship used to carrypetrol or oil 2. a truck used to carry liquidssuch as petrol or milktantalumtantalum noun a rare metal that does notcorrode (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ta;the atomic number is 73 and the atomicweight is 180.95.)taptap noun a pipe with a handle that can beturned to make a liquid or gas come out ofa container � verb to remove or drain liquidfrom something � to tap oil resources tobring up oil from the ground. � untappedtaproottaproot noun the thick main root of aplant which grows straight down into thesoil (NOTE: A taproot system has a mainroot with smaller roots branching off it, asopposed to a fibrous root system which hasno main root.)tap watertap water noun the water that has beensupplied by pipes to a building and is some-times stored in tanks before being usedtartar noun a thick black sticky substance de-rived from coaltardigradetardigrade noun a tiny animal that livesin mosstarntarn noun a small lake in a depression on amountainsidetar sandtar sand noun same as oil sandtartrazinetartrazine noun a yellow substance addedto food to give it an attractive colour (NOTE:It is coded E102. Although widely used, tar-trazine provokes bad reactions in somepeople and is banned in some countries.)

taungyataungya, taungya system noun a systemused in the tropics in which food crops andcrops such as coffee that need shade aregrown below useful trees until the trees be-come largetaxataxa plural of taxon-taxis-taxis suffix the response of an organismmoving towards or away from a stimulustaxontaxon noun a grouping in a scientific clas-sification of organisms, e.g. a family, genusor species (NOTE: The plural is taxa.)taxonomictaxonomic adjective referring to taxono-mytaxonomytaxonomy noun the techniques and sys-tem of classifying organisms according totheir characteristicsTBTTBT abbr tributyltinTCDDTCDD noun a highly toxic persistent by-product of the herbicide 2,4,5-T. Full formtetrachlorodibenzoparadioxinTDITDI abbr Tolerable Daily Intaketeakteak noun a tropical tree that produces ahardwood which is resistant to water. Latinname: Tectona grandis.technicaltechnical adjective referring to practicalor scientific worktechniciantechnician noun a person who does prac-tical work in a laboratory or scientific insti-tution � a laboratory techniciantechniquetechnique noun a way of doing some-thing such as scientific or medical work us-ing a special method or skill � a new tech-nique for dating fossilstechnologicaltechnological adjective referring totechnologytechnologytechnology noun the application of sci-entific knowledge to industrial processes �The technology has to be related to user re-quirements.technospheretechnosphere noun an environmentbuilt or modified by humanstectonictectonic adjective referring to faults ormovements in the Earth’s crusttectonic platetectonic plate noun a large area of solidrock in the Earth’s crust, which floats onthe mantle and moves very slowlytemperatetemperate adjective neither very hot norvery cold


temperate climate 210temperate climatetemperate climate noun a climate thatis neither very hot in summer nor very coldin wintertemperate regiontemperate region noun a region that isneither very hot in summer nor very cold inwintertemperaturetemperature noun a measurement ofheattemperature charttemperature chart noun a chart show-ing changes in temperature over a period oftimetemperature lapse ratetemperature lapse rate noun same aslapse ratetemporarytemporary adjective lasting for a shorttime and not permanenttendertender adjective 1. soft or susceptible todamage 2. referring to a plant which cannottolerate frosttendriltendril noun a stem, leaf or petiole of aplant modified into a thin touch-sensitiveorgan that coils around objects, providingsupport for climbing plantstera-tera- prefix one trillion, 1012. Symbol Tteratogenteratogen noun a substance or agent thatcauses birth defectsteratogenesisteratogenesis noun the production ofbirth defectsteratogenicteratogenic adjective causing birth de-fectsterawattterawatt noun a unit of measurement ofelectric energy, equal to one billion watts.Abbr TWterminalterminal adjective coming at the end � aterminal inflorescence � terminal morainetermitariumtermitarium noun a nest made by ter-mites formed in the shape of a hill of hardearthtermitetermite noun an insect resembling a largeant, which lives in colonies and eats cellu-loseterntern noun a type of small gullterraceterrace noun a flat strip of land across asloping hillside, lying level along the con-tours � verb to build terraces on a moun-tainside � The hills are covered with ter-raced rice fields.terrainterrain noun the ground or an area of landin terms of its physical surface features �mountainous terrainterrestrialterrestrial adjective 1. referring to theEarth, as opposed to space � terrestrial andsatellite links 2. referring to dry land, as op-posed to the sea or the air � terrestrial ecol-ogy � terrestrial and marine sitesterrestrial animalterrestrial animal noun an animal thatlives on dry land

terrestrial equatorterrestrial equator noun same as equa-torterricolousterricolous adjective referring to an ani-mal that lives in or on soilterritorialterritorial adjective referring to territoryterritorialismterritorialism, territoriality noun a pat-tern of behaviour involving the establish-ment and defence of a territoryterritorial speciesterritorial species noun a species thatoccupies and defends a territoryterritorial watersterritorial waters plural noun the seanear the coast of a country that is under thecontrol of that countryterritoryterritory noun an area of land occupiedand defended by an animal, which may beall or part of the animal’s home range � Arobin defends its territory by attacking oth-er robins that enter it.tertiarytertiary adjective coming after two otherthings. � primary, secondarytertiary consumertertiary consumer noun a carnivorethat only eats other carnivores. � primaryconsumer, secondary consumertesttest noun a process designed to find out ifa sample of something matches criteria, if adevice is working well, or if a product issatisfactory � Laboratory tests showed thatthe sample was positive. � Government of-ficials have carried out tests on samples ofdrinking water. � verb to examine a sampleor device to see if it is working well � Theytested the water sample for microorgan-isms.tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxintetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin nounfull form of TCDDtetraethyl leadtetraethyl lead noun a substance some-times added to petrol to prevent knockingin an enginetexturetexture noun the roughness or smooth-ness of a surface or substanceThTh symbol thoriumthatchthatch verb to cover a roof with reeds,straw, grass or other plant material � Reedsprovide the longest-lasting material forthatching. � noun a covering for a roofmade of reeds, straw, grass or other plantmaterial � birds nesting in the old thatchthawthaw noun a period when the weather be-comes warmer after a heavy frost, and iceand snow melt � verb to melt or makesomething melt � As the polar ice thaws,the sea level rises. � It is possible that ris-ing atmospheric temperatures will thaw thepolar ice caps and raise the level of the sea.thaw waterthaw water noun water from meltingsnow and ice


211 threatentheodolitetheodolite noun an instrument formed ofa telescope mounted in such a way that itcan turn around, used for measuring anglestheoreticaltheoretical adjective 1. about, involvingor based on theory 2. dealing with theory orspeculation rather than with practical appli-cations 3. existing only as a theorytheoreticallytheoretically adverb possibly, on the ba-sis of a theorytheorisetheorise, theorize verb to produce ideasto explain somethingtheorytheory noun a possible explanation ofhow or why something happens which hasnot been confirmed by experimental evi-dencethermalthermal adjective referring to heat � In-tense surface heating causes thermal cur-rents to develop and create convection.thermal accumulatorthermal accumulator noun same asheat accumulatorthermal dischargethermal discharge noun same as heatdischargethermal pollutionthermal pollution noun a change in thequality of an environment by increasing itstemperature, e.g. the release of heat fromthe cooling towers of a power station orfrom the discharge of a coolantthermal power plantthermal power plant noun an industri-al site that produces energy from heat, es-pecially by burning fossil fuels or using nu-clear energythermal storagethermal storage noun same as heatstoragethermo-thermo- prefix heat or temperaturethermoclinethermocline noun same as metalimni-on. � epilimnion, hypolimnionthermodynamic temperaturethermodynamic temperature nountemperature measured on a scale that is in-dependent of the substance being used, ex-pressed in kelvinthermographthermograph noun an instrument thatrecords changes in temperature on a roll ofpaperthermolysisthermolysis noun a reduction in bodytemperature, e.g. by sweatingthermometerthermometer noun an instrument formeasuring temperaturethermometrythermometry noun the science of meas-uring temperaturethermonastythermonasty noun a response of plantsto heatthermoneutral zonethermoneutral zone noun a range ofenvironmental temperatures in which anendotherm can easily maintain a constantbody temperaturethermonuclear energythermonuclear energy noun energyproduced by fusion of atomic nuclei

thermoperiodicthermoperiodic adjective referring toan organism that reacts to regular changesin temperaturethermoperiodicitythermoperiodicity, thermoperiodismnoun the effect on an organism of regularchanges in temperaturethermophilicthermophilic adjective referring to or-ganisms such as algae living in the hot wa-ter of thermal springs that need a high tem-perature to growthermoplasticthermoplastic adjective able to be recy-cled by heating and cooling � thermoplas-tic materialsthermoregulationthermoregulation noun the control ofbody temperature by processes such assweating and shiveringthermospherethermosphere noun the zone of the at-mosphere above 80km from the surface ofthe Earth, where the temperature increaseswith altitudetherophytetherophyte noun an annual plant thatcompletes its life cycle rapidly in favoura-ble conditions, growing from a seed anddying within one season and then survivingthe unfavourable season in the form ofseeds (NOTE: Many desert plants and plantsgrowing on cultivated land are thero-phytes.)Third WorldThird World noun the developing coun-tries of Africa, Asia and Latin America(NOTE: This term is now less-often used.)thoriumthorium noun a natural radioactive ele-ment which decomposes to radioactive ra-don gas (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Th;the atomic number is 90 and the atomicweight is 232.04.)thornthorn noun a sharp woody point on plantstems or branchesthornbushthornbush noun a shrub or bush whichhas sharp woody points on its stems andbranchesthorn scrubthorn scrub noun an area of land cov-ered with bushes and small trees whichhave sharp woody points on their stems andbranchesthorn woodlandthorn woodland noun an area of landcovered with trees which have sharp woodypoints on their stems and branchesthreatthreat noun something dangerous whichmay cause harm or damage � Water pollu-tion is a threat to public health. � underthreat (of) likely to be harmed or damaged� under threat of floodingthreatenthreaten verb to be a danger or harmful tosomething � Plant species growing in aridor semi-arid lands are threatened by the ex-pansion in keeping livestock.


threatened 212threatenedthreatened adjective in danger of beingharmed, damaged, or reduced in numbers �a threatened habitatthreatened speciesthreatened species noun a specieswhich is in danger of becoming extinct andneeds protection

COMMENT: IUCN defines three categoriesof threatened species, in order of dangerof extinction: critically endangered, endan-gered and vulnerable.

Three Mile IslandThree Mile Island noun a nuclear powerstation in Pennsylvania, USA, where an ac-cident in 1979 almost caused the release oflarge quantities of radioactive substancesthresholdthreshold noun 1. a point or limit atwhich something changes 2. the limit be-low which a significant adverse effect is notexpectedthrivethrive verb (of an animal or plant) to de-velop and grow strongly � These plantsthrive in very cold environments.throwthrow noun the amount of up or downmovement of rocks at a fault linethrustthrust noun a force in the crust of theEarth that squeezes and so produces foldsthrust faultthrust fault noun a fault in which the up-per layers of rock have been pushed for-ward over the lower layersthunderthunder noun a loud sound generated bylightning in the atmosphere � The stormwas accompanied by thunder and light-ning.thunderstormthunderstorm noun a storm with rain,thunder and lightningTiTi symbol titaniumticktick noun a tiny parasite that sucks bloodfrom the skin. Order: Acarida.tidaltidal adjective referring to the tidetidal energytidal energy, tidal power noun electrici-ty produced by using the force of the tidesto drive turbines. Also called wave powertidal prismtidal prism noun a model of water flowin an estuary or other tidal area, used to as-sess the way in which pollutants are flushedthrough the area and dispersedtilltill noun a boulder clay soil mixed withrocks of different sizes, found in glacial de-posits � verb to prepare the soil, especiallyby digging or ploughing, to make it readyfor the cultivation of cropstillagetillage noun the activity of preparing thesoil for cultivationtilthtilth noun a good light crumbling soil pre-pared to be suitable for growing plants �Work the soil into a fine tilth before sowingseeds.timbertimber noun trees which have been or areto be cut down and made into logs

timberlinetimberline noun US same as treeline �The slopes above the timberline were cov-ered with boulders, rocks and pebbles.tintin noun 1. a metallic element, used espe-cially to form alloys (NOTE: The chemicalsymbol is Sn; the atomic number is 50 andthe atomic weight is 118.69.) 2. a metalcontainer for food or drink, made of ironwith a lining of tin or of aluminium. Alsocalled tin can (NOTE: The US term is can.)tiptip noun 1. the end part of a plant stemwhere growth takes place � a shoot tip 2. aplace where rubbish or waste is thrownaway � The siting of the council refuse tiphas caused a lot of controversy. � verb tothrow away rubbishtippingtipping noun the process of disposingwith rubbish � a ban on tipping � fly-tip-pingtissuetissue noun a group of cells that carriesout a specific function, of which the organsof an animal or plant are formed � photo-synthetic tissue in leaves � Most of an ani-mal’s body is made up of soft tissue, withthe exception of the bones and cartilage.titaniumtitanium noun a light metal used to makestrong alloys (NOTE: The fatigue resistanceof titanium is greater than that of aluminiumor steel. The chemical symbol is Ti; theatomic number 22 and the atomic weight is47.90.)titrationtitration noun a process for measuring theconcentration of a solutiontitretitre noun a measurement of the concen-tration of a solution, as determined by titra-tion (NOTE: The US spelling is titer.)toadstooltoadstool noun a poisonous fungus thatresembles an edible mushroomTOETOE abbr tonnes of oil equivalentTOIDTOID, toid noun the unique 16-digitnumber attached to buildings and each fea-ture of the landscape on a digital map. Fullform topographical identifiertolerable daily intaketolerable daily intake noun the amountof a substance that it is estimated can betaken in without risk to health on a daily ba-sis. Abbr TDItolerancetolerance noun 1. the ability of an organ-ism to accept something, or not to react tosomething � plants with frost tolerance 2.an allowable variation in something whichcan be measured � a tolerance of 2° � atolerance of 1mmtoleranttolerant adjective not reacting adverselyto something � a salt-tolerant planttoleratetolerate verb not to react adversely tosomething


213 TPOtolerationtoleration noun the ability to toleratesomething, or the act of tolerating some-thing � poor toleration of high tempera-turestonton noun 1. a unit of measurement ofweight, equal to 1016kg. Also called longton 2. US a unit of measurement of weight,equal to 907kg. Also called short tontonnetonne noun a unit of measurement ofweight, equal to 1000kg. Also called met-ric tontonnes of oil equivalenttonnes of oil equivalent noun a unitof measurement of the energy content of afuel, calculated by comparing its heat ener-gy with that of oil. Abbr TOEtoothedtoothed adjective 1. having teeth 2. hav-ing many small indentations around theedge � toothed leavestoothed whaletoothed whale noun a whale that hasteeth, e.g. a sperm whale, killer whale, por-poise or dolphin. Suborder: Odontoceti.top-down controltop-down control noun the system ofregulation of trophic levels by which theabundance of herbivores in the lower troph-ic levels is determined by factors such aspredators in the higher levels. Comparebottom-up controltopographictopographic, topographical adjectivereferring to topographytopographytopography noun the study of the physi-cal features of a geographical areatopotypetopotype noun a population which hasbecome different from other populations ofa species because of adaptation to local ge-ographical featurestopset bedtopset bed noun a layer of fine-grainedsediment in a river deltatopsoiltopsoil noun the top layer of soil, oftencontaining organic material, from whichchemical substances are washed by waterinto the subsoil belowtortor noun a pile of blocks or rounded gran-ite rocks found on summits and hillsidestornadotornado noun a violent storm with a col-umn of rapidly turning air at the centre ofan area of very low pressure, giving veryhigh winds and causing damage to build-ingstorrenttorrent noun a violent rapidly flowingstream of water or lavatorrentialtorrential adjective referring to veryheavy rain � The storm brought a torrentialdownpour of rain.totaltotal adjective complete or entire � Thetotal world population of the animal is nomore than four or five hundred pairs.

total allowable catchtotal allowable catch noun the maxi-mum amount of fish permitted to be caught.Abbr TACtotal fertility ratetotal fertility rate noun an averagenumber of children expected to be born to afemale during her lifetimetowntown noun a collection of buildings, an ur-ban area smaller than a city and larger thana villagetown halltown hall noun a building in a townwhere the administrative offices of thetown are situated and where the local coun-cil has its meetingstown plannertown planner noun a person who super-vises the design of a town and the way thestreets and buildings are laid out and devel-opedtown planningtown planning noun the process of de-signing a town or city, including the waythe streets and buildings are laid out and de-velopedtownscapetownscape noun the appearance of atown, the way in which the streets andbuildings are laid outtox-tox-, toxi- prefix poisontoxictoxic adjective referring to a substancethat is poisonous or harmful to humans, an-imals or the environmenttoxic emissionstoxic emissions plural noun poisonouschemicals discharged into the air, water orlandtoxicitytoxicity noun the degree to which a sub-stance is poisonous or harmful � They wereconcerned about the high level of toxicity ofthe fumes.toxico-toxico- prefix poisontoxicologicaltoxicological adjective referring to toxi-cology � Irradiated food presents no toxi-cological hazard to humans.toxicologisttoxicologist noun a scientist who spe-cialises in the study of poisonstoxicologytoxicology noun the scientific study ofpoisons and their effects on the humanbodytoxicosistoxicosis noun poisoningtoxic sitetoxic site noun land contaminated withone or more toxic substances, usually notsuitable for human habitationtoxic substancetoxic substance noun a substance thatis poisonous or harmful to humans, animalsor the environmenttoxic wastetoxic waste noun industrial or chemicalwaste that is poisonous or harmful to hu-mans, animals or the environmenttoxintoxin noun a poisonous substance pro-duced by microorganisms. � mycotoxinTPOTPO abbr tree preservation order


trace 214tracetrace noun 1. a very small amount ofsomething � There are traces of radioac-tivity in the sample. 2. a line or patternmade on a screen or piece of paper by a de-vice recording an electrical signaltrace elementtrace element noun a chemical elementthat is essential to organic growth but onlyin very small quantities

COMMENT: Plants require traces of copper,iron, manganese and zinc. Humans re-quire the trace elements chromium, cobalt,copper, magnesium, manganese, molyb-denum, selenium and zinc.

trace gastrace gas noun a gas that exists in the at-mosphere in very small quantities, e.g. xe-non or heliumtracertracer noun a substance inserted into anorganism so that its movements may betracked from its colour, radioactivity, fluo-rescence or other characteristictracttract noun a wide area of land � Largetracts of forest have been destroyed by fire.trade windtrade wind noun a wind that blows to-wards the equator, from the north-east inthe northern hemisphere and from thesouth-east in the southern hemispheretraditionaltraditional adjective referring to some-thing that has always been done in the sameway � a traditional system of agriculture �Traditional technologies met basic subsist-ence needs.traffictraffic noun 1. the vehicles that are travel-ling in an area at the same time � rush-hourtraffic 2. aircraft, train and ships that travelfrom one place to another � Lower fareshave resulted in a large increase in air traf-fic.traffic-calming measuretraffic-calming measure noun ameans of reducing the number and speed ofmotor vehicles using a road, e.g. speedhumps or a speed limittraffic concentrationtraffic concentration noun a largenumber of vehicles in one placetraffic congestiontraffic congestion, traffic jam noun ablockage caused by too many vehicles on aroad. � congestion chargingtrailtrail noun 1. a path or track � created anew nature trail in the forest 2. a mark orscent left by an animal � on the trail of abadgertraittrait noun a genetically controlled charac-teristictrans-trans- prefix through or acrosstransboundary pollutiontransboundary pollution noun air-borne or waterborne pollution produced inone country which crosses to another. Alsocalled transfrontier pollution

transecttransect noun a line used in ecologicalsurveys to provide a way of measuring andshowing the distribution of organismstransformtransform verb to change the structure orappearance of somethingtransformationtransformation noun a change in struc-ture or appearancetransfrontier pollutiontransfrontier pollution noun same astransboundary pollutiontransgenictransgenic adjective 1. referring to anorganism into which genetic material froma different species has been transferred us-ing the techniques of genetic modification2. referring to the techniques of transferringgenetic material from one organism to an-other � noun an organism produced by ge-netic modificationtranshumancetranshumance noun the practice ofmoving flocks and herds up to high sum-mer pastures and bringing them down to avalley again in wintertransitiontransition noun a change from one stateto anothertransitional waterstransitional waters noun the area ofsurface water in a river mouth that is partlysaltytranslocatetranslocate verb to move substancesthrough the tissues of a planttranslocated herbicidetranslocated herbicide noun a herbi-cide that kills a plant after being absorbedthrough its leavestranslocationtranslocation noun a movement of sub-stances through the tissues of a planttransmissible diseasetransmissible disease noun a diseasewhich can be transmitted to other individu-alstransmittransmit verb 1. to send something some-where else � The charts are transmittedfrom one station to another by fax. 2. topass on a disease to another animal or plant� Some diseases are transmitted by insects.(NOTE: transmitting – transmitted)transpirationtranspiration noun the loss of waterfrom a plant through its stomatatranspiretranspire verb (of a plant) to lose waterthrough stomata � In tropical rainforests,up to 75% of rainfall will evaporate andtranspire into the atmosphere.transplanttransplant noun a plant taken from oneplace and planted in the soil in anotherplace � verb to take a growing plant fromone place and plant it in the soil in anotherplacetransporttransport noun 1. a system of movingthings from one place to another � roadand rail transport � an integrated trans-port policy Also called transportation 2.


215 tropismthe activity of moving something from oneplace to anothertransportationtransportation noun same as transporttransuranic elementtransuranic element noun an artificialradioactive element which is beyond urani-um in the periodic tabletrashtrash noun US unwanted material orhousehold wastetrawltrawl, trawl net noun a very long net witha wide mouth tapering to a pointed end,towed behind a fishing boat at any depth inthe seatreattreat verb to apply a chemical or physicalprocess to something in order to get a spe-cific result � The fabric has been treated tomake it waterproof.treatmenttreatment noun the application of achemical or physical process � anti-corro-sion treatment � heat treatment � the treat-ment of sewagetreetree noun a plant typically with one mainwoody stem that may grow to a great heighttree covertree cover noun the percentage of an areaoccupied by treestreehuggertreehugger noun somebody who is re-garded as devoted to environmental protec-tion in an extreme or foolish way (informal)treelinetreeline noun 1. a line at a specific alti-tude, above which trees will not grow �The slopes above the treeline were coveredwith boulders, rocks and pebbles. 2. a linein the northern or southern hemisphere,north or south of which trees will not growtree preservation ordertree preservation order noun an orderfrom a local government department thatprevents a tree from being cut down. AbbrTPOtree ringtree ring noun same as annual ringtree savannatree savanna noun a dry grass-coveredplain with some treestree-sittree-sit noun a protest carried out byspending a period in shelter built in a tree inan effort to prevent tree-felling or construc-tion activitiestreewaretreeware noun paper and paper productssuch as books made from wood pulptremortremor noun 1. a slight shaking move-ment 2. a minor earthquaketrenchtrench noun a long narrow hole in thegroundtrendtrend noun a gradual development � atrend towards organic farmingtributarytributary noun a stream or river flowinginto a larger rivertributyltintributyltin noun a very toxic organiccompound containing tin that is a compo-nent of the paint used on ships’ hulls and

structures that stand in seawater to preventorganisms growing on them. Abbr TBT. �antifouling painttrifuralintrifuralin a commonly used herbicide in-corporated into the soil before planting awide range of crops (NOTE: It is under re-view for withdrawal from use in the Europe-an Union.)triggertrigger verb to cause something to operateor come into effect � The indicator triggersan aural warning if specific limits are ex-ceeded. � It is not known what triggeredthe avalanche.triple bottom linetriple bottom line noun the three crite-ria of environmental sustainability, socialresponsibility and sound financial perform-ance, used in making ethical investment de-cisionstritiumtritium noun a rare isotope of hydrogentrophictrophic adjective referring to nutritiontrophic cascadetrophic cascade noun the effect that achange in the size of one population in afood web has on the populations below ittrophic chaintrophic chain noun same as food chaintrophic leveltrophic level noun one of the levels in afood chain

COMMENT: There are three trophic levels.Producers, organisms such as plants, takeenergy from the Sun or the environmentand convert it into matter. Primary con-sumers, organisms such as herbivores,eat producers. Secondary consumers arecarnivores that eat herbivores; tertiaryconsumers eat only other carnivores.

trophic pyramidtrophic pyramid noun a chart showingthe structure of an ecosystem in terms oftrophic levelstrophic structuretrophic structure noun the structure ofan ecosystem, shown by food chains andfood webs. � dystrophic, eutrophic, mes-otrophic, oligotrophictropho-tropho-, troph- prefix referring to food ornutrition-trophy-trophy suffix 1. nourishment 2. develop-ment of an organ-tropic-tropic suffix turning towardstropicaltropical adjective referring to the tropics� The disease is carried by a tropical in-sect.tropical deserttropical desert noun same as hotdeserttropicstropics plural noun the region betweenthe Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-ricorn, where the climate is hot and oftenhumid � a disease which is endemic in thetropicstropismtropism noun the action of a plant organturning towards a stimulus


tropopause 216tropopausetropopause noun a layer of the atmos-phere between the troposphere and thestratospheretropospheretroposphere noun the lowest region ofthe atmosphere, extending to about 12kmabove sea leveltropospherictropospheric adjective referring to thetropospheretropospheric ozonetropospheric ozone noun the ozonethat is located in the troposphere and playsa significant role in the greenhouse gas ef-fect and urban smogtroughtrough noun 1. a low point in a cycle �The graph shows the peaks and troughs ofpollution over the seasons. 2. a long narrowarea of low pressure with cold air in it, lead-ing away from the centre of a depressiontrunktrunk noun 1. the main woody stem of atree 2. the long muscular tube at the front ofthe head of an elephant, used for graspingthings and taking up watertubertuber noun a swollen underground stem orroot, which holds nutrients and which hasbuds from which shoots develop � A potatois the tuber of a potato plant.tuberoustuberous adjective 1. like a tuber 2. refer-ring to a plant that grows from a tubertufatufa noun a form of calcareous depositfound near hot springs

tundra

tundra noun a cold Arctic region withouttrees which may be covered with lowshrubs, grasses, mosses and lichensturbid

turbid adjective referring to a liquidwhich is cloudy because of particles sus-pended in itturbidityturbidity noun cloudiness of a liquid, be-cause of particles suspended in itturbine

turbine noun a mechanical device whichconverts moving liquid, steam or air intoenergy by turning a generatorturbocline

turbocline noun the lower layer of waterat the base of the seasonal boundary layerturgor

turgor noun the normal state of a plantcell when the vacuole is full of waterTWTW abbr terawatttwin

twin noun one of two babies or animalsborn at the same time from two ova ferti-lised at the same time or from one ovumthat splits in twotwistertwister noun US a tornado (informal)2,4-D2,4-D noun a herbicide that is absorbedinto a plant through its leaves and is espe-cially effective against broadleaved weedsgrowing in cerealstyphoon

typhoon noun a tropical cyclone in EastAsia


UUU symbol uraniumUKAEAUKAEA abbr United Kingdom AtomicEnergy Authorityultra-ultra- prefix beyondultrabasicultrabasic adjective referring to rockwhich has less silica and more magnesiumthan basic rockultramicroscopicultramicroscopic adjective too small tobe seen with a light microscopeultrananoplanktonultrananoplankton plural noun plank-ton less than 2 µm in sizeultraplanktonultraplankton plural noun plankton inthe size range 0.5–10 µmultrasonicultrasonic adjective referring to the fre-quencies in the range of 20000Hz whichcannot be heard by the human earultrasonicsultrasonics noun the study of ultrasoundultrasonic wavesultrasonic waves plural noun soundwaves in the range of 20000Hzultrasoundultrasound noun sound in the range of20000Hz which cannot be heard by the hu-man earultravioletultraviolet adjective referring to therange of invisible radiation wavelengthsjust greater than those of the visible spec-trum. Abbr UVultraviolet raysultraviolet rays plural noun the short in-visible rays, beyond the violet end of thecolour spectrum, which form the tanningand burning element in sunlight

COMMENT: UV rays form part of the high-energy radiation which the Earth receivesfrom the Sun. UV rays are classified asUVA and UVB rays. UVB rays form only asmall part of radiation from the Sun butthey are dangerous and can cause skincancer if a person is exposed to them forlong periods. The effect of UVB rays is re-duced by the ozone layer in the strato-sphere

UNUN abbr United Nationsun-un- prefix notunblockunblock verb to remove a blockage fromsomethingunconfinedunconfined adjective referring to groundwater or an aquifer of which the upper sur-face is at ground leveluncontaminateduncontaminated adjective not havingbeen contaminateduncontrollableuncontrollable adjective unable to becontrolled

uncontrolled dumpinguncontrolled dumping noun thethrowing away of waste in places that arenot officially approveduncontrolled dumpsiteuncontrolled dumpsite noun a placewhere waste is left without permission orcontroluncontrolled fireuncontrolled fire noun a fire which hasignited accidentally and burns out of con-troluncoordinateduncoordinated adjective not joined to-gether or working togetheruncropped landuncropped land noun land on whichcrops are not currently being grown or havenever been grownuncultivateduncultivated adjective not cultivated �uncultivated land and semi-natural areas �The field was left uncultivated over winterto allow ground-nesting birds such as sky-larks to nest and rear young.under-under- prefix below or underneathunderbrushunderbrush noun same as undergrowthunderdeveloped countryunderdeveloped country noun acountry which has not been industrialised(NOTE: The term that is now preferred is de-veloping country.)undergroundunderground adjective, adverb beneaththe surface of the ground � undergroundpower cables � swollen underground stems� Foxes live in underground holes. �Worms live underground.undergrowthundergrowth noun shrubs and otherplants growing under large treesundershot wheelundershot wheel noun a type of water-wheel where the wheel rests in the flow ofwater which passes underneath it andmakes it turn. Compare overshot wheel(NOTE: It is not as efficient as an overshotwheel where the water falls on the wheelfrom above.)understoreyunderstorey noun the lowest layer ofsmall trees and shrubs in a wood, below thecanopyunderwoodunderwood noun the small trees in awood, below the canopyUNFCCCUNFCCC abbr United Nations Frame-work Convention on Climate Changeungulateungulate adjective having hoofs (NOTE:Ungulates are divided into two groups, odd-toed such as horses or even-toed such ascows.) � noun a grazing animal that hashooves, e.g. a horse


uni- 218uni-uni- prefix oneunicellularunicellular adjective referring to an or-ganism formed of one cell. Compare multi-cellularunitunit noun 1. a component of somethinglarger 2. a quantity or amount used as astandard, accepted measurement � The in-ternationally agreed unit of pressure is themillibar. � The higher the Sun is in the sky,the more intense is the radiation per unitarea.United Kingdom Atomic Energy AuthorityUnited Kingdom Atomic EnergyAuthority noun the official organisationin the United Kingdom responsible for allaspects of atomic energy, both commercial-ly and in research. Abbr UKAEAUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUnited Nations Framework Con-vention on Climate Change noun anagreement by nearly all world governmentsto act on issues affecting climate. Abbr UN-FCCCunlawfulunlawful adjective not permitted by lawunleaded petrolunleaded petrol noun petrol with a lowoctane rating, which has no lead additivessuch as tetraethyl lead and therefore createsless lead pollution in the atmosphereunlinedunlined adjective referring to somethingwith no lining, such as a landfill site fromwhich waste liquids can leak out into thesurrounding soilunnaturalunnatural adjective not found in natureunneutralisedunneutralised, unneutralized adjectivenot having been made neutralunpollutedunpolluted adjective not affected by pol-lution � the relatively unpolluted atmos-phere in mountain areasunsettledunsettled adjective referring to weatherwhich changes frequently from rainy tofine and back againunsightlyunsightly adjective not pleasant to lookat � The company is proposing to run a lineof unsightly pylons across the moors.unspoiltunspoilt adjective referring to a land-scape which has not been damaged by de-velopment � an area of unspoilt woodland� The highland region is still unspoilt.unstableunstable adjective not stable and liable tochange easilyunsterilisedunsterilised, unsterilized adjective notfree from microorganisms � unsterilisedbottlesunsustainableunsustainable adjective referring to adevelopment or process which depletes ordamages natural resources and which doesnot leave the environment in good order forfuture generationsuntappeduntapped adjective not yet used � un-tapped mineral resources

untreateduntreated adjective not subjected to atreatment process � Untreated sewageleaked into the river.updraughtupdraught noun a rising air current, usu-ally of warm airupfreezingupfreezing noun US a phenomenon inwhich loose rocks rise to the surface of thesoil in spring, caused by the freezing of thesoil in winteruplandupland noun an inland area of high land �The uplands have different ecosystems fromthe lowlands. � adjective referring to anupland � upland farmingupland farmupland farm noun same as hill farmuplandsuplands plural noun an inland region ofhigh landupstreamupstream adverb, adjective towards thesource of a river � The river is contaminat-ed for several miles upstream from the estu-ary. � Pollution has spread into the lakeupstream of the waterfall. � Upstreamcommunities have not yet been affected.Compare downstreamupwellingupwelling noun the process by whichwarmer surface water in the sea is drawnaway from the shore and replaced by colderwater from beneath the surfaceuraniumuranium noun a naturally radioactive me-tallic element which is an essential fuel fornuclear power (NOTE: The chemical symbolis U; the atomic number is 92 and the atom-ic weight is 283.04.)urbanurban adjective referring to townsurban areaurban area noun a town or city, areawhich is completely built upurban blighturban blight noun an unattractive, dirtyand dilapidated area in a city or townurban decayurban decay, urban erosion noun thecondition where part of a city or town be-comes old, dirty or ruined, because busi-nesses and wealthy families have movedaway from iturban designurban design noun the process of decid-ing how to lay out a town and what type andstyle of buildings to haveurban fringeurban fringe noun land at the edge of acity or townurban growthurban growth noun an increase in thesize and number of townsurbanisationurbanisation, urbanization noun thespread of built-up areas into the surround-ing countrysideurban landscapeurban landscape noun the visual ap-pearance of a townurban redevelopmenturban redevelopment, urban regen-eration, urban renewal noun the processby which large areas of derelict and indus-trial land and rundown housing areas are re-


219 vegetablestored to become thriving communitiesonce moreurban sprawlurban sprawl noun the uncontrolledspread of new houses and other buildingson the edges of towns and cities into thecountryside � There is a need to protect theremaining open spaces from urban sprawl.urban wastewaterurban wastewater noun water fromhomes, or the total of water from homes,businesses and rainfall, that flows into thesewage systemureaurea noun a crystalline solid produced inthe liver from excess amino acids and ex-creted by the kidneys into the urine (NOTE:It is made commercially from carbon diox-ide and ammonia and is used as a fertiliserand in other products.)

urineurine noun a liquid secreted as waste froman animal’s bodyuser-pays principleuser-pays principle noun the principlethat a user of a service or resource pays di-rectly for the amount they use, rather thanthe cost being shared by all the users or acommunity equally. � polluter-pays prin-cipleutilitarian justificationutilitarian justification noun a reason-ing for conservation based on the idea thatthe environment should provide direct eco-nomic benefits to the populationutilityutility noun a company that organises anessential public service such as electricity,gas or public transportUVUV abbr ultravioletUVRUVR abbr ultraviolet radiation

Vvadosevadose adjective referring to an areawhich lies between the surface of theground and the water tablevagrantvagrant noun a bird which only visits acountry or region occasionallyvalevale noun same as valley (used especiallyin place names)valleyvalley noun a long low area, usually witha river at the bottom, between hills ormountains. Also called valevaluevalue noun a quantity shown as a numbervaporisevaporise, vaporize verb to turn into va-pour, or to turn something into a vapour �Water vaporises when heated.vapourvapour noun a gaseous form of a liquid(NOTE: The US spelling is vapor.)variablevariable adjective changing or changea-ble � Winds are more variable in the north-ern hemisphere than in the southern hemi-sphere.variantvariant noun a specimen of a plant or an-imal that is different from the usual typevariationvariation noun 1. the existence of a dif-ference in amount, concentration, numberor other feature 2. a difference within a pos-sible range or from a standard 3. somethingthat is slightly different from other similarthingsvarietyvariety noun 1. a number of differentthings � a wide variety of reasons why peo-ple like and dislike cities 2. a type of some-

thing 3. a named cultivated plant � a newvariety of wheat Also called cultivarvascular bundlevascular bundle noun a strand of planttissue containing the xylem and phloemtubes that transport water and food to andfrom different parts of the plantvascular plantvascular plant noun a plant that has spe-cialised tubes within it for transporting sap(NOTE: All flowering plants, conifers, ferns,clubmosses and horsetails, but not mossesand liverworts, are vascular plants.)vascular systemvascular system noun 1. (in animals) asystem of tubes that carry liquid, e.g. blood2. (in plants) a system of conducting tissuesthat carry nutrients from the roots to the up-per parts of the plantvascular tissuevascular tissue noun a specialised planttissue consisting of phloem and xylem,which transports dissolved sugar, water anddissolved minerals throughout the plantvectorvector noun an insect or animal whichcarries a disease or parasite and can pass itto other organisms � The tsetse fly is a vec-tor of sleeping sickness.veerveer verb (of wind) to change in a clock-wise direction, in the northern hemisphere� Winds veer and increase with heightahead of a warm front. Opposite backvegetablevegetable noun a plant grown for food,especially plants grown for leaves, roots orpods or seeds that are usually cooked �

Green vegetables are a source of dietary fibre.


vegetable farming 220vegetable farmingvegetable farming noun the activity ofgrowing vegetables for salevegetable kingdomvegetable kingdom noun the categoryof all organisms classed as plantsvegetarianvegetarian noun, adjective a person whodoes not eat meatvegetationvegetation noun 1. plants that are grow-ing � The vegetation was destroyed by fire.� Very little vegetation is found in the Arc-tic regions. 2. the set of plants that is foundin a particular area � He is studying thevegetation of the island.vegetation lossvegetation loss noun the loss of plantsfrom an area by processes such as pollutionor clearingvegetation mapvegetation map noun a map showingthe pattern of vegetation in an areavegetativevegetative adjective 1. referring to plants� The loss of vegetative cover increases theaccumulation of carbon dioxide in the at-mosphere. 2. referring to the process ofgrowth and development 3. referring to re-production that does not involve sex cellsvegetative propagationvegetative propagation noun the arti-ficial reproduction of plants by taking cut-tings or by grafting, not by seedvegetative reproductionvegetative reproduction noun a formof reproduction in which a plant reproducesitself from parts such as bulbs or tubersrather than from seedveilveil noun a thin layer of cloud or mistveinvein noun a thin tube that forms part of thestructure of a leaf or the circulation systemof an animal, allowing the flow of liquidsventvent noun 1. a hole through which air,smoke or gas can leave a building or otherstructure 2. a hole through which gases orlava escape from a volcanoventilateventilate verb to cause air to pass in andout of a place freelyventilationventilation noun the process of air pass-ing in and out of a place freelyventilation systemventilation system noun a system thatallows fresh air to move around a buildingventilatorventilator noun a device that causes freshair to pass into a room or buildingventralventral adjective referring to the abdomenor the front of the human bodyventuri effectventuri effect noun the rapid flow of aliquid or a gas as it passes through a nar-rower channelvergeverge noun 1. the edge or boundary ofsomething 2. an area of grass and otherplants at the side of a road � Roadsideverges, especially motorway verges, offersecurity from human disturbance, and thewildlife quickly adapts to the noise andwind generated by passing vehicles. � on

the verge of at the point where somethingstarts to happenvermicidevermicide noun a substance that killswormsvermiculitevermiculite noun a substance that is aform of silica processed into small pieces.It is used instead of soil in horticulture be-cause it retains moisture.verminvermin noun an organism that is regardedas a pest � Vermin such as rats are oftencarriers of disease. � pest (NOTE: Usuallytreated as plural.)vernacularvernacular adjective limited to a specificareavernacular buildingvernacular building noun a buildingbuilt in the distinctive local style of theplace where it is foundvernacular materialvernacular material noun a buildingmaterial found in an area and not broughtfrom elsewherevernalvernal adjective referring to the springvernalisationvernalisation, vernalization noun 1. arequirement by some plants for a period ofcold in order to develop normally 2. thetechnique of making a seed germinate earlyby refrigerating it for a timevertebravertebra noun one of the ring-shapedbones which link together to form the back-bone (NOTE: The plural is vertebrae.)vertebratevertebrate noun an animal that has abackbone � adjective referring to animalsthat have a backbone � compare (all sens-es) invertebratevertical-axis wind turbinevertical-axis wind turbine noun atype of wind turbine with a vertical mainshaftvertical-looking radarvertical-looking radar noun radarequipment used for analysis of featuressuch as insect populations and movement.Abbr VLRvertical stratificationvertical stratification noun an area inwater or soil where layers are found on topof each othervesselvessel noun 1. a container for liquids 2. atubular structure which carries liquidaround the body of an animal or plant 3. aship or boatvestigialvestigial adjective existing in a simpleand reduced form � Some snakes have ves-tigial legs.veteran treeveteran tree noun same as ancient treevictimvictim noun a person or animal that is in-jured, harmed or attackedvigorousvigorous adjective growing strongly �Plants put out vigorous shoots in a warmdamp atmosphere.viralviral adjective referring to or caused by avirus � a viral disease


221 vulturevirginvirgin adjective in its natural state, un-touched by humans � Virgin rainforest wasbeing cleared at the rate of 1000 hectaresper month.viscidviscid adjective same as viscousviscosityviscosity noun the internal resistance of aliquid to flowingviscousviscous adjective referring to a liquidwhich is thick, sticky and slow-moving.Also called viscidvisibilityvisibility noun the degree to which unlitobjects can be seen by day and lighted ob-jects can be seen by night � Measurementof visibility by day is made by direct obser-vation of objects at known distances and istherefore an estimated value.visiblevisible adjective referring to somethingthat can be seen � The Sun will be clearlyvisible through cumulus cloud.visitorvisitor, visitant noun a bird that comes toa region regularly when migrating � Fly-catchers are summer visitors to Britain.vitalvital adjective important, or essential forlife � Vital nutrients are leached from thetopsoil. � Oxygen is vital to the human sys-tem.vitaminvitamin noun a substance not produced inthe body, but found in most foods, andneeded for good healthviviparousviviparous adjective 1. referring to ananimal such as a mammal or some fish thatgive birth to live young. Compare ovipa-rous (NOTE: Birds, reptiles and some fishlay eggs and are oviparous.) 2. reproducingby buds that form plantlets while still at-tached to the parent plant or by seeds thatgerminate within a fruitvivisectionvivisection noun the dissection of a liv-ing animal under experimental conditionsVLRVLR abbr vertical-looking radarVOCVOC abbr volatile organic compoundvolatilevolatile adjective referring to a liquidwhich easily changes into a gas or vapourvolatile oilvolatile oil noun same as essential oilvolatile organic compoundvolatile organic compound noun anorganic compound which evaporates at arelatively low temperature. Abbr VOC(NOTE: Volatile organic compounds such as

ethylene, propylene, benzene and styrenecontribute to air pollution.)volcanicvolcanic adjective referring to volcanoesvolcanovolcano noun a mountain surrounding ahole in the Earth’s crust, formed of solidi-fied molten rock sent up from the interior ofthe Earth

COMMENT: Volcanoes occur along faults inthe Earth’s surface and exist in well-knownchains. Some are extinct, but others eruptrelatively frequently. Some are always ac-tive, in that they emit sulfurous gases andsmoke, without actually erupting. Volcaniceruptions are a major source of atmos-pheric pollution, in particular of sulfur diox-ide. Very large eruptions cause a mass ofdust to enter the atmosphere, which has anoticeable effect on the world’s climate.

voltagevoltage noun an electrical force measuredin voltsvoltage dropvoltage drop noun the voltage lost alonga wire or conductor due to the resistance ofthat conductorvolumevolume noun 1. the amount of space oc-cupied by a solid, a liquid or a gas � If thepressure of a given mass of gas is main-tained constant, the volume of gas increas-es as its temperature is increased. 2. theloudness of a transmission-vore-vore suffix an organism that eats a partic-ular diet-vorous-vorous suffix eating a particular dietvortexvortex noun a flow of a liquid in a whirl-pool or of a gas in a whirlwind � The mostdestructive winds are in the vortex, wherethe rotation of the whirlwind produces veryhigh wind speeds.VUVU abbr vulnerablevulcanismvulcanism noun a movement of magmaor molten rock onto or towards the Earth’ssurfacevulnerabilityvulnerability noun the degree to which aperson, organism, environment or system islikely to be caused harm by an activityvulnerablevulnerable adjective 1. liable to be easilyharmed 2. referring to a species that is like-ly to become endangered unless protectivemeasures are taken. Abbr VUvulturevulture noun a large bird of prey thatfeeds on carrion


Wwaderwader noun a bird that feeds on organismsor plants found in shallow waterwadiwadi noun a gully with a stream at the bot-tom, found in the desert regions of NorthAfrica. Compare arroyoWaldsterbenWaldsterben noun same as forest die-back (NOTE: From a German word meaning‘the dying of trees’.)Wallace’s lineWallace’s line noun a line dividing theAustralasian biogeographical region fromthe Southeast Asian regionwanewane verb (of the Moon or a planet) to ap-pear to grow smaller as less of the illumi-nated face is visible. Compare waxwarfarinwarfarin noun a substance used to poisonrats, to which many rats in some areas arenow resistantwarmwarm adjective pleasantly hot � Theseplants grow fast in the warm season. � verbto make something hotter � The green-house effect has the result of warming thegeneral atmospheric temperature.warm-bloodedwarm-blooded adjective referring to ananimal such as a mammal that can controlits body temperature. � endothermwarm desertwarm desert noun same as mid-latitudedesertwashlandwashland noun an area of land that isregularly floodedwash outwash out verb to remove a mineral by theaction of running water � Minerals arewashed out of the soil during heavy rains.washoutwashout noun a process in which dropsof water form in the atmosphere and thencollect pollutant particles as they fall. Com-pare rainoutwastagewastage noun the act of wasting some-thing � There is an enormous wastage ofmineral resources.wastewaste noun material that is thrown awayby people or is an unwanted by-product ofa process � household waste � industrialwaste � adjective without a specific useand unwanted � Waste products aredumped in the sea. � Waste matter is ex-creted by the body in the faeces or urine. �verb to use more of something than is need-ed

‘There are estimated to be 300000 tonnes of non-natural wastes produced on agricultural holdingsin England and Wales each year. These include a

wide range of materials such as waste packaging,silage plastics, metal, tyres, oils and animalhealth products. (Agricultural Waste: Opportuni-ties for Change. Information from the Agricul-tural Waste Stakeholders’ Forum 2003)’

waste disposalwaste disposal noun the process of get-ting rid of household or industrial wastewaste disposal sitewaste disposal site noun same aswaste dumpwaste disposal unitwaste disposal unit noun a device thatfits into the hole in a kitchen sink andgrinds household waste into very smallpieces so that it can be flushed awaywaste dumpwaste dump noun a place where house-hold or industrial waste is left. Also calledwaste disposal sitewaste groundwaste ground noun an area of land thatis not used for any purposewastelandwasteland noun an area of land that is nolonger used for agriculture or for any otherpurpose � Overgrazing has producedwastelands in Central Africa.waste managementwaste management noun the action ofcontrolling and processing household or in-dustrial wastewaste neutralwaste neutral adjective relating to activ-ities designed to reduce waste and lead to abalance between the production of waste tobe recycled and the amount of recycledproducts usedwastepaperwastepaper noun paper that has beenthrown away after usewaste processingwaste processing noun the activity oftreating waste material to make it suitablefor reuse or safe disposal. Also calledwaste treatmentwaste processing plantwaste processing plant noun a facili-ty where waste material is treated to makeit suitable for reuse or safe disposalwaste productwaste product noun a substance whichis produced in a process but is not neededwaste sitewaste site noun same as waste dumpwaste sortingwaste sorting noun the process of sepa-rating waste into different categories of ma-terial such as glass, metal, paper or plasticwaste streamwaste stream noun a quantity of sepa-rated waste that is all of the same type, e.g.paper or glass (NOTE: A major obstacle torecycling is the accidental contamination ofwaste streams – plastic wrapping thrown ina paper bin and so on.)


223 water tablewaste treatmentwaste treatment noun same as wasteprocessingwastewaterwastewater noun water that is part of ef-fluent or sewage, especially from industrialprocesses � There is considerable interestin the anaerobic treatment of industrialwastewaters. � Wastewater will add smallbut significant quantities of heavy metals tothe aquatic environment.wastewater treatmentwastewater treatment noun theprocessing of wastewater to make it suita-ble for reuse or safe disposalwastewater treatment plantwastewater treatment plant noun aplace where liquid waste is processedwaterwater noun a liquid which forms rain, riv-ers, lakes and the sea and which makes upa large part of the bodies of organisms. For-mula: H2O. � verb to give water to a plantwater balancewater balance noun a state in which thewater lost in an area by evaporation or byrunoff is replaced by water received in theform of rainwaterbornewaterborne adjective carried in waterwaterborne diseasewaterborne disease, waterborne in-fection noun a disease or infection that isspread by water � After the floods diar-rhoea, dysentery and other waterborne dis-eases spread rapidly.water closetwater closet noun a toilet in which theexcreta are flushed into the sewage systemby running water. Abbr WCwater columnwater column noun the open water ofthe ocean between the surface and the seabedwatercoursewatercourse noun a stream, river, canalor other flow of waterwater cyclewater cycle noun the circulation of waterbetween the atmosphere, land and sea(NOTE: The Sun causes water to evaporatefrom seas, other bodies of water and land;it condenses in clouds and then falls backto the Earth’s surface as rain.)water dispersalwater dispersal noun the spreading ofplant seeds by waterwaterfallwaterfall noun a place where a river orstream falls over a steep vertical drop(NOTE: Some waterfalls only appear in verywet weather.)waterfowlwaterfowl plural noun birds which live onwater, e.g. ducksWater Framework DirectiveWater Framework Directive noun abasis for future policy decisions in the Eu-ropean Union, setting objectives for wateruse and management and waste water dis-posal. Abbr WFDwaterholewaterhole noun 1. a place where waterrises naturally to the surface � In theevening, the animals gather round the wa-

terholes to drink. 2. a pool of water createdby boring holes in the groundwaterloggedwaterlogged adjective referring to soilthat is saturated with water and so cannotkeep oxygen between its particles (NOTE:Most plants cannot grow in waterloggedsoil.)water managementwater management noun the carefuland appropriate use of waterwater meadowwater meadow noun a grassy field neara river, which is often floodedwater millwater mill noun a mill powered by waterwater plantwater plant noun a plant that grows inwater. Also called aquatic plantwater pollutionwater pollution noun the introduction ofpollutants into watercourses or the sea, riv-ers, lakes or canalswater pollution abatementwater pollution abatement noun a re-duction of pollution in watercourses or theseawater powerwater power noun power derived from adescending water supply that is convertedto electricity by hydraulic turbineswaterproofwaterproof adjective not allowing waterto pass throughwater purificationwater purification noun the removal ofimpurities from waterwater qualitywater quality noun the suitability of wa-ter for human consumption and bathing andfor animals to live in � Fish have returnedto many rivers because of the improvementin water quality.water resourceswater resources plural noun rivers,lakes and other surface waters that supplywater for human usewater–salt balancewater–salt balance noun a state wherethe water in the soil balances the amount ofsalts in the soilwatershedwatershed noun a natural dividing linebetween the sources of river systems, divid-ing one catchment area from anotherwatersidewaterside adjective referring to a plantwhich grows next to a river, lake or otherarea of waterwater solubilitywater solubility noun the degree towhich something is able to be dissolved inwaterwater-solublewater-soluble adjective able to dissolvein waterwaterspoutwaterspout noun a phenomenon causedwhen a rapidly turning column of air formsover an area of water, sucking water up intothe columnwater tablewater table noun the area below the soilsurface at which the ground is saturatedwith water


watertight 224watertightwatertight adjective not leaking water orother fluidwater turbinewater turbine noun a device that con-verts the motion of the flow of water intothe turning movement of a wheel � Waterturbines are often used to drive generatorsor pumps.water vapourwater vapour noun air containing sus-pended particles of waterwaterwaywaterway noun a river or canal used aschannel for moving from one place to an-otherwaterwheelwaterwheel noun a wheel with woodensteps or buckets that is turned by the flow ofwater against it and itself turns machinerysuch as a mill wheel or an electric genera-tor. � overshot wheel, undershot wheelwaterworkswaterworks noun a plant for treating andpurifying water before it is pumped intopipes for distribution to houses, factories,schools and other places for usewattwatt noun an SI unit of measurement ofelectrical power. The work done by an elec-trical circuit or the power consumed ismeasured in watts. Symbol Wwatt-hourwatt-hour noun a measurement of powerwith respect to time. One watt-hour is equalto one watt being used for a period of onehour.wavewave noun 1. a mass of water movingacross the surface of a lake or the sea, risinghigher than the surrounding water as itmoves 2. the form in which heat, light,sound or electric current is spreadwave powerwave power noun electricity producedby using the force of waves (NOTE: In har-nessing wave power, the movement ofwaves on the surface of the sea is used tomake large floats move up and down.These act as pumps which supply a contin-uous flow of water to turn a turbine.)wave refractionwave refraction noun the tendency ofwave crests to turn from their original di-rection and become more parallel to theshore as they move into shallower waterwaxwax noun a semi-solid or solid substanceof animal, plant or mineral origin � verb (ofthe Moon or a planet) to appear to growbigger as more of the illuminated face be-comes visible. Compare wane (NOTE: TheMoon waxes between its new and full phas-es.)waxywaxy adjective 1. smooth and shiny 2.covered with waxwaymarkingwaymarking noun the practice of indi-cating the direction of a public path by spe-cial signsWCWC abbr water closet

weatherweather noun daily atmospheric condi-tions such as sunshine, wind and precipita-tion in an area � verb to change the state ofsoil or rock through the action of naturalagents such as rain, sun, frost or wind or byartificially produced pollutantsweather chartweather chart noun a chart showing thestate of the weather at a specific moment orchanges which are expected to happen inthe weather in the near future. Also calledweather mapweather frontweather front noun the edge of mass ofair where it meets another of different tem-perature or density. Also called frontweatheringweathering noun the alteration of thestate of soil or rock through the action ofnatural agents such as rain, sun, frost orwind or by artificially produced pollutantsweather mapweather map noun same as weatherchartwebweb noun a structure of threads secretedby a spider in the form of a netwebbedwebbed adjective with skin between thetoes � Ducks and other aquatic birds havewebbed feet.weedweed noun a plant that grows where it isnot wanted, e.g. a poppy in a wheat field(NOTE: Some weeds are cultivated plants,for example oilseed rape growing in hedge-rows.)weedkillerweedkiller noun same as herbicideweedyweedy adjective 1. like a weed 2. weakand not growing wellweedy habitweedy habit noun the tendency of somespecies of plant to spread onto wastelandwellwell noun a hole dug in the ground to thelevel of the water table, from which watercan be removed by a pump or bucketwellheadwellhead noun the top structure of a wellabove the groundWentworth-Udden scaleWentworth-Udden scale noun a scalefor measuring and describing the size ofgrains of minerals

COMMENT: The scale runs from the largestsize, the boulder, down to the finest grain,clay. The approximate diameters of eachgrain are: boulder, up to 256 mm; cobble,above 64 mm; pebble, between 4 and 64mm; gravel, between 2 and 4 mm; sand,between 0.06 and 2 mm; silt and clay arethe finest sizes.

wetwet adjective with a lot of moisturewetfallwetfall noun the fall of polluting sub-stances in rain or snow. Compare dryfallwetlandwetland noun an area of land where thesoil surface is almost level with the watertable and where specially adapted vegeta-tion has developed (often plural)


225 wind farmwetland hydrologywetland hydrology noun the study ofperiodic flooding or soil saturation whichcreates anaerobic conditions in the soil ofwetlandswet seasonwet season noun same as rainy seasonWFDWFD abbr Water Framework Directivewhalewhale noun a very large mammal living inthe sea. Order: Cetacea.

COMMENT: Whales are the largest mam-mals still in existence. There are twogroups of whales: the toothed whales andthe baleen whales. Baleen whales have noteeth and feed by sucking in large quanti-ties of water which they then force outagain through their baleen, which is a se-ries of fine plates like a comb hangingdown from the upper jaw. The baleen actslike a sieve and traps any plankton and krillwhich are in the water. The toothed whaleshave teeth and eat fish. They include thesperm whale, the killer whale and porpois-es and dolphins. Whales are caught main-ly for their oils, though also in some casesfor food. Some species of whale have be-come extinct because of overexploitationand the population of many of the existingspecies is dangerously low. Commercialwhaling is severely restricted.

whalerwhaler noun a boat which is speciallyequipped for catching whales. Also calledwhaling boatwhalingwhaling noun the catching of whales touse as food or for their oil and other com-moditieswhaling boatwhaling boat noun same as whalerwhaling fleetwhaling fleet noun a group of boats spe-cially equipped for catching whaleswheatwheat noun a cereal crop grown in tem-perate regions. Genus: Triticum. (NOTE:Wheat is one of the major arable crops.)wheatgermwheatgerm noun the central part of thewheat seed, which contains valuable nutri-entswheatmealwheatmeal noun brown flour with alarge amount of bran, but not as much as isin wholemealwhirlpoolwhirlpool noun a rapidly turning eddy ofwaterwhirlwindwhirlwind noun a column of rapidly turn-ing air at the centre of an area of very lowpressure (NOTE: Over water a whirlwind be-comes a waterspout and over desert adust devil.)wholefoodwholefood noun food such as brown riceor wholemeal flour that has not been proc-essed and so contains the vitamins, miner-als and fibre that are removed by process-ingwholegrainwholegrain noun a cereal grain contain-ing the whole of the original seed, includ-ing the bran

wholemealwholemeal noun flour that contains alarge proportion of the original wheat seed,including the branwildwild adjective not domesticatedwildernesswilderness noun an area of wild unculti-vated land, usually a long way from humanhabitationwilderness areawilderness area noun an area of unde-veloped land that is protected, as a nationalpark or other conservation areaWildfowl and Wetlands TrustWildfowl and Wetlands Trust nounfull form of WWTwildlandwildland noun uncultivated land in itsnatural state, especially considered as ahabitat for wildlifewildlifewildlife noun wild animals of all types, in-cluding birds, reptiles and fish � Planta-tions of conifers are poorer for wildlife thanmixed or deciduous woodlands. � The ef-fects of the open-cast mining scheme wouldbe disastrous on wildlife, particularly onmoorland birds.Wildlife and Countryside ActWildlife and Countryside Act nounin the UK, the main legislation under whichnative wildlife is protectedwildlife refugewildlife refuge noun an area maintainedfor the preservation of the habitats of sometypes of wild animals such as migratorywaterfowl or for animals in an urban set-ting, but which people are allowed to visitwildlife reservewildlife reserve noun an area where an-imals and their environment are protectedWildlife TrustWildlife Trust noun any of a network oforganisations working to protect wildlifewildscapewildscape noun remote countryside in anatural state with a wild, rough characterwillowwillow noun a temperate hardwood treethat often grows near water. Genus: Salix.(NOTE: Willow is sometimes grown as acrop and is coppiced or pollarded to pro-duce biomass for fuel.)windwind noun air which moves in the loweratmosphere, or a stream of air � The weath-er station has instruments to measure thespeed of the wind.wind chill factorwind chill factor noun a way of calcu-lating the risk of exposure in cold weatherby adding the speed of the wind to thenumber of degrees of temperature belowzerowind dispersalwind dispersal noun the spread of plantseeds as a result of being blown by the windwind-drivenwind-driven adjective powered by thewindwind erosionwind erosion noun erosion of soil orrock by windwind farmwind farm noun a group of large wind-mills or wind turbines, built to harness the


wind generator 226wind to produce electricity � Wind farms inestuaries may adversely affect bird popula-tions. Also called wind parkwind generatorwind generator noun a machine used toproduce electricity from the windwindmillwindmill noun 1. a construction with sailswhich are turned by the wind, providing thepower to drive a machine. � panemone 2.same as wind turbinewind parkwind park noun same as wind farmwind pollinationwind pollination noun pollination offlowers by pollen which is blown by thewindwind powerwind power noun the power generatedby using wind to drive a machine or turbinewhich creates electricitywind pumpwind pump noun a pump driven by thewind, which raises water out of the groundwindrowwindrow noun a row of the cut stalks of acrop, gathered together and laid on theground to be dried by the windwind turbinewind turbine noun a turbine driven bywindwindwardwindward adjective referring to a posi-tion exposed to the wind � The trees pro-vide shelter on the windward side of thehouse.wingwing noun 1. one of the feather-coveredlimbs of a bird or membrane-covered limbsof a bat that are used for flying 2. an out-growth on a seed case of seeds such as syc-amore dispersed by windwing spanwing span noun the distance between thetip of one wing to the tip of the other wingwing tipwing tip noun the outermost end of awingwinterwinter noun the season of the year, fol-lowing autumn and before spring, when theweather is coldest, the days are short, mostplants do not flower or produce new shootsand some animals hibernate � verb tospend the winter in a placewinterbournewinterbourne noun a stream whichflows only in the wetter part of the year,usually in winterwintering groundwintering ground noun an area wherebirds come each year to spend the winterwitherwither verb (of plants, leaves, flowers) toshrivel and diewoldswolds plural noun areas of low chalk orlimestone hillswoodwood noun 1. a large number of treesgrowing together 2. a hard tissue whichforms the main stem and branches of a tree3. a construction material that comes fromtrees

-wood-wood suffix referring to wood � an elm-wood stoolwood-burning pollutionwood-burning pollution noun pollu-tion caused by burning woodwood-burning stovewood-burning stove noun same aswoodstovewoodfuelwoodfuel noun wood which is used asfuelwoodlandwoodland noun an area in which themain vegetation is trees with some spacesbetween themwoodland burialwoodland burial noun an act of burialdesigned to have low environmental im-pact, typically placing a corpse that has notbeen embalmed in a biodegradable coffinor bag and burying it in a natural woodlandsetting without a headstone. � green burialwoodland managementwoodland management noun thecontrolling of an area of woodland so that itis productive, e.g. by regular felling, cop-picing and plantingwoodlotwoodlot noun a small area of land plantedwith treeswood pasturewood pasture noun a long-establishedarea of parkland, in which trees are oftenvery oldwood pulpwood pulp noun softwood that has beenpulverised into small fibres and mixed withwater, used to make paperwoodstovewoodstove noun a heating device thatburns wood. Also called wood-burningstoveworking environmentworking environment noun the sur-roundings in which a person worksworkingsworkings plural noun 1. the parts ofsomething such as a machine that allow itto operate 2. underground tunnels in a minework outwork out verb to use up something suchas a mineral resource completely � Thecoal mine was worked out years ago.worldworld noun 1. the Earth � a map of theworld � to sail round the world 2. a partic-ular society, community or situation � thebird world � the world of workworldwideworldwide adjective, adverb referring toor covering the whole world � the world-wide energy crisis � We sell our productsworldwide.wormworm noun 1. an invertebrate animal witha soft body and no limbs, e.g. a nematode orflatworm 2. an invertebrate animal with along thin body and no legs that lives in largenumbers in the soil. Also called earth-wormWWFWWF abbr World Wide Fund for NatureWWTWWT abbr Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust


XYZXeXe symbol xenonxeno-xeno- prefix differentxenobioticsxenobiotics plural noun chemical com-pounds that are foreign to an organismxenonxenon noun an inert gas, traces of whichare found in the atmosphere (NOTE: Thechemical symbol is Xe; the atomic numberis 54 and the atomic weight is 131.30.)xericxeric adjective referring to a dry environ-ment. Compare hydricxero-xero- prefix dryxeromorphicxeromorphic adjective referring to aplant which can prevent water loss from itsstems during hot weatherxerophilousxerophilous adjective referring to aplant which lives in very dry conditionsxerophytexerophyte noun a plant which is adaptedto living in very dry conditionsxeroserexerosere noun a succession of communi-ties growing in very dry conditionsxerothermicxerothermic adjective referring to an or-ganism which is adapted to living in verydry conditionsX-rayX-ray noun a ray with a very short wave-length, which is invisible, but can gothrough soft tissue and register as a photo-graph on a filmxylemxylem noun the tissue in a plant whichtransports water and dissolved mineralsfrom the roots to the rest of the plant. Com-pare phloemxylophagousxylophagous adjective wood-eatingxylophilousxylophilous adjective preferring to growon woodyeastyeast noun a single-celled fungus that isused in the fermentation of alcohol and inmaking breadyellowingyellowing noun 1. a condition where theleaves of plants turn yellow, caused by lackof light 2. a sign of disease or of nutrientdeficiencyyieldyield noun the quantity of a crop or a prod-uct produced from a plant or from an areaof land � The usual yield is 8 tonnes perhectare. � The green revolution increasedrice yields in parts of Asia. � verb to pro-duce a quantity of a crop or a product � Therice can yield up to 2 tonnes per hectare. �

The oil deposits may yield 100000 barrelsa month.zero emission vehiclezero emission vehicle noun an elec-tric-powered vehicle with no direct emis-sions from its tailpipe or fuel evaporation.Abbr ZEVzero population growthzero population growth noun a statewhen the numbers of births and deaths in apopulation are equal and so the size of thepopulation remains the sameZEVZEV abbr zero emission vehiclezinczinc noun a white metallic trace element,essential to biological life. It is used in al-loys and as a protective coating for steel.(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Zn; theatomic number is 30 and the atomic weightis 65.38.)zonalzonal adjective referring to a zonezonationzonation noun a pattern of changes in thestructure of a community depending onmoisture levels, soil type and altitude � zo-nation of seaweeds on the seashorezonezone noun an area of land, sea or of the at-mospherezoningzoning noun an order by a government orlocal council that an area of land shall beused only for a specific type of building orfor a specific purpose, e.g. agricultural, in-dustrial, recreational or residentialzoo-zoo- prefix animalzoobenthoszoobenthos noun the invertebrate ani-mals that live in or on the seabed, includingthe intertidal zonezooecologyzooecology noun the scientific study ofthe relationship between animals and theirenvironmentzoogeographicalzoogeographical adjective referring toanimals and geographyzoogeographical regionzoogeographical region noun a largearea of the world where the fauna is differ-ent from that in other areas. � biogeo-graphical regionzoologicalzoological adjective referring to zoologyzoologistzoologist noun a scientist who specialis-es in zoologyzoologyzoology noun the scientific study of ani-malszoonosiszoonosis noun a disease that a humancan catch from an animal


zoonotic 228zoonoticzoonotic adjective referring to a diseasethat a human can catch from an animalzoophytezoophyte noun an animal that looks likea plant, e.g. a sea anemonezooplanktonzooplankton plural noun microscopicanimals that live and drift in water

zooxanthellaezooxanthellae plural noun microscopicalgae that live inside cells of sea animals,especially corals, each organism benefitingfrom the relationshipzygotezygote noun a fertilised ovum, the firststage of development of an embryo


SUPPLEMENTS

Nitrogen Cycle, Carbon CycleBeaufort scaleRichter scale

Outline Criteria for Threatened SpeciesCritically Endangered Species

Natural DisastersManmade Disasters

Nitrogen Cycle

atmospheric nitrogen

industrial legumes processes (nitrifying bacteria in nodules on roots) decay action of denitrifying lightning animals bacteria

wastes feeding

synthetic fertiliser nitrite

nitrates in soil

Carbon Cycle

carbon dioxide in air and water

photosynthesis respiration coal, oil limestone respiration, decay decay, burning

plants animals

ammonia protein

in plants

Beaufort scale The Beaufort scale was devised in 1805 by Sir Francis Beaufort, a captain (later admiral) in the British Royal Navy, to measure the observable effects of wind force at sea. It was later adapted to include effects on land, and wind speed equivalents were officially incorporated in 1926. Sailors and forecasters use the Beaufort scale as a standardised way to rate wind speed. Warnings of potentially dangerous conditions for people in small boats are usually issued at a rating of six on the scale. The Beaufort number is also referred to as a ‘Force’ number, for example ‘Force 10 Gale’.

Beaufort number Wind speed km/h Wind speed mph Description

0 below 1 below 1 Calm

1 1 - 6 1 - 3 Light air

2 7 - 12 4 - 7 Light breeze

3 13 - 19 8 - 12 Gentle breeze

4 20 - 30 13 - 18 Moderate breeze

5 31 - 39 19 - 24 Fresh breeze

6 40 - 50 25 - 31 Strong breeze

7 51 - 62 32 - 38 Moderate gale

8 63 - 74 39 - 46 Fresh gale

9 75 - 87 47 - 54 Strong gale

10 88 - 102 55 - 63 Whole gale

11 103 - 117 64 - 72 Storm

12 above 118 above 73 Hurricane

Richter scale The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on how much the ground shakes at a distance of 100 km (60 miles) from the epicentre of an earthquake (the site on the earth’s surface directly above its origin). Other systems used by seismologists to measure earthquakes include the Modified Mercalli scale, a 12-point scale that measures intensity at different locations.

Richter number Increase in the motion of the ground

Results

1 1

2 10

3 100

Generally not felt, but recorded on seismometers

4 1 000 Felt by many people; trees sway

5 10 000 Poorly built structures damaged

6 100 000 Specially designed structures damaged; others collapse

7 1 000 000 Many structures destroyed; cracks in ground

8+ 10 000 000 Severe destruction; very wide cracks in ground

Outline Criteria for Threatened Species Based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species where full details of the full criteria for each category will be found. The list includes more than 12 000 species (2003). Extinct Extinct Near Least

in the wild threatened concern Threatened

Critically Endangered Vulnerable Endangered (EN) (VU) (CR)

CR EN VU

Population size reduction in 10 years or 3 generations

more than 80-90% more than 50-70% more than 30-50%

Geographic range: extent of occurrence

less than 100 km2 less than 5 000 km2 less than 20 000 km2

Geographic range: area of occupancy

less than 10 km2 less than 500 km2 less than 2 000 km2

Population

less than 50-250 mature individuals

less than 250-2 500 mature individuals

less than 1 000-10 000

mature individuals

Critically Endangered SpeciesThe following species are among those categorised by IUCN - The WorldConservation Union as ‘Critically Endangered’. This category of threat meansthat the species faces a probability of extinction in the immediate future. A fulllist of threatened species in various categories can be found in the IUCN RedList of Threatened Species (2003).

Amsterdam Albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis) Antarctic, OceaniaBachman's Warbler (Vermivora bachmanii) Caribbean, North AmericaBahia Tapaculo (Scytalopus psychopompus) South AmericaBeck's Petrel (Pseudobulweria becki) OceaniaBogota Sunangel (Heliangelus zusii) South AmericaBottle Palm (Hyophorbe lagenicaulis) Subsaharan AfricaBulo Burti Boubou / Bush-shrike (Laniarius liberatus) Subsaharan AfricaCalifornia Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) North America, CentralAmerica

Campbell Island Teal (Anas nesiotis) OceaniaChinese Crested Tern (Sterna bernsteini) East Asia, Southeast AsiaClay's Hibiscus (Hibiscus clayi) North AmericaCone-billed Tanager (Conothraupis mesoleuca) South AmericaCrested Shelduck (Tadorna cristata) North Asia, East AsiaDwarf Olive Ibis (Bostrychia bocagei) Subsaharan AfricaEskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) North America, South AmericaGarrido's Hutia (Mysateles garridoi) CaribbeanGlaucous Macaw (Anodorhynchus glaucus) South AmericaGrey Wood-pigeon / Silvery Wood-pigeon (Columba argentina) SE AsiaGuadaloupe Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla) Central AmericaHainan Sonneratia Sonneratia hainanensis East AsiaHawaiian Thrush (Myadestes lanaiensis or Myadestinus) North AmericaHimalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) Southeast AsiaHooded Seedeater (Sporophila melanops) South AmericaImperial Woodpecker (Campehilus imperialis) Central AmericaIrrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) Southeast AsiaIvory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) North America,Caribbean

Jamaica Petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) CaribbeanJamaican Paraque (Siphonorhis americanus) CaribbeanJavanese Lapwing / Sunda Plover (Vanellus macropterus) Southeast AsiaKakapo / Owl Parrot (Strigops habroptilus) OceaniaKalinowski's Tinamou (Nothoprocta kalinowskii) South AmericaLand Lobster (Dryococelus australis) AustraliaLey's Whitebeam (Sorbus leyana) Europe

Critically Endangered Species continued

Little Blue Macaw / Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) South AmericaLuquillo Mountain Manjack / Wagner’s Cordia (Cordia wagnerorum)

CaribbeanMadeira Petrel / Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) EuropeMagdalena Tinamou (Crypturellus saltuarius) South AmericaMakira Moorhen / San Cristobal Moorhen (Gallinula silvestris) OceaniaMauritius Parakeet (Psittacula eques) Subsaharan AfricaMongarlowe Mallee (Eucalyptus recurva) OceaniaMount Glorius Torrent Frog (Taudactylus diurnis) OceaniaNegros Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus arcanus) PhilippinesNew Caledonian Rail (Gallirallus lafresnayanus) OceaniaNew Caledonian Lorikeet (Charmosyna diadema) OceaniaNew England Owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles savesi) OceaniaNewton's Fiscal / São Tomé Fiscal (Lanius newtoni) Subsaharan AfricaNight Parrot (Geopsittacus occidentalis) OceaniaNukupuu (Hemignathus lucidus) North AmericaOahu Creeper / Oahu Alauahio (Paroreomyza maculata) North AmericaOu (Psittirostra psittacea) North AmericaOwl Parrot / Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) OceaniaPear Clermontia (Clermontia pyrularia) Hawaiian IslandsPeppered Tree Frog (Litoria piperata) AustraliaPère David's Deer (Elaphurus davidianus) East AsiaPink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) Southeast AsiaPohnpei Mountain Starling / Pohnpei Starling (Aplonis Pelzelni) OceaniaPuerto Rican Amazon / Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata) CaribbeanRed Wolf (Canis rufus) North AmericaRueck's Blue-flycatcher / Rueck's Niltava (Cyornis ruckii) Southeast AsiaSamoan Moorhen (Gallinula pacifica) OceaniaSan Cristobal Moorhen / Makira Moorhen (Gallinula silvestris) OceaniaSão Tomé / Canary / Goldfinch / Grosbeak (Neospiza concolor) SubsaharanAfrica

Sebucan (Leptocereus quadricostatus) CaribbeanSemper's Warbler (Leucopeza semperi) CaribbeanSeychelles Magpie-robin (Copsychus sechellarum) Subsaharan Africa,

Southeast AsiaSiau Scops-owl (Otus siaoensis) Southeast AsiaSicilian Fir (Abies nebrodensis) EuropeSilvery Wood-pigeon / Grey Wood-pigeon (Columba argentina) SE AsiaSkulpin (Physiculus helenaensis) Subsaharan AfricaSpiny Logwood (Xylosma pachyphyllum) Caribbean

Critically Endangered Species continued

Spix's Macaw / Little Blue Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) South AmericaSt Helena Dragonet (Callionymus sanctaheclenae) Subsaharan AfricaStresemann's Bristlefront (Merulaxis stresemannii) South AmericaSumatran Ground-cuckoo (Carpococcyx viridis) Southeast AsiaSunda Plover / Javanese Lapwing (Vanellus macropterus) Southeast AsiaTahiti Flycatcher / Tahiti Monarch (Pomarea nigra) OceaniaThick-billed Ground-dove (Gallicolumba salamonis) OceaniaThree-nerved Alsunidendron (Alsunidendron trinerve) Hawaiian IslandsTurquoise-throated Puffleg (Eriocnemis godini) South AmericaVirginia Round-leaf Birch (Betula uber) North AmericaWagner's Cordia / Luquillo Mountain Manjack (Cordia wagnerorum)

CaribbeanWaikane Valley Cyrtandra (Cyrtandra kaulantha) Hawaiian IslandsWhite-breasted Silver-eye / White-breasted White-eye (Zosteropsalbogularis) Oceania

White-eyed River-martin (Eurychelidon sirintarae) Southeast AsiaYellow-spotted Tree Frog (Litoria castanea) AustraliaZino's Petrel / Madeira Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) Europe

Natural DisastersJul 1979-May 1981 Drought. China (Hebei). Worst for sixty years. Much of areanormally one of the most fertile in China, became a virtual desert. 14 000 000 peas-ants left dependent on government grain rations. It was estimated 2 000 000 childrenwere suffering from malnutrition.Aug-Sept 1980 Hurricane David. Dominican Republic. 20 killed. 60 000 homeless.Banana and grapefruit crops destroyed.May 1980 Volcanic eruption. USA (Washington State). 2 000 people evacuated.Large quantities of volcanic ash blanketed communities to a depth of several feet inparts of Washington, Idaho and Montana.Oct 1980 Earthquakes. El Asnam, Algeria. 7.5 and 6.5 on Richter scale. 3 600 dead.8 252 injured. 300 000 homeless. The town had been destroyed in 1954 by anotherearthquake which killed 1 000. It was rebuilt by the French with supposedly‘quake-proof’ structures. These were the worst affected by the 1980 earthquake.Nov 1980 Earthquake. Southern Italy. 6.8 on Richter scale. Aftershocks continuedfor 10 days. 200 towns and villages affected: Naples, Salerno, Avellino worstaffected. 4 500 dead. 8 000 injured. 350 000 homeless.Jul 1981 Floods. China (Sechuan). 1 385 dead. 14 109 injured. Affected 10 millionpeople in 135 of the province’s 212 counties, threatened the Gezhouba dam and de-stroyed more than l 000 000 acres of crops.Late 1982-1983 Floods. Eastern Bolivia. 40 500 hectares (100 000 acres) of primeagricultural land destroyed. In the high valleys of Bolivia and in southern Perudrought conditions devastated the potato crop affecting about 2 million people.Dec 1982 Earthquake. Northern Yemen (Dhamar). 6.0 on Richter scale. 1 588 killed.1 604 injured. 200 000 homeless.Feb 1983-Jul 1984 Drought. Northeastern Brazil. Fifth year of drought. 850 000 sqkms affected. 70% of population suffering from malnutrition.May 1985 Cyclone and tsunami. Southeastern Bangladesh. 11 000 killed. 250 000homeless.Sept 1985 Earthquake. Mexico City, Mexico. 8.1 on Richter scale. More than 7 000dead. 30 000 injured. 10 000 seriously. 100 000 homeless.Nov 1985 Volcanic eruption. Colombia. The Nevado del Ruiz volcano erupted leav-ing 22 000 dead, 4 000 injured and 20 000 homeless. The village of Armero was to-tally engulfed by a torrent of mud when La Lagunilla river burst its banks. 11 000hectares of agricultural land ruined.Aug 1986 Toxic gases following volcanic eruption. Cameroon. Toxic gases (a mix-ture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide) were released from volcanic LakeNyos, near the Nigerian border, killing 1 746 and injuring 3 000, though exactnumbers of casualties will probably never be known. In Nyos village only 2 out of apopulation of 700 survived.10 Oct 1986 Earthquake. San Salvador, El Salvador. 7.5 on Richter scale. 1 500killed. 300 000 homeless. On the outskirts of the city a landslide buried 100 people.Mar 1987 Earthquake. Ecuador. 7.3 on Richter scale. Followed by 1 300 after-shocks. 2-4 000 killed. 50 000 homeless. Mudslides entombed whole villages.Aug-Sept 1987 Floods. Bangladesh. 70 killed (a very low estimate). 24 000 000homeless and without food (from a total population of 100 000 000. 2 000 000homes, 2 600 kms of road and 4 300 000 acres of land devastated.

Natural Disasters continued

Sept 1987 Heavy rains and mudslides. Medellin, Columbia. Shanty town of VillaTina buried by mud. 355 people dead. 200 seriously injured. 2 100 homeless.Feb 1988 Mudslides. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In a shanty town in Rio after weeks oftorrential rain. 300 killed. 735 seriously injured. 11 000 homeless.Mid 1988 Drought. USA. Farming lands were turned into disaster areas and worldfood production fell.Aug-Sept 1988 Floods. Bangladesh. Widespread flooding on a similar scale to thefloods of 1987.Sept 1988 Hurricane Gilbert. Jamaica. Over 200 mph winds. Left a trail of destruc-tion across Jamaica, Grand Cayman, the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, Texas. At least240 killed, most of those in Yucatan.Nov 1988 Earthquake. China. 7.6 on Richter scale. 900 people killed.Dec 1988 Earthquake. Armenia. 6.7 on Richter scale. 55 000 dead. 250 000 lefthomeless. 80% were still living in makeshift huts and tents in April 1991.Apr 1989 Tornado. Bangladesh. 1 000 people killed and many villages destroyed.Sept 1989 Hurricane Hugo. USA. Widespread devastation in the northeastern Carib-bean and southeastern USA. Winds reached up to 140 mph. Guadeloupe and Lee-ward Islands: 6 killed, 10 000 homeless and many crops destroyed. Montserrat: 10killed, hospital and houses destroyed and airport runway blocked. Puerto Rico: 25killed, 100 000 homeless. Dominica: much of banana crop destroyed. South Carolina:5 killed, houses damaged, services disrupted.Oct 1989 Earthquake. San Francisco, USA. 6.9 on Richter scale. About 100 peoplekilled, mostly when the elevated section of Interstate 880 highway collapsed crushingpeople in their cars.Feb 1990 Mudslide. Peru. The village of San Miguel de Rio Mayo, 800 km north ofLima, was buried. 200 people killed or missing.May 1990 Earthquake. Peru. 5.8 on Richter scale. About 200 people killed, villagesflattened by landslides.Jan 1991 Epidemic. Latin America. Cholera broke out in Peru and spread to Brazil,Colombia, Chile and Ecuador. WHO estimates 42 000 people could die unless stepsare taken to combat malnutrition and lack of basic sanitary and medical facilities.Famine. Still critical in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Mozambique and Angola, allcountries in which armed conflict exacerbated food distribution problems.2 Feb 1991 Earthquake. Afghanistan. 6.5-6.8 on Richter scale. 1 000 killed, manymore injured. Resulting floods killed 200 and left 3.000 people homeless.Mar 1991 Floods and mudslides. Malawi. 516 people dead or missing. 40-50 000homeless.Apr 1991 Earthquake. Peru. Three earthquakes, the worst of which was 6.9 on theRichter scale. 35 killed. 750 injured.Apr 1991 Earthquake. Costa Rica, Panama. 7.5 on Richter scale. About 80 peoplekilled, 800 injured, thousands of homes destroyed.Apr 1991 Cyclone. Bangladesh. Winds up to 145 mph. 139 000 killed and thousandsmore threatened by epidemic. Up to 10 000 000 people homeless, 4 000 000 at riskfrom starvation. Toll would have been worse but for 300 cyclone shelters built underCyclone Preparedness Programme set up by Red Crescent.Apr 1991 Earthquake. Georgia, Russia. 7.2 on Richter scale. 100 people killed,several villages totally destroyed.


Jun 1991 Volcano. Philippines. After lying dormant for 600 years Mount Pinatubosuffered several eruptions, some shooting volcanic ash and rock 19 miles into the air.At least 343 people were killed and 100-200 000 made homeless. 600 000 Filipinoslost their means of livelihood.Dec 1991 Earthquake. Romania. 5.7 on Richter scale. 1 700 people made homeless.Dec 1991 Floods. Texas, USA. 13.3 inches of rain fell in six days. At least 14 peoplewere killed.Late Dec 1991 Cyclone. Hanoi, Vietnam. 220 people killed.Feb 1992 Avalanche. South Eastern Turkey. Avalanches smothered remote villageskilling at least 167 people, most of them soldiers.Aug 1992 Hurricane Andrew. USA (Bahamas, Florida and Louisiana). Winds up to264 km/hr. Hurricane Andrew caused extensive damage to property, estimated at$20 000 million in Florida. 38 people killed. Up to 200 000 people homeless.Sept 1992 Flooding. Pakistan. Floods engulfed thousands of villages and vast acresof cropland especially in Punjab, the worst affected province. More than 2 000 peo-ple killed. At least 3 000 000 homeless.Sept 1992 Tidal wave. Nicaragua. Coastal settlements devastated by tidal wave up to15 metres high, triggered by earthquake beneath Pacific Ocean. Over 200 peopledead. 4 200 homeless.Oct 1992 Earthquake. Cairo, Egypt. 5.9 on Richter scale. 552 people killed. About3 000 injured. Hundreds made homeless.Dec 1992 Mudslide. Bolivia. Town of Caranavi engulfed. Homes pushed intoTipuani River. Around 350 people killed. 135 injured.Dec 1992 Earthquake. Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara). 6.8 on Richter scale. As many as2 000 people killed. Created a 24 metre-high tidal wave, devastating the coastal townof Maumere, killing over 1 000 and damaging a third of the buildings.Feb 1993 Floods. Yemen, Iran. Widespread damage. At least 500 people killed. Morethan 1 500 people displaced.Mar 1993 Severe storms. USA. Heavy snow and floods caused widespread destruc-tion from the Florida Keys through the Deep South to northern New England. 50 tor-nadoes hit Florida. At least 163 people killed.Mar 1993 Earthquake. Erzincan, Turkey. 6.8 on Richter scale. More than 500 peoplekilled. Over 1 000 injured.Apr 1993 Floods and landslides. Colombia. At least 59 people killed in north-westarea. Thousands homeless.May 1993 Floods and mudslides. Tadjikistan. At least 200 people killed.May 1993 Landslide. Ecuador. Over 200 people killed in a village in south Ecuadoras 15 000 tonnes buried the community.Jun 1993 Floods. Bangladesh. About 100 people killed. More than 1 million dis-placed. Worst affected area was Sylhet district.Jun 1993 Mudslide. Kabul, Afghanistan. 115 people reported killed.Jul 1993 Torrential rains and mudslides. India, Nepal, Bangladesh. Worst hit areasof India in Assam and West Bengal. More than 3 700 people killed, and millionsmade homeless.Jul 1993 Flooding. USA. Midwest affected as Mississippi-Missouri river systemburst its banks. 40 000 sq km flooded. At least 45 dead. 30 000 homes ruined.


Jul 1993 Earthquake. Japan. 7.8 on Richter scale. Ensuing tidal waves struck parts ofHokkaido, Honshu and devastated coastal regions of Okushiri. Triggered landslidesand fires. Over 150 people killed.Aug 1993 Tropical storm. Venezuela. Torrential rain and high winds causedmudslides in shanty towns above Caracas. At least 150 killed. More than 400 injured.Sept 1993 Earthquake. India. 6.5 on Richter scale. Devastation in states ofMaharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Over 9 000 people killed. Umarga andKhilari worst hit towns. More than 30 villages flattened.Jan 1994 Earthquake. Los Angeles, USA. 57 people killed, thousands injured andabout 25 000 homeless. Damage estimated at costing up to $20 000 million.Feb 1994 Earthquake. Indonesia. Struck southern Sumatran province of Lampung,killing 200 people and injuring 2 700.May 1994 Cyclone. Bangladesh. 165 people officially reported killed as cyclone hitsoutheastern coast.Jun 1994 Earthquake. Colombia. 250 people killed as earthquake triggered mudslidein southwestern region. 11 000 homeless.Aug 1994 Earthquake. Western Algeria. 5.6 on Richter scale. 149 people killed.Jan 1995 Flooding. North Western Europe. More than 300 000 people fled theirhomes in Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands. 40 people killed. Immedi-ate natural cause of flood was heavy rain and snow-melt.Jan 1995 Earthquake. Kobe, Japan. 7.2 on Richter scale. About 5 000 people killed.250 000 homeless. Widespread damage estimated at $50 000 million.Jan 1995 Avalanches and snowstorms. Kashmir, India. More than 200 deaths.Feb 1995 Earthquake. Colombia. 6.4 on Richter scale. 37 people killed and 200injured in south-west region.Mar 1995 Landslide. Afghanistan. 354 people killed in village of Qara Luk, in thenorthern province of Badakhshan.May 1995 Earthquake. Sakhalin Island, Russia. 7.5 on Richter scale. Estimated2 000 people killed. Many thousands homeless.Jun 1995 Earthquake. Greece. 6.1 on Richter scale. 25 people killed and 60 injuredin western Greece.Jun-Jul 1995 Flooding. China (Hunan). 1 200 people killed, 1 200 000 displaced.Jul 1995 Flooding. Pakistan. Floods caused by heavy rains in provinces ofBaluchistan, Punjab and Sind killed more than 120 people.mid-Jul 1995 Flooding. Bangladesh. More than 200 people died amid spread ofdisease following devastating floods which engulfed 38 districts.Jul 1995 Typhoon. Southern Korea. Southern coast hit by Typhoon Faye. Winds of154 mph caused a 140 000-ton oil tanker to run aground off city of Yeosoo, spread-ing an oil slick over a 50-km area which caused considerable damage to marine life.Jul-Aug 1995 Flooding. North Korea. More than 5 000 000 people affected inPyongyang. Damage estimated at $15 billion.Sept 1995 Hurricane Ismael. Mexico. Pacific states of Sinaloa and Sonoro hit byHurricane Ismael. 107 people killed and 52 000 homeless. 20 000 hectares of agricul-tural land devastated.Oct 1995 Earthquake. Turkey. 6.0 on Richter scale. Hit South Western town ofDinar. 84 people killed and at least 200 injured.


Oct 1995 Tropical storm. Philippines. Widespread destruction throughout countrycaused by Tropical Storm Sybil. More than 100 people killed. At end of Oct at least100 more people killed by Tropical Storm Zack.Oct 1995 Hurricane Opal. USA. 17 people killed by Hurricane Opal in Florida andneighbouring states.Oct 1995 Earthquake. Sumatra, Indonesia. 7.0 on Richter scale. Triggered landslidesand killed at least 70 people. About 10 000 buildings destroyed.Oct 1995 Flooding. Vietnam. Severe floods followed torrential rains in central prov-ince of Quang Ngai. 85 people killed. 176 000 houses covered by flood waters.Oct 1995 Earthquake. Mexico. 7.6 on Richter scale. 66 people killed, hundredsinjured and thousands homeless in western coastal states of Jalisco and Colima.Oct 1995 Earthquake. China. 6.5 on Richter scale. At least 29 people killed and20 000 homeless in Southwestern Yunan. More than 12 000 buildings collapsed.Dec 1995 Volcanic eruption. Nicaragua. Relief efforts focused on clearing town ofLeon (94 999 inhabitants) from ash fall to prevent spread of respiratory diseases,notably among children.Dec 1995-Jan 1996 Flooding. South Africa. At least 147 people killed inKwazulu-Natal when Umsunduzi River and its main tributary burst their banksfollowing heavy seasonal rains. 4 000-5 000 homeless.Jan 1996 Flooding. Indonesia. Affected 50 600 households. 24 600 peopleevacuated. 480 seriously injured and 18 killed.Jan 1996 Forest fire. Argentina. Thousands of hectares of ancient forests destroyedin national parks in southern Chebut and Rio Negro provinces.Jan 1996 Snowstorm. USA. Major disruption caused to transport services in north-eastern region. At least 59 people killed.Feb 1996 Flooding. USA. Melting snow and heavy rain produced severe flooding inthe North Western region. Mudslides blocked roads and 16 000 people forced to fleetheir homes. At least 3 people killed in Oregon.Feb 1996 Earthquake. China (Yunnan). 7.0 on Richter scale. 322 people killed andabout 4 000 seriously injured. 319 600 homeless. 358 000 housing units collapsed.Total economic loss estimated at $47.1 million.Feb 1996 Earthquake. Eastern Indonesia. 7.5 on Richter scale. 108 people killed,over 400 injured and 1 018 houses destroyed. Generated tsunami that hit Irian Jaya.Mar 1996 Cyclone. Madagascar. 100 000-150 000 people affected by CycloneBonita. 9 killed.Mar 1996 Avalanche. India (Kashmir). 36 people killed and 27 injured in remotevillage in Pakistan-ruled part of disputed Kashmir.Mar 1996 Earthquake. Ecuador. 5.7 on Richter scale. 21 people killed, 66 injuredand 3 000 homeless in central Ecuador.Apr 1996 Forest fire. Mongolia. 30 000 sq km of forests and 50 000 sq km of pasturedestroyed. 8 people killed, 20 injured.May 1996 Earthquake. China. 6.4 on Richter scale. At least 18 people killed and 297injured. 50 000 buildings damaged or destroyed around city of Baotou, 540kmnorth-west of Beijing.May 1996 Tornado. Northern Bangladesh. More than 600 people killed.Jan 1997 Snowstorms. China. 34 deaths and 100 000 cut off in their homes.


Jan 1997 Storms. Brazil. 65 people killed and nearly 20 000 homeless in states ofMinais Gerais and Rio de Janeiro.Feb 1997 Earthquake. Iran. 965 people killed and more than 2 600 injured in north-west province of Ardabil.Feb 1997 Earthquake. Pakistan. 7.3 on Richter scale. At least 100 people killed inHarnai, Balushistan province.May 1997 Earthquake. Iran. 7.1 on Richter scale. More than 1 600 people killed,2 200 injured and 50 000 homeless in northeastern province of Khorasan.May 1997 Cyclone. Bangladesh. 112 people killed in coastal areas.May 1997 Earthquake. India. 6.0 on Richter scale. At least 38 people killed and over1 000 injured in Madhya Pradesh state in central India.May 1997 Tornadoes. Texas, USA. Series of tornadoes killed 27 people, most ofthem in the town of Jarrell, 40km north of Austin.Jun 1997 Volcanic eruption. Montserrat. Eruption of Soufriere Hills volcano devas-tated two-thirds of the island. At least 23 people killed. 5 000 evacuated from island.Disaster compounded by huge eruption of Chance’s Peak volcano.Jul 1997 Flooding. Eastern Germany, Poland, Czech Republic. Thousands affectedby worst floods in central Europe in 20th century. Heavy rain destroyed vast areas ineastern Germany. Many people homeless after dyke holding back torrential Oderriver burst. At least 48 people killed.Jul 1997 Earthquake. Cariaco, Venezuela. 6.9 on Richter scale. At least 59 peoplekilled and 320 injured.Aug 1997 Flooding. India. Heavy rains in northern state of Pradesh led to riversflooding. At least 135 people killed.Sept 1997 Drought. Papua New Guinea. Nationwide drought affected over 700 000people.Sept 1997 Earthquakes. Central Italy. Two earthquakes, the most powerful measur-ing 5.7 on Richter scale. 11 people killed and more than 120 injured.Sept 1997 Cyclone. Bangladesh. At least 47 killed and hundreds injured onislands off south-east coast.Sept 1997 Earthquake. Sulawesi, Indonesia. 6.0 on Richter scale. At least 14 killedand 30 injured.Oct 1997 Hurricane Pauline. Mexico. Acapulco devastated and widespread damagecaused to state of Guerro. More than 111 people killed and 8 000 homeless.Oct 1997 Earthquake. Chile. 6.8 on Richter scale. 8 killed, 98 injured, 15 000 lefthomeless.Nov 1997 Earthquake. Bangladesh. 6.0 on Richter scale. Killed 11 people in port cityof Chittagong. Thousands homeless.Jan 1998 Flooding. Peru. 70 people killed and 22 000 homeless.Jan 1998 Storms. Canada. Up to 100mm of freezing rain fell across eastern Ontarioand Quebec. Ice load brought down about 1 000 power transmission towers and30 000 wooden utility poles. Around 3 million people lost electricity and at least 25people were killed. Over 700 000 insurance claims filed for property damage.Apr 1998 Storms. USA (Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi). 60 people killed.May 1998 Forest fires. Central America. Vast tracts of land destroyed.


22 May 1998 Earthquakes. Central Bolivia. Series of earthquakes measuring up to6.8 on Richter scale. At least 100 people killed.30 May 1998 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 3 000 killed.27 Jun 1998 Earthquake. Adana, Turkey. More than 120 people killed.30 Jun-2 Jul 1998 Storms and flooding. USA (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Ohio,West Virginia, Vermont). More than 20 people killed.17 Jul 1998 Tidal wave. Papua New Guinea. 10 metres high. Generated by off-shoreearthquake. Swept 2 km inland in Aitape district of north coast. At least 2 000 killed.Jul-Aug 1998 Flooding. China. 21 million hectares of land damaged by severefloods following heavy monsoon rainfall. 13 million hectares suffered total crop loss.Extensive damage to road and rail networks. Almost 250 million people affected.13.4 million relocated. Official death toll: 3 004. More than 5.5 million housesdestroyed. A further 12 million homes damaged.22 Sept 1998 Hurricane Georges. Dominican Republic, Haiti. 300 killed, mostly infloods and landslides.Nov 1998 Hurricane Mitch. Central America. Wind speeds of up to 190 mph (300km per hour). Widespread devastation of roads, homes and crops. In Honduras, 6 500people killed, 11 000 reported missing and up to 2 million suffered loss of property.In Nicaragua, 1 000 people killed and 1 900 missing. Also deaths and extensivedamage in El Salvador and Guatemala.2-6 Jan 1999 Snow storm. USA. About 90 people killed as a result of severe stormon the eastern seaboard and in mid-western states.14 Jan 1999 Landslide. Tacabamba, Peru. 40 killed. Several dozen village homesburied after volcanic activity caused landslide.Jan 1999 Earthquake. Colombia. 6.0 on Richter scale. More than 900 people killedand 250 000 homeless.11 Feb 1999 Earthquake. Afghanistan (Wardak). 5.5 on Richter scale. 50 killed andmore than 500 injured. Over 5 000 buildings destroyed.23-24 Feb 1999 Avalanches. Austria (Tyrol). Killed 38 people. Tens of thousands ofpeople evacuated from the Alpine region.29 Mar 1999 Earthquake. India (Uttar Pradesh). 6.8 on Richter scale. At least 110people killed and hundreds injured in foothills of Himalayas.3 May 1999 Tornadoes. USA (Oklahoma, Kansas). At least 47 killed and hundredsinjured after dozens of tornadoes struck, some of which were 5km wide. Caused ex-tensive property damage.7 May 1999 Earthquake. Shiraz, Iran. 6.5 on Richter scale. At least 26 people killedand 100 injured. 20 villages damaged.20 May 1999 Cyclone. Pakistan (Sind). Winds of up to 275 km per hour causedwidespread crop damage and submerged thousands of villages. At least 400 deaths.15 Jun 1999 Earthquake. Southern Mexico. At least 19 people killed.Jul 1999 Flooding. Central and Southern China. Widespread flooding along banksof Yangtze river following weeks of torrential rain. 725 people killed. 5.5 millionevacuated. Caused US$8 billion worth of damage.13 Jul 1999 Landslide. Western Romania. Caused by heavy rains and floods. 13killed and 23 injured.


Jul-Aug 1999 Heatwave. USA (Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, New York, Ohio, WestVirginia). At least 20 people killed. Agricultural disaster areas declared in 15 states.Losses in West Virginia exceeded $80m.Aug 1999 Typhoon. North & South Korea, Philippines. Typhoon Olga killed morethan 165 people and made at least 100 000 homeless. Severe flooding left thousandsof hectares of farm land submerged and infrastructure damaged.Aug 1999 Earthquake. Northwestern Turkey. 7.4 on Richter scale. 14 095 peoplekilled, 27 000 injured, 200 000 homeless and more than 72 000 buildings damaged.Sept 1999 Flooding. Central America. 70 people killed and 100 000 homeless inHonduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua.Sept 1999 Hurricane Floyd. USA (Florida, Georgia, Carolina). A storm system thesize of Texas brought heavy rains, severe flooding and high winds. Massivemandatory evacuation took place in preparation. 60 people killed.Sept 1999 Earthquake. Greece. 5.9 on Richter scale. More than 120 people killed and60 000 homeless.Sept 1999 Typhoon. Hong Kong. Winds of up to 150km per hour. One person killedand 494 injured. Caused a cargo ship to sink.Sept 1999 Earthquake. Taiwan. 7.6 on Richter scale. 2 256 people killed, 8 713 in-jured, 100 000 homeless and 404 000 homes left without water supplies. Temporarypower cut throughout island. Most affected were Taichung, Taiwan’s 3rd largest city,and mountain towns of Puli and Tungshi.Sept 1999 Typhoon. Honshu, Japan. At least 26 people killed and 350 injured. 1million homes left without power.Sept 1999 Earthquake. Oaxaca, Mexico. 7.5 on Richter scale. At least 33people killed.Oct 1999 Flooding. Mexico. At least 341 people killed and 271 000 homeless.Oct 1999 Cyclones. Orissa, India. Wind speeds of between 200 and 300 km per hourcaused widespread destruction. More than 10 000 people killed, 1.5 million homelessand 323 000 hectares of land inundated by tidal wave that followed.Oct-Nov 1999 Floods. Vietnam. At least 470 people died in floods followingtorrential rainstorms.Nov 1999 Earthquake. Northwestern Turkey. Towns of Düzce, Kaynasli and Boludevastated. Over 737 people died, 5 000 injured and tens of thousands left homeless.Nov 1999 Flooding. Southern France. Torrential storms caused floods. Killed 31people. Within 48 hours about 600 litres of water fell per square metre – the averagerainfall for a whole year in southern France.15-18 Dec 1999 Floods and mudslides. Venezuela. Up to 50 000 people killed afterflash floods and mudslides struck 150km of coastline. Telecommunications andpower supplies collapsed.26-27 Dec 1999 Storms. France. Hurricane-force winds of over 150km per hourkilled 88 people and severely damaged country’s infrastructure.15 Feb 2000 Tornadoes. USA (Southwestern Georgia). Series of tornadoes killed 22people and injured 100 in town of Camilla.27 Feb 2000 Cyclone Steve. Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory). Tropicalcyclone Steve caused widespread damage. Two-thirds of the area’s annual rainfallfell in just 36 hours.


Feb 2000 Flooding. Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa. Situationworsened by cyclone Eline hitting Mozambique on 21 February. Limpopo river rose7 metres. Save and Sabi rivers also swollen. Thousands of people stranded in treesand on rooftops. Infrastructure severely affected; thousands of hectares of farmlandwashed away; 28 000 ha of crops destroyed; 800 000-1 million people homeless;30 000 cattle drowned; official total of 640 deaths. In South Africa, 95 killed. Damsoverflowed and 60 000 homeless in Botswana. 62 killed in Zimbabwe and 250 000affected by floods.Feb-Apr 2000 Cyclones. Madagascar. Cyclone Eline in February killed 7 peopleand left thousands homeless. On 27 February, Cyclone Gloria killed 130, left 10 000homeless and 12 000 stranded. Cyclone Hudah hit in early April. Widespreadcropland devastation.Apr 2000 Drought and forest fires. Ethiopia, Kenya. Widespread crop devastationfollowing 3 years of drought. Hundreds died daily through starvation.5-10 Apr 2000 Flooding. Hungary, Romania. Flooding along several rivers. InHungary 230 000 ha of arable land made unusable. In Romania 60 000 ha of agricul-tural land destroyed and 489 towns and villages cut off. At least 7 people killed.May 2000 Flooding. Indonesia. Severe floods on border of East and West Timor,caused by monsoon rain and tidal surge. At least 148 people killed. About 20 000homeless. Thousands of tons of harvested crops destroyed.Jan 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. Over 800 people killed, thousands homelessJan 2001 Earthquake. India. More than 20 000 people killed and hundreds of thou-sands homeless in a severe earthquake in the western state of Gujarat.Jan 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. 7.6 on the Richter scale. At least 844 deathsJan 2001 Earthquake. India. 7.9 on the Richter scale. Resulted in 13 805 deaths inwestern India, thousands more injured and devastating damage to propertyJan 2001 onwards Flooding. Mozambique. At least 115 fatalities with around230 000 people displacedFeb 2001 Landslides, flooding and storms. Indonesia. A minimum of 122 fatalitiesFeb 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. 6.6 on the Rochter scale. Resulted in at least 315deaths and 3 400 people being injuredMay 2001 Landslide. China (Chongqing). At least 74 people died when a landslidedestroyed a multi-storey residential buildingJun 2001 Earthquake. Peru. An estimated 145 fatalities, including 64 people re-ported as missing (an unknown number died following a resultant tsunami)Jul 2001 Typhoons. The Philippines, China and Taiwan. An estimated 270 fatalitiesand widespread displacementJul-Aug 2001 Flooding. India (Orissa). At least 100 fatalities as a result of heavymonsoon season rainsJul 2001 onwards Heatwave. USA. At least 54 fatalities by the end of JulyJul 2001 Typhoon. Taiwan. Mudslides and floods killed more than 70 people andforced nearly 300 000 to abandon their homesAug 2001 Flooding. Northeastern Iran. At least 240 fatalitiesAug-Oct 2001 Flooding. Vietnam (Mekong Delta). At least 322 fatalities, themajority of them children


Oct 2001 Storms, Tidal Wave. North Korea. At least 110 fatalities with thousands ofhomes, roads and factories destroyedOct 2001 Cyclone. Andhra Pradesh, India. An estimated 170 fatalitiesOct 2001-Spring 2002 Cold weather. Poland. At least 129 fatalitiesNov 2001 Flooding. Algeria. At least 764 people killed and more than 400 injuredWinter 2001-2002 Cold weather. Russia. At least 232 fatalitiesWinter 2001-2002 Wildfires. Australia (New South Wales). Many homes destroyed.Jan 2002 Earthquake. Vanuatu. 7.2 on Richter scale, many buildings were devastatedJan 2002 Storms. Senegal. Much damage inland and many fishermen drowned offthe coastJan 2002 Volcano. Democratic Republic of Congo. Mount Nyiragongo erupted, en-gulfing the town of Goma and killing more than 40 peopleFeb 2002 Earthquake. Western Turkey. 6.0 on Richter scale, caused many deaths andmuch damageFeb 2002 Storms and flooding. Bolivia. The capital was particularly badly hitMar 2002 Earthquake. Central Asia (Hindu Kush). 7.2 on the Richter scale. Resultedin many deathsMar 2002 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 6.0 on Richter scale, it caused over600 deathsApr 2002 Landslides. Papua New Guinea. Caused several deathsApr 2002 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 5.8 on Richter scale, causing severaldeathsApr 2002 Storms. Bangladesh. More than 50 people killedApr 2002 Flooding and landslides. Rwanda, Kenya. More than 100 people killed andcrops destroyedMay 2002 Storms. Bangladesh. More than 350 people killed when the Salahuddin-2,a passenger ferry, sankMay 2002 Tropical cyclone. Madagascar. More than 40 people killed and wide-spread property damageMay 2002 Red tide. China. Large areas of sea affected by unnaturally large algaepopulation growthMay 2002 Flooding and landslides. Haiti, Jamaica. Over 30 people killedMay 2002 Storm. Lake Victoria, Africa. At least 30 dead when a boat capsizedJun 2002 Heatwave. Nigeria. At least 60 people diedJun 2002 Storm. Lake Victoria, Africa. At least 70 dead when a ferry capsized.Jun 2002 Flooding. Southern Russia. Over 100 people drowned in floodsJun 2002 Earthquake. Northern Iran. Over 200 people killed in an earthquakeregistering 6.8 on the Richter scaleJun 2002 Flooding. India. At least 150 people drowned in floods in GujaratJul 2002 Snowstorms. Peru. At least 60 people died, many of them childrenJul 2002 Explosion. Ukraine. A coal-mine blast killed 20 minersJul 2002 Typhoon and mudslides. India, Bangladesh, Nepal. Over 800 people killedJul 2002 Mudslides. Ecuador. At least 60 people killed


Aug 2002 Typhoons, mudslides and flooding. China (Hunan), South Korea, Iran.Hundreds of people diedAug 2002 Flooding. Vietnam. Many people killed when the Mekong river floodedSept 2002 Flooding. Thailand. Many people killedSept 2002 Storm. Senegal. Almost 2000 people drowned when a ferry capsizedOct 2002 Cold weather. Moscow, Russia. Many people died who could not cope withthe sudden drop in temperatureOct 2002 Earthquake. Italy. A school collapsed, killing at least 23 7 and 8 year oldsDec 2002 Cold weather. Warsaw, Poland. Hundreds of people were unable to copewith the cold weatherJan 2003 Flooding and drought. Malawi. Thousands are displaced by floodwatersduring a time of severe drought and famineFeb 2003 Storms. Democratic Republic of Congo. At least 2 500 people killedFeb 2003 Earthquake. China (Xinjiang). Over 260 people are killed and 10 000homes destroyedMar 2003 Hail storms. India. More than 500 people killed by hailApr 2003 Earthquake. Western Turkey. Over 5.5 on the Richter scale. More than 100people killed.Apr 2003 Flooding. Argentina. More than 50 000 people are displaced when riversrose by 50cm in 12 hoursMay 2003 Earthquake. Algeria. More than 2 200 people killed near AlgiersMay 2003 Tornado. Oklahoma, USA. Over $100 million worth of damageJun 2003 Heatwave. Southern India. Thousands die in temperatures of over 50CJul 2003 Floods. Southern China. 600 die with half a million homes destroyed.Jul 2003 Forest fires. France, Portugal, Spain, Greece. Serious fires, some thoughtto be the result of arson, with many people evacuated and some deathsAug 2003 Heatwave. Europe. Many elderly people die during extremely hot weather;crops are devastatedOct-Nov 2003 Heatwave. USA (California). Droughts and forest fires rage, thou-sands of homes destroyedNov 2003 Flooding. Sumatra, Indonesia. The village of Bukit Lawang is practicallywiped out and an estimated 200 people killedDec 2003 Earthquake. Iran. At least 40 000 are killed and a large part of the historiccity of Bam destroyedDec 2003 Storms. Phillippines. Mudslides and stormy seas killed around 270 peopleDec 2003 Natural gas explosion. China. 233 killed, thousands taken to hospital orevacuatedJan 2004 Explosion. Algeria. A natural gas plant exploded killing 23 with 74 injuredFeb 2004 Drowning. Morecambe Bay, UK. 19 cockle-pickers drowned while work-ing in a notoriously dangerous area of sea with no safety equipmentFeb 2004 Drought. Southern Africa. Hundreds of thousands of people in need offood aidFeb 2004 Earthquake. Morocco. Remote areas were devastated with nearly 600people killed. Many were trapped in villages with rescue missions unable to get tothem easily

Manmade Disasters

Dec 1984 Gas Leak. Bhopal, India. Gas leak from pesticide plant. At least 2 000killed and 220 000 treated for various ailments.Apr 1986 Nuclear Explosion. Chernobyl, Ukraine. A hydrogen explosion causedradioactive debris to be showered 1 500 metres into the air. Operational errorsblamed. All Eastern Bloc countries, much of Scandinavia and all of Western Europeexcept Spain and Portugal are known to have been affected in varying degrees. Atleast 30 people at Chernobyl died almost immediately from burns or acute radiationsickness. The number of people finally affected will never be known.Nov 1986 River Rhine. Following a fire at a chemical plant over 30 tons of pesti-cides, fungicides and other chemicals were washed into the river by firemen dousingthe flames. Mercury was the main chemical involved. For almost two days none ofthe governments along the Rhine knew the true nature of the chemicals flowing downEurope’s largest waterway. 200 miles of Upper Rhine practically irrecoverable and itis estimated that it will take 10-30 years to restore it to life.Sept 1987 Radioactive pollution. Goiana, Brazil. Radioactive caesium chloridepowder from a cylinder stolen from a hospital radiotherapy unit and sold for scrapfound on a rubbish dump. It was handled casually by children and others ignorant ofits dangers. Only four people died but this does not take into account longer-term ef-fects from radioactive pollution of area.Mar 1989 Oil slick. Alaska, USA. The tanker “Exxon Valdez” ran aground offAlaska causing massive damage to the coastline, wildlife and habitat.Aug 1989 Oil slick. Liverpool, UK. 156 tonnes of crude oil emptied into the Merseyestuary from a Shell oil pipeline causing a 10-mile slick, killing at least 300 birds andaffecting 2 000 others.Sept 1990 Explosion. Kazakhstan. An explosion and fire at a factory making nuclearfuels at Ulba in East Kazakhstan contaminated a large area with highly toxic com-pounds of beryllian metal. The health of up to 120 000 people potentially at risk.Sept 1990 Gas Explosion. Bangkok, Thailand. 58 people died and 100 were injuredwhen a truck carrying two tanks of liquefied petroleum gas crashed and exploded inthe centre of the capital.Early 1991 Oil Slick. Persian Gulf. During the Gulf War Iraqi forces allegedlyreleased 5-10 000 000 barrels of oil into the Gulf creating a vast oil slick affecting400 miles of coast and endangering both the marine environment and the livelihoodsof local fishermen.Early 1991 Oil well fires. Kuwait. 600 oilwells allegedly set on fire by Iraqi troopscausing massive air pollution and contamination of agricultural land and watersupplies especially in the fertile, well-populated Tigris and Euphrates valleys in Iraq.‘Black rain’ damaged crops in Iran, Pakistan. Bulgaria and Afghanistan. The finalwell fire was capped in late 1991.Apr 1991 Oil slick. Genoa, Italy. A Cypriot-registered tanker “Haven” explodedduring a routine pumping operation in the Ligurian Sea off Genoa. The resulting oilslick caused pollution along the Mediterranean coast westwards towards Nice. The40 km slick was broken up by gale-force winds which diminished damage potential.Jun 1991 Pollution. Chile. The government ordered 40% of all cars off the streets inthe capital. Santiago, one of the most polluted cities in the world. At least 1 465children had been treated for breathing problems by 10 June.

Manmade Disasters continued

Jul 1991 Oil slick. USA (Washington State). After a collision with a Chinese ship, aJapanese fish-processing ship sank, disccharging 100 000 gallons of oil into the seacreating a slick threatening the Olympia National Park. Hundreds of birds were killedand rare species such as the bald eagle, peregrine falcon and sea otter endangered.Aug 1991 Pesticide spill. USA (California). A tanker rail car spilled 19 500 gallonsof metam sodium pesticide into the Sacramento River. It drifted 45 miles down-stream, killing wild life. 200 people were admitted to hospital suffering from fumeinhalation and skin irritation.Dec 1991 Nuclear accidents. Russia. The then environment minister, Victor Danilov-Daniliyan, admitted that large parts of Russian territory had been made uninhabitablefor decades to come by nuclear accidents and waste.Jan 1992 Pollution. Athens, Greece. When smog in the capital exceeded emergencylevels, the government banned all cars from the centre, industrial production was cutand central heating was turned off in public buildings except hospitals.Jan 1992 Water pollution. Turkey, Greece. Hundreds of dead or dying dolphins werewashed up on beaches, the victims of a virus linked with water pollution. The raremonk seal, of which only about 300 remain, is also at risk.Dec 1992 Oil slick. Spain. A Greek-owned oil tanker ran aground and exploded offthe northwestern Spanish port of La Coruna, spilling an estimated 70 000 tonnes ofoil into the sea, with serious ecological consequences. Strong winds and heavy seashelped disperse much of the oil.Jan 1993 Ozone layer. World. NASA research showed ozone levels lower than everbefore. Levels were measured up to 14% below normal in the mid-latitudes of thenorthern hemisphere. In the second half of 1992, ozone levels were 2-3% lower thanin any previous year. Global thinning of the ozone layer means a widespread threat tohuman health.Jan 1993 Oil slick. Malaysia. A supertanker fully laden with almost 2 million barrelsof crude oil collided with another tanker and started spilling oil into the sea off thenorthern tip of Sumatra.Jan 1993 Oil slick. Shetland Islands, UK. The oil tanker “Braer”, carrying 84 000tonnes of light crude oil, was driven ashore. Less damage than originally feared ashurricane winds were effective in breaking down and dispersing the spill. Salmonfarms, fisheries and wildlife adversely affected.Apr 1993 Radioactive explosion. Tomsk, Russia. Explosion at the Tomsk-7 nuclearreprocessing plant released a cloud of radioactive gas over western Siberia. Reportedto have contaminated 120 sq km of forest, although official reports claimed theamount of plutonium released was negligible.Summer 1993 Toxic algae. Europe. Toxic green algae choked parts of the Mediter-ranean. Clumps of the weed, which grows following the pollution of the sea bychemicals that fertilize the water, stretched over 4.2 sq km. There were colonies asfar apart as Majorca and Livorno, on the Italian coast. Holidaymakers in France,Spain and Italy were warned not to uproot it.Feb 1994 Oil slick. Russia (Komi Republic). Oil spill polluted wide areas of tundra.Estimates of the leak from the 47km-long pipeline ranged from 14 000 to 200 000barrels. It was initially contained by an earth dam but this was breached by heavyrains in August.


Jun 1994 Oil slick. South Africa. Large oil slicks covered 16km of beaches nearCape Town. Many seabirds including an estimated 10 000 rare Jakass penguin chickswere killed. The crude oil is thought to have come from a Spanish supertanker thatcaught fire and sank 60 km off Cape Town in 1983.Oct 1994 Oil slick. Portugal. The tanker Cercal hit rocks off Oporto and spilled up to1 300 tonnes of crude oil, which washed ashore on Portugal’s northern beaches.Oct 1994 Oil slick. UK. A Russian fish factory ship, the “Pionersk”, carrying 550tonnes of diesel and fuel, ran aground on rocks south of Lerwick off the coast ofShetland. A 1.6km line of oil was reported stretching southwards from the ship.Early 1995 Oil slick. Russia. A damaged pipeline leaked 3 500 tonnes of crude oilnear the Siberian town of Tulun. The spill spread over the frozen Kurzanka River,which feeds into the Bratsk reservoir, an important source of fresh water and hydro-electricity for the whole region.Summer 1995 Pollution. Athens, Greece. A morning-to-evening ban on cars wasimposed on the centre of the city for three months to alleviate the severe pollution.Jul 1995 Fuel spillage. Australia. Ore-carrying vessel ran aground off north coast ofTasmania, spilling over 300 tonnes of fuel. At least 8km of shoreline to east of Tamarriver reported to have been polluted.Jul 1995 Chemical spillage. UK. An estimated 20 tonnes of toxic acid spilled from achemicals factory into a stream, feeding the Cuckmere River, near Hailsham, EastSussex. As the acid evaporated it left a 0.8km stretch of the stream completelylifeless. Hundreds of fish were killed.Aug 1995 Chemical spillage. Guyana. Large area along Esseqibo river declared adisaster area after more than 4 000 000 cubic metres of cyanide-contaminated slurryseeped out from a gold mine at Omai into a tributary upstream.Feb 1996 Oil slick. UK. The tanker “Sea Empress”, carrying about 128 000 tonnes oflight crude oil, ran aground near Milford Haven, SW Wales (an area of major wildlifesignificance). 72 000 tonnes of oil were spilt into the sea, most of it during the courseof efforts to refloat the tanker and transfer its cargo to other vessels.Apr 1996 Coral damage. Egypt. The cruise liner “Royal Viking Sun” hit anddamaged the protected Red Sea coral reef off the Egyptian coast.Nov 1996 Oil slick. UK. 4 000 leaking bottles of suntan oil contaminated Camarthenbeach in the Bristol Channel after being lost from a container ship.May 1997 Chemical spillage. UK. Thousands of fish killed by contamination ofMedway estuary in Kent.Jul 1997 Oil spillage. Japan. State of emergency declared after oil supertanker“Diamond Grace” ran aground in Tokyo Bay.Aug-Sept 1997 Forest fire. South-East Asia. Thousands of forest fires generated agiant smog cloud covering countries from Malaysia and Indonesia to the Philippines,Brunei and Thailand. Despite warnings of a prolonged dry season, fires were lit as acheap and convenient means of clearing land. Health of tens of millions of peoplejeopardised; long-term effects of smoke inhalation may be devastating.Jan 1998 Industrial contamination. Grand Canal, Eastern China. A 40km stretch ofcanal was contaminated by industrial waste, mostly from paper mills.Jan 1998 Oil slick. UAE. Barge ran aground, spilling thousands of tonnes of oilwhich affected over 80km of coastline.


Apr 1998 Toxic waste. Aznalcóllar, Spain. Toxic waste from a mine flooded 40kmof the River Guadimar in Doñana national park. Caused widespread loss of wildlifeand natural habitats.1999 Toxic weaponry. Yugoslavia. In March 2000, NATO admitted to widespreaduse of depleted uranium (DU) weapons during 1999 bombing campaign. DU shellswere used routinely throughout Kosovo in about 100 missions. Each mission mighthave used between 10kg and 100kg of DU, which amounted to a ‘toxicity risk’.Jan 2000 Chemical spillage. Northern Romania. 100 000 tonnes of sludge contami-nated by cyanide and heavy metals spilled over a dam at a gold mine in Baia Mare.Polluted the Somes river, which then carried pollution to the Tisza river in Hungaryand the Danube. By 15 February more than 100 tonnes of dead fish had been recov-ered from the rivers. Environmentalists warned of serious long-term effects of heavymetals on the river system.Sept 2000 Ozone layer. Antarctica. NASA reported the largest ozone hole ever seenover Antarctica, covering 11 million square miles (three times larger than the area ofthe USA) and stretching to the southern tip of South America. It is evidence thatozone-destroying chemicals continue to increase in the stratosphere, where the holeforms. Although production of these chemicals has been reduced by internationalagreement, they remain in the atmosphere and will continue to do so for years.Jan 2001 Oil slick. Galapagos Islands. An ecological disaster was narrowly avertedwhen a ship laden with oil ran aground on the Galapagos Islands.Feb 2001 Train crash. Selby, UK. Ten people killed when their train collided with agoods trainMar 2001 Train crash. Belgium. 8 people are killed in a head-on collisionJul 2001 Plane crash. Siberia. 143 are killed in a Russian plane headed toVladivostock11 Sept 2001 Plane crash. USA. Terrorists hijacked 2 planes and crashed them intothe World Trade Centre in New York, a 3rd into the Pentagon and a 4th outsidePittsburgh. Over 3 000 people were killedOct 2001 Plane crash. Milan, Italy. Two planes crashed on a runway in heavy fogkilling 118Nov 2001 Plane crash. New York, USA. A plane crashed just after take-off, killing all260 people on board.Jan 2002 Pollution. Cornwall, UK Oil tanker “Willy” grounded with the possibilityof explosionJan 2002 Pollution. Djibouti. Shipment of pesticide leaking in portJan 2002 Pollution. Australia (Queensland). Water contaminated with uranium leak-ing into aquifersJan 2002 Pollution. Thailand. Huge oil slick from grounded tankerFeb 2002 Pollution. Spain. Tonnes of oil leaked into the Ebro riverFeb 2002 Train crash. Cairo, Egypt. At least 300 killed in fire on trainSpring 2002 Pollution. USA. Huge oil slick appeared off the coast of California, andtraced to an old wreckApr 2002 Pollution. USA. Coal waste spilled into rivers in KentuckyApr 2002 Pollution. Pacific Ocean. An abandoned oil tanker leaked oil nearmid-ocean atolls


May 2002 Train crash. Potter’s Bar, UK Seven people were killed and dozens moreinjured when a train derailed and smashed into a stationMay 2002 Pollution. Brazil. Crude oil leaked into Ilha Grande harbourJun 2002 Train crash. Dodoma, Tanzania. At least 200 killed in a head-on traincollisionJul 2002 Pollution. Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Radioactive waste leaked into theMaylisu RiverJul 2002 Pollution. Australia. A tanker carrying diesel oil and fuel oil ran aground onthe Great Barrier ReefAug 2002 Pollution. Romania. Crude oil flowed into the Prahova River, a tributaryof the DanubeAug 2002 Pollution. Nigeria. Oil pipeline ruptured in the Niger River deltaSept 2002 Ferry sinking. Senegal. The state-run ferry, the Joola, sank off the coast ofGambia killing around 1 000Sept 2002 Pollution. Australia. Oil run into the Maribyrnong River, near MelbourneOct 2002 Building collapse. Syria. Several people killed when a building collapsedin AleppoNov 2002 Pollution. Spain, France. Oil tanker “Prestige” sank off Galicia, spillingmore than 60 000 tonnes of oil and devastating local wildlifeNov 2002 Explosion. Bali, Indonesia. A bomb in the holiday resort of Kuta killed atleast 190, most of whom were touristsDec 2002 Pollution. Falkland Islands. Many penguins killed by an oil slickJan 2003 Pollution. Saigon River, Vietnam. Tanker damaged in a collisionJan 2003 Plane crash. Turkey. 76 killed when the plane lost control coming in to landJan 2003 Train crash. New South Wales, Australia. A train derailed, possiblysabotaged, near Sydney killing 8.Feb 2003 Fire. Korea. At least 125 people died in a deliberate fire set on the subwayin DaeguFeb 2003 Pollution. Pacific Ocean. Oil contaminated the sea round Midway Atollafter a pipeline valve brokeFeb 2003 Plane crash. Iran. All 276 people on board are killedFeb 2003 Pollution. Nigeria. An old oil well exploded in the Niger DeltaFeb 2003 Space shuttle Columbia broke up on re-entry killing the 7 astronauts onboardMar 2003 Pollution. Australia. A ruptured pipeline contaminated beaches near Bris-baneMar 2003 Pollution. UK Seabirds covered with oil found on the Devon coast whichhad probably been dumped into the English ChannelApr 2003 Ferry crash. Bangladesh. 2 separate ferries capsized in the same storm,killing more than 150 people with hundreds more unaccounted forMay 2003 Plane crash. Democratic Republic of Congo. The rear ramp of the planecame loose sucking out the 120 passengers and crew


May 2003 Earthquake. Turkey. 6.4. on Richter scale. A school dormitory collapsed,killing more than 80 children.May 2003 Train crash. Hungary. 33 were killed when a train hit a coach at a levelcrossingJun 2003 Chemical fire. Nigeria. A fuel line split and burst into flames while localpeople were trying to collect the spilling fuel. Over 120 diedJun 2003 Train crash. Spain. At least 19 people died when a passenger train hit afreight trainJul 2003 Plane crash. Sudan. 115 passengers were killed with only one survivor, asmall childJul 2003 Pollution. India. Oil tanker MV Tasman Spirit ran aground dischargingmore than 30 000 tonnes of oil onto beaches near Karachi.Oct 2003 Ferry crash. New York, USA. A passenger ferry crashed into Staten IslandPier killing 10 and injuring a further 34Dec 2003 Plane crash. Benin. 135 people killed on Christmas Day en route toLebanonJan 2004 Plane crash. Uzbekistan. A passenger plane crashed killing all 37 people onboardJan 2004 Plane crash. Red Sea. All 141 passengers are killed on board an Egyptiancharter flight.Feb 2004 Train crash. Nayshabur, Iran. Carriages packed with volatile chemicalsand fuel crashed leaving at least 295 dead, hundreds injured.Feb 2004 Plane crash. United Arab Emirates. An Iranian plane crashed killing 40people