Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging

1. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging 2. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Related titles: Emerging food packaging technologies: Principles and practice (ISBN 978-1-84569-809-6) Packaging technologies remain a key area of interest for the food industry. When they are successfully employed, product safety and shelf life can be greatly improved. Four themes in particular are driving packaging innovation at the present time: development and implementation of active packaging techniques, development and implementation of intelligent packaging techniques, advances in packaging materials and concerns about packaging sustainability. Each part of this book focuses on one of these themes, reviewing key developments in the area. Processed meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality (ISBN 978-1-84569-466-1) Consumers seek meat products that are nutritionally balanced, contain fewer added ingredients and have excellent sensory characteristics. Processed meats must also be safe to eat. Producing products that fulfill these requirements is not a trouble-free task. This book outlines key issues in the area of processed meats. Part I outlines market-driven changes in processed meat products. Further sections of the book focus on advances in meat product formulation and processing technologies to improve product quality. Aspects covered include scientific modelling of blended meat products, use of natural ingredients, quality of restructured meat products and the application of sensory science in product development, among other topics. Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat (ISBN 978-1-84569-343-5) Understanding of the scientific basis of quality attributes in meat is becoming more advanced, providing more effective approaches to the control of meat eating and technological quality. This important collection reviews essential knowledge of the mechanisms underlying quality characteristics and methods to improve meat sensory and nutritional quality. An introductory section analyses the scientific basis of meat quality attributes, such as texture, colour and flavour. The following part covers the important area of genetic and genomic influences on meat quality. Final chapters assess production and processing influences on meat quality, such as dietary antioxidants and carcass interventions. Details of these books and a complete list of Woodheads titles can be obtained by: visiting our website at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0) 1223 832819; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 499140 ext. 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80, High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK) contacting our US office (e-mail: [email protected]; tel. (215) 928 9112; address: Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA) If you would like e-versions of our content, please visit our online platform: www.woodheadpublishingonline.com. Please recommend it to your librarian so that everyone in your institution can benefit from the wealth of content on the site. 3. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition: Number 220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J. P. Kerry Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi 4. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012. Chapter 16 was prepared by a US government employee; this chapter is therefore in the public domain and cannot be copyrighted. The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. 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Typeset by Newgen Publishing and Data Services, India Printed by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall, UK 5. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Contents Contributor contact details.......................................................................... xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition............................................................................. xix Preface ......................................................................................................... xxvii Part I Safety and quality of packaged meat, poultry and seafood ..... 1 1 Major microbiological hazards associated with packaged fresh and processed meat and poultry............................... 3 C. N. Cutter, R. N. Senevirathne, V. P. Chang, R. B. Cutaia, K. A. Fabrizio, A. M. Geiger, A. M. Valadez and S. F. Yoder, Pennsylvania State University, USA 1.1 Introduction: survival and growth of microorganisms in meat and poultry products........................................................ 3 1.2 Vacuum packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) to control microbial populations associated with meat and poultry products.................................. 7 1.3 Notable foodborne outbreaks related to packaged fresh and further processed meat and poultry....................................... 8 1.4 The future of food packaging for controlling pathogens associated with fresh and further processed meat and poultry .... 40 1.5 References.................................................................................... 41 2 Major microbial hazards associated with packaged seafood.................................................................................. 59 L. E. Lampila, Lousiana State University Agricultural Center, USA and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, USA and K. W. McMillin, Lousiana State University Agricultural Center, USA 2.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 59 6. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 vi Contents 2.2 Seafood spoilage.......................................................................... 61 2.3 Major microbiological hazards associated with fresh seafood .... 63 2.4 Live animals................................................................................. 73 2.5 Major hazards associated with processed and packaged seafood......................................................................... 74 2.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 77 2.7 References.................................................................................... 80 3 Sensory and quality properties of packaged fresh and processed meats............................................................................. 86 M. G. OSullivan and J. P. Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 3.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 86 3.2 Packaging of fresh and processed meats...................................... 87 3.3 Colour development in fresh and processed meats...................... 95 3.4 Flavour of fresh and processed meat products............................. 97 3.5 Texture of fresh and processed meat............................................ 101 3.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 103 3.7 Acknowledgements...................................................................... 104 3.8 References.................................................................................... 104 4 Sensory properties of packaged fresh and processed poultry meat.......................................................................................... 112 B. Min, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, USA and D.U. Ahn, Iowa State University, USA and Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea 4.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 112 4.2 Color changes in packaged fresh and processed poultry meat .... 113 4.3 Lipid oxidation in packaged, fresh and processed poultry meat ................................................................................. 121 4.4 Tenderness and packaged fresh and processed poultry meat....... 129 4.5 Other sensory and quality issues associated with packaged fresh and processed poultry meat................................. 137 4.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 141 4.7 References.................................................................................... 141 5 Sensory and quality properties of packaged seafood........................ 154 G. Hyldig, J. Nielsen, C. Jacobsen and H. H. Nielsen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 5.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 154 5.2 Fish composition.......................................................................... 157 5.3 Initial biochemical and microbiological deterioration of fish...... 158 5.4 Lipid oxidation............................................................................. 160 5.5 Sensory quality changes in stored and packaged fish products... 162 5.6 Case studies of sensory quality changes in stored and packaged fish products................................................................. 163 7. Contents vii Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 5.7 Shrimps ........................................................................................ 166 5.8 Future trends ................................................................................ 166 5.9 References.................................................................................... 167 Part II Developments in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of meat, poultry and seafood .................................. 171 6 Advances in the packaging of fresh and processed meat products ....................................................................................... 173 K. W. McMillin, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, USA and J. N. Belcher, Sealed Air Corporation, USA 6.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 173 6.2 Current technologies and use of packaging for fresh and processed meat ...................................................................... 174 6.3 Advances in overwrap, vacuum packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) for fresh and processed meat ...... 180 6.4 Effective application of packaging to improve the quality of fresh and processed meat............................................. 190 6.5 Future trends ................................................................................ 196 6.6 Sources of further information and advice................................... 197 6.7 References.................................................................................... 197 7 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of poultry products............................................................................... 205 A. A. Argyri, E. Z. Panagou and G.-J. E. Nychas, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece 7.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 205 7.2 Role of packaging and conventional packaging systems............. 206 7.3 Shelf life of fresh and processed poultry products in conventional packaging systems.................................................. 208 7.4 Extension of shelf life and future trends in packaging systems ....................................................................... 216 7.5 Chemical indicators for assessing the quality of fresh and processed poultry ......................................................................... 229 7.6 Sources of further information and advice................................... 239 7.7 References.................................................................................... 240 8 Advances in bulk packaging for the transport of fresh fish............. 248 A. . Hansen, Nofima, Norway, E. Svanes, O. J. Hanssen and Mie Vold, Ostfold Research, Norway and B. T. Rotabakk, Nofima, Norway 8.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 248 8.2 Status and challenges................................................................... 249 8.3 Advances in bulk packaging for the transportation of processed fish............................................................................... 253 8. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 viii Contents 8.4 Effective application of bulk packaging for transportation of raw fish products ..................................................................... 255 8.5 Future trends in seafood packaging and distribution................... 256 8.6 References.................................................................................... 258 9 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of fish and crustaceans......................................................................... 261 G. C. Fletcher, New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, New Zealand 9.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 261 9.2 Innovations in packaging technology .......................................... 262 9.3 Advances in understanding spoilage processes in packaged fish ............................................................................... 265 9.4 Advances in understanding food safety implications of packaging................................................................................. 267 9.5 Applying and modelling different gas configurations for different fish ........................................................................... 269 9.6 Applying packaging technologies to products other than fresh fillets............................................................................ 279 9.7 Combining packaging technologies with other treatments.......... 280 9.8 Conclusions.................................................................................. 283 9.9 References.................................................................................... 283 10 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of shellfish........................................................................... 298 L. Pastoriza and M. Bernrdez, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-AECSIC), Spain 10.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 298 10.2 Combination of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and vacuum packaging (VP) with other treatments..................... 300 10.3 Effective application of traditional, VP and MAP to improve shellfish quality.............................................................. 302 10.4 Future trends ................................................................................ 307 10.5 Sources of further information and advice................................... 309 10.6 Acknowledgment......................................................................... 310 10.7 References.................................................................................... 310 11 Solubility of carbon dioxide in muscle foods and its use to extend the shelf life of packaged products..................................... 314 B. T. Rotabakk and M. Sivertsvik, Nofima, Norway 11.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 314 11.2 The principle of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)........... 315 11.3 Effect of CO2 on microorganisms................................................ 316 11.4 Alternatives to MAP .................................................................... 325 11.5 References.................................................................................... 326 9. Contents ix Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Part III Other packaging methods for meat, poultry and seafood products.....................................................................331 12 Packaging of retort-processed seafood, meat and poultry................ 333 J. Bindu, C. N. Ravishankar and T. K. S. Gopal, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, India 12.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 333 12.2 Rigid containers for retort-processed seafood, meat and poultry .......................................................................... 335 12.3 Semi-rigid and flexible containers............................................... 339 12.4 Methods to test the suitability of packaging materials for retorting .................................................................. 346 12.5 Changes in the quality of seafood, meat and poultry due to retort processing................................................................ 351 12.6 Future trends in processing and packaging.................................. 355 12.7 References.................................................................................... 356 13 Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products............... 363 A. Totosaus, Tecnolgico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec, Mexico 13.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 363 13.2 Quality improvement through frozen packaging......................... 370 13.3 Recent advances in frozen packaging.......................................... 373 13.4 Future trends ................................................................................ 374 13.5 References.................................................................................... 374 14 Advances in the manufacture of sausage casings .............................. 377 Z. Savic, Victus International, Austria 14.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 377 14.2 Definition and types of sausage casings ...................................... 378 14.3 Advances in sausage casings ....................................................... 379 14.4 Effective selection and use of sausage casings for optimum product quality: possible meat product defects due to incorrect selection of casing types........................ 399 14.5 Meat industry requirements for new casing types ....................... 402 14.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 402 14.7 Sources of further information and advice................................... 403 14.8 References.................................................................................... 403 15 Packaging of ready-to-serve and retail-ready meat, poultry and seafood products.............................................................. 406 H. Walsh and J. P. Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 15.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 406 15.2 Key drivers................................................................................... 407 15.3 Packaging requirements............................................................... 408 15.4 Microwave reheating ................................................................... 411 15.5 Packaging materials ..................................................................... 413 10. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 x Contents 15.6 Packaging techniques................................................................... 419 15.7 Active packaging applications..................................................... 427 15.8 Future trends ................................................................................ 431 15.9 References.................................................................................... 432 16 In-package pasteurization of ready-to-eat meat and poultry products............................................................................ 437 L. Huang and C-A. Hwang, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS), USA 16.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 437 16.2 In-package pasteurization ............................................................ 440 16.3 Timetemperature for in-package pasteurization ........................ 441 16.4 Equipment.................................................................................... 447 16.5 Practical considerations ............................................................... 448 16.6 References.................................................................................... 448 Part IV Emerging packaging techniques and labelling....................... 451 17 Environmentally compatible packaging of muscle foods ................. 453 P. Dawson, K. Cooksey and S. Mangalassary, Clemson University, USA 17.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 453 17.2 Types of meat packaging materials.............................................. 454 17.3 Source reduction .......................................................................... 455 17.4 Recyclable materials.................................................................... 458 17.5 Biobased materials....................................................................... 460 17.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 471 17.7 References.................................................................................... 471 18 Antimicrobial and antioxidant active packaging for meat and poultry .................................................................................. 477 V. Coma, University of Bordeaux - CNRS, France 18.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 477 18.2 Meat safety and quality concerns................................................. 479 18.3 Active packaging based on biopolymers and natural bioactives ......................................................................... 482 18.4 Antimicrobial bioactive biopackaging......................................... 487 18.5 Antioxidant bioactive biopackaging ............................................ 492 18.6 Future trends ................................................................................ 495 18.7 Conclusion ................................................................................... 498 18.8 References.................................................................................... 498 19 Edible films for meat, poultry and seafood........................................ 504 M. E. Janes, Louisiana State University, USA and Y. Dai, Southern University, USA 19.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 504 11. Contents xi Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 19.2 Edible film materials.................................................................... 505 19.3 Antimicrobial edible films........................................................... 509 19.4 Edible films containing antioxidants and other nutrients ............ 513 19.5 Conclusion ................................................................................... 515 19.6 References.................................................................................... 516 20 Application of smart packaging systems for conventionally packaged muscle-based food products ..................... 522 J. P. Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 20.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 522 20.2 Packaging technologies for gas and moisture control.................. 525 20.3 Antimicrobial packaging.............................................................. 530 20.4 Other applications of smart/active technologies.......................... 537 20.5 Sensors for smart packaging........................................................ 540 20.6 Indicators for smart packaging..................................................... 546 20.7 Radio frequency identification tags (RFID) and potential future applications of other smart/intelligent technologies.......... 552 20.8 Conclusions.................................................................................. 555 20.9 References.................................................................................... 556 21 Traceability in the meat, poultry and seafood industries ................. 565 K. W. McMillin, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, USA, L. Lampila, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, USA and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, USA and J. A. Marcy, University of Arkansas, USA 21.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 565 21.2 Current technologies available for muscle food industry tracing systems............................................................................. 569 21.3 Traceability in livestock production ............................................ 574 21.4 Traceability in poultry production ............................................... 578 21.5 Traceability of seafood................................................................. 579 21.6 Traceability of meat, poultry and seafood products..................... 581 21.7 Electronic identification (EID) .................................................... 585 21.8 Future trends ................................................................................ 587 21.9 Sources of further information and advice................................... 588 21.10 References.................................................................................... 589 22 Labelling of meat, poultry, seafood and their products in the EU................................................................................ 596 M. Woolfe, Food Standards Agency Retired, UK 22.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 596 22.2 General (horizontal) food labelling requirements........................ 597 22.3 Origin, assurance and eco-labelling schemes............................ 602 22.4 Specific (vertical) requirements for raw meat and minced meat labelling.................................................................. 605 22.5 Specific (vertical) requirements for poultry meat labelling......... 610 12. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xii Contents 22.6 Specific (vertical) labelling of meat and poultry products........... 612 22.7 Specific (vertical) labelling of fish and shellfish......................... 617 22.8 Specific (vertical) labelling of fish and shellfish products .......... 622 22.9 Future trends ................................................................................ 624 22.10 Acknowledgements...................................................................... 625 22.11 Sources of further information and advice................................... 625 22.12 References.................................................................................... 626 23 Food packaging laws and regulation with particular emphasis on meat, poultry and fish .................................................... 631 F. Moran, School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland 23.1 Introduction to food contact material legislation......................... 631 23.2 The regulation of food contact materials in the European Union (EU) .................................................................. 633 23.3 EU legislation on specific materials ............................................ 638 23.4 Other specific measures of importance........................................ 644 23.5 The regulation of food contact materials in the United States..... 646 23.6 Exemptions to the regulations...................................................... 649 23.7 The food contact notification system........................................... 651 23.8 Implications of regulations for packaging and product development.................................................................... 653 23.9 Future trends in legislation........................................................... 654 23.10 Sources of further information and advice................................... 656 23.11 References.................................................................................... 658 Index............................................................................................................. 661 13. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 (* = main contact) Editor and Chapter 20 J. P. Kerry Senior College Lecturer and Head of the Food Packaging Group School of Food and Nutritional Sciences University College Cork Cork Ireland E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 1 Catherine N. Cutter*, Reshani N. Senevirathne, Vivian P. Chang, Renee B. Cutaia, Kerry A. Fabrizio, Amie M. Geiger, Angela M. Valadez and Sally F. Yoder Department of Food Science 202 Food Science Building Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16803 USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 2 Lucina E. Lampila* Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program Baton Rouge, LA USA Kenneth W. McMillin School of Animal Sciences and Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] Contributor contact details 14. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xiv Contributor contact details Chapter 3 Maurice G. OSullivan* and J. P. Kerry Packaging Group, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences University College Cork Ireland E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Chapter 4 Byungrok Min Food Science and Technology University of Maryland Eastern Shore Princess Anne, MD 21853 USA Dong U. Ahn* Department of Animal Science Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 USA and Department of Agricultural Biotechnology Major in Biomodulation Seoul National University Seoul, 151921 Korea E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 5 Grethe Hyldig*, Jette Nielsen, Charlotte Jacobsen and Henrik Hauch Nielsen Technical University of Denmark Denmark E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 6 Kenneth W. McMillin* School of Animal Sciences and Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] James N. Belcher Poultry and Seafood Marketing Cryovac Food Solutions Division Sealed Air Corporation Duncan, SC USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 7 Anthoula A. Argyri, Efstathios Z. Panagou and George-John E. Nychas* Agricultural University of Athens Department of Food Science & Technology Laboratory of Microbiology & Biotechnology of Foods Iera Odos 75 Athens 11855 Greece E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 8 Anlaug dland Hansen* Nofima AS Osloveien 1 1430 s Norway E-mail: [email protected] 15. Contributor contact details xv Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Erik Svanes, Ole Jrgen Hanssen and Mie Vold Ostfold Research/stfoldforskning AS Gamle Bedding vei 2b 1671 Krkery Norway E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Bjrn Tore Rotabakk Nofima AS, Mltidets Hus Richard Johnsens gt 4 PO Box 8034 4068 Stavanger Norway E-mail: bjorn.tore.rotabakk@nofima. no Chapter 9 Graham C. Fletcher Food Safety & Preservation New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited Private Bag 92169 Auckland 1142 New Zealand E-mail: Graham.Fletcher@ plantandfood.co.nz Chapter 10 L. Pastoriza* and M. Sc M. Bernrdez. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-AECSIC). Eduardo Cabello, 6. 36208 Vigo Spain E-mail: [email protected]; bernar@ iim.csic.es Chapter 11 Bjrn Tore Rotabakk* and Morten Sivertsvik Nofima AS, Mltidets Hus Richard Johnsens gt 4 PO Box 8034 4068 Stavanger Norway E-mail: bjorn.tore.rotabakk@nofima. no Chapter 12 J. Bindu*, C. N. Ravishankar and T. K. S. Gopal Fish Processing Division Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Matsyapuri-Post Cochin- 682029 India E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 13 Alfonso Totosaus Food Science Lab Tecnolgico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec Av. Tecnologico esq. Av. Central Ecatepec de Morelos CP 55210 Estado de Mexico Mexico E-mail: [email protected] 16. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xvi Contributor contact details Chapter 14 Zoran Savic VICTUS International GmbH Hietzinger Haupstrasse 41 1130 Wien Austria E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 15 Helena Walsh* and J. P. Kerry School of Food and Nutritional Sciences University College Cork Cork Ireland E-mail: [email protected]; joe. [email protected] Chapter 16 Lihan Huang* and Cheng-An Hwang Eastern Regional Research Center Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture 600 E. Mermaid Lane Wyndmoor, PA 19038 USA E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Chapter 17 Paul Dawson*, Kay Cooksey and S. Mangalassary Food Nutrition and Packaging Sciences Department204 Poole Hall Clemson University Clemson, SC 29634-0316 USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 18 Veronique coma University of Bordeaux LCPO, UMR 5629 F-33600 Pessac France CNRS LCPO, UMR 5629 F-33600 Pessac France E-mail: veronique.coma@u- bordeaux1.fr Chapter 19 Marlene E. Janes* Louisiana State University Agricultural Center 111 Food Science Bldg Baton Rouge, LA 70803 USA E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] and Y. Dai Southern University Agricultural Research & Extension Center A.O. Williams Hall PO Box 10010 Baton Rouge, LA 70813 USA E-mail: [email protected] 17. Contributor contact details xvii Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Chapter 21 Kenneth W. McMillin* School of Animal Sciences and Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] Lucina E. Lampila Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program Baton Rouge, LA USA John A. Marcy Department of Poultry Science University of Arkansas Fayetteville, AR USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 22 Mark Woolfe Food Standards Agency Retired Thames Ditton Surrey KT7 0UJ UK E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 23 Fintan Moran School of Food Science and Environmental Health Dublin Institute of Technology Cathal Brugha St Dublin 1 Ireland E-mail: [email protected] 18. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition 1 Chilled foods: a comprehensive guide Edited by C. Dennis and M. Stringer 2 Yoghurt: science and technology A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson 3 Food processing technology: principles and practice P. J. Fellows 4 Benders dictionary of nutrition and food technology Sixth edition D. A. Bender 5 Determination of veterinary residues in food Edited by N. T. Crosby 6 Food contaminants: sources and surveillance Edited by C. Creaser and R. Purchase 7 Nitrates and nitrites in food and water Edited by M. J. 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Owens 54 Baking problems solved S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young 55 Thermal technologies in food processing Edited by P. Richardson 56 Frying: improving quality Edited by J. B. Rossell 57 Food chemical safety Volume 1: contaminants Edited by D. Watson 58 Making the most of HACCP: learning from others experience Edited by T. Mayes and S. Mortimore 59 Food process modelling Edited by L. M. M. Tijskens, M. L. A. T. M. Hertog and B. M. Nicola 60 EU food law: a practical guide Edited by K. Goodburn 61 Extrusion cooking: technologies and applications Edited by R. Guy 20. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxi 62 Auditing in the food industry: from safety and quality to environmental and other audits Edited by M. Dillon and C. Griffith 63 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 1 Edited by K. V. Peter 64 Food product development: maximising success M. Earle, R. Earle and A. 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Ledward 77 Microbiological risk assessment in food processing Edited by M. Brown and M. Stringer 78 Performance functional foods Edited by D. Watson 79 Functional dairy products Volume 1 Edited by T. Mattila-Sandholm and M. Saarela 80 Taints and off-flavours in foods Edited by B. Baigrie 81 Yeasts in food Edited by T. Boekhout and V. Robert 82 Phytochemical functional foods Edited by I. T. Johnson and G. Williamson 83 Novel food packaging techniques Edited by R. Ahvenainen 84 Detecting pathogens in food Edited by T. A. McMeekin 85 Natural antimicrobials for the minimal processing of foods Edited by S. Roller 86 Texture in food Volume 1: semi-solid foods Edited by B. M. McKenna 87 Dairy processing: improving quality Edited by G. Smit 88 Hygiene in food processing: principles and practice Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, M. A. Mostert, B. White and J. Holah 89 Rapid and on-line instrumentation for food quality assurance Edited by I. Tothill 90 Sausage manufacture: principles and practice E. Essien 91 Environmentally-friendly food processing Edited by B. Mattsson and U. Sonesson 92 Bread making: improving quality Edited by S. P. Cauvain 93 Food preservation techniques Edited by P. Zeuthen and L. Bgh-Srensen 94 Food authenticity and traceability Edited by M. Lees 95 Analytical methods for food additives R. Wood, L. Foster, A. Damant and P. Key 96 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2 Edited by K. V. Peter 97 Texture in food Volume 2: solid foods Edited by D. Kilcast 98 Proteins in food processing Edited by R. Yada 99 Detecting foreign bodies in food Edited by M. Edwards 100 Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food Edited by R. Steele 101 Poultry meat processing and quality Edited by G. Mead 102 Functional foods, ageing and degenerative disease Edited by C. Remacle and B. Reusens 21. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xxii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition 103 Mycotoxins in food: detection and control Edited by N. Magan and M. Olsen 104 Improving the thermal processing of foods Edited by P. Richardson 105 Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food Edited by D. Watson 106 Starch in food: structure, functions and applications Edited by A.-C. Eliasson 107 Functional foods, cardiovascular disease and diabetes Edited by A. Arnoldi 108 Brewing: science and practice D. E. Briggs, P. A. Brookes, R. Stevens and C. A. Boulton 109 Using cereal science and technology for the benefit of consumers: proceedings of the 12th International ICC Cereal and Bread Congress, 24 26th May, 2004, Harrogate, UK Edited by S. P. Cauvain, L. S. Young and S. Salmon 110 Improving the safety of fresh meat Edited by J. Sofos 111 Understanding pathogen behaviour: virulence, stress response and resistance Edited by M. Griffiths 112 The microwave processing of foods Edited by H. Schubert and M. Regier 113 Food safety control in the poultry industry Edited by G. Mead 114 Improving the safety of fresh fruit and vegetables Edited by W. Jongen 115 Food, diet and obesity Edited by D. Mela 116 Handbook of hygiene control in the food industry Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, M. A. Mostert and J. Holah 117 Detecting allergens in food Edited by S. Koppelman and S. Hefle 118 Improving the fat content of foods Edited by C. Williams and J. Buttriss 119 Improving traceability in food processing and distribution Edited by I. Smith and A. Furness 120 Flavour in food Edited by A. Voilley and P. Etievant 121 The Chorleywood bread process S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young 122 Food spoilage microorganisms Edited by C. de W. Blackburn 123 Emerging foodborne pathogens Edited by Y. Motarjemi and M. Adams 124 Benders dictionary of nutrition and food technology Eighth edition D. A. Bender 125 Optimising sweet taste in foods Edited by W. J. Spillane 126 Brewing: new technologies Edited by C. Bamforth 127 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 3 Edited by K. V. Peter 128 Lawries meat science Seventh edition R. A. Lawrie in collaboration with D. A. Ledward 129 Modifying lipids for use in food Edited by F. Gunstone 130 Meat products handbook: practical science and technology G. Feiner 131 Food consumption and disease risk: consumer-pathogen interactions Edited by M. Potter 132 Acrylamide and other hazardous compounds in heat-treated foods Edited by K. Skog and J. Alexander 133 Managing allergens in food Edited by C. Mills, H. Wichers and K. Hoffman- Sommergruber 134 Microbiological analysis of red meat, poultry and eggs Edited by G. Mead 135 Maximising the value of marine by-products Edited by F. Shahidi 136 Chemical migration and food contact materials Edited by K. Barnes, R. Sinclair and D. Watson 137 Understanding consumers of food products Edited by L. Frewer and H. van Trijp 138 Reducing salt in foods: practical strategies Edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus 139 Modelling microorganisms in food Edited by S. Brul, S. Van Gerwen and M. Zwietering 140 Tamime and Robinsons Yoghurt: science and technology Third edition A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson 141 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing Volume 1 Edited by K. W. Waldron 22. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxiii 142 Improving the flavour of cheese Edited by B. Weimer 143 Novel food ingredients for weight control Edited by C. J. K. Henry 144 Consumer-led food product development Edited by H. MacFie 145 Functional dairy products Volume 2 Edited by M. Saarela 146 Modifying flavour in food Edited by A. J. Taylor and J. Hort 147 Cheese problems solved Edited by P. L. H. McSweeney 148 Handbook of organic food safety and quality Edited by J. Cooper, C. Leifert and U. Niggli 149 Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods Edited by D. J. McClements 150 Novel enzyme technology for food applications Edited by R. Rastall 151 Food preservation by pulsed electric fields: from research to application Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld and S. W. H. de Haan 152 Technology of functional cereal products Edited by B. R. Hamaker 153 Case studies in food product development Edited by M. Earle and R. Earle 154 Delivery and controlled release of bioactives in foods and nutraceuticals Edited by N. Garti 155 Fruit and vegetable flavour: recent advances and future prospects Edited by B. Brckner and S. G. Wyllie 156 Food fortification and supplementation: technological, safety and regulatory aspects Edited by P. Berry Ottaway 157 Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable products Edited by F. A. Toms-Barbern and M. I. Gil 158 Improving seafood products for the consumer Edited by T. Brresen 159 In-pack processed foods: improving quality Edited by P. Richardson 160 Handbook of water and energy management in food processing Edited by J. Kleme, R.. Smith and J.-K. Kim 161 Environmentally compatible food packaging Edited by E. Chiellini 162 Improving farmed fish quality and safety Edited by . Lie 163 Carbohydrate-active enzymes Edited by K.-H. Park 164 Chilled foods: a comprehensive guide Third edition Edited by M. Brown 165 Food for the ageing population Edited by M. M. Raats, C. P. G. M. de Groot and W. A Van Staveren 166 Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat Edited by J. P. Kerry and D. A. Ledward 167 Shellfish safety and quality Edited by S. E. Shumway and G. E. Rodrick 168 Functional and speciality beverage technology Edited by P. Paquin 169 Functional foods: principles and technology M. Guo 170 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food Edited by I. Shaw 171 Meals in science and practice: interdisciplinary research and business applications Edited by H. L. Meiselman 172 Food constituents and oral health: current status and future prospects Edited by M. Wilson 173 Handbook of hydrocolloids Second edition Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams 174 Food processing technology: principles and practice Third edition P. J. Fellows 175 Science and technology of enrobed and filled chocolate, confectionery and bak- ery products Edited by G. Talbot 176 Foodborne pathogens: hazards, risk analysis and control Second edition Edited by C. de W. Blackburn and P. J. McClure 177 Designing functional foods: measuring and controlling food structure break- down and absorption Edited by D. J. McClements and E. A. Decker 178 New technologies in aquaculture: improving production efficiency, quality and environmental management Edited by G. Burnell and G. Allan 23. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xxiv Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition 179 More baking problems solved S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young 180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved P. Ashurst and R. Hargitt 181 Biofilms in the food and beverage industries Edited by P. M. Fratamico, B. A. Annous and N. W. Gunther 182 Dairy-derived ingredients: food and neutraceutical uses Edited by M. Corredig 183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing Volume 2 Edited by K. W. Waldron 184 Innovations in food labelling Edited by J. Albert 185 Delivering performance in food supply chains Edited by C. Mena and G. Stevens 186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages Edited by L. H. Skibsted, J. Risbo and M. L. Andersen 187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: viticulture and wine quality Edited by A. G. Reynolds 188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: milk production and processing Edited by M. Griffiths 189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: improving quality in milk products Edited by M. Griffiths 190 Cereal grains: assessing and managing quality Edited by C. Wrigley and I. Batey 191 Sensory analysis for food and beverage quality control: a practical guide Edited by D. Kilcast 192 Managing wine quality Volume 2: oenology and wine quality Edited by A. G. Reynolds 193 Winemaking problems solved Edited by C. E. Butzke 194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry Edited by U. Sonesson, J. Berlin and F. Ziegler 195 Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products Edited by S. R. Jaeger and H. MacFie 196 Tracing pathogens in the food chain Edited by S. Brul, P.M. Fratamico and T.A. McMeekin 197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: innovations in processing, packaging, and predictive modelling Edited by C. J. Doona, K. Kustin and F. E. Feeherry 198 Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical and food products T.-C. Hua, B.-L. Liu and H. Zhang 199 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 1: understanding mechanisms of oxidation and antioxidant activity Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements 200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 2: management in different industry sectors Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements 201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages for food and beverage biopreservation Edited by C. Lacroix 202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries Edited by S. S. H. Rizvi 203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed Edited by S. De Saeger 204 Developing childrens food products Edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus 205 Functional foods: concept to product Second edition Edited by M. Saarela 206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 1: Fundamental issues Edited by E. M. Yahia 207 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 2: Aai to citrus Edited by E. M. Yahia 208 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 3: Cocona to mango Edited by E. M. Yahia 24. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxv 209 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 4: Mangosteen to white sapote Edited by E. M. Yahia 210 Food and beverage stability and shelf life Edited by D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam 211 Processed Meats: improving safety, nutrition and quality Edited by J. P. Kerry and J. F. Kerry 212 Food chain integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler and R. Prugger 213 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1 Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel 214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2 Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain 215 Animal feed contamination: effects on livestock and food safety Edited by J. Fink- Gremmels 216 Hygienic design of food factories Edited by J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld 217 Manleys technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition Edited by D. Manley 218 Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries Edited by Q. Huang 219 Rice quality: A guide to rice properties and analysis K. R. Bhattacharya 220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J. P. Kerry 221 Reducing saturated fats in foods Edited by G. Talbot 222 Handbook of food proteins Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams 223 Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness Edited by D. Benton 224 Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and confectionery L.-M. Cheng 225 Alcoholic beverages: sensory evaluation and consumer research Edited by J. Piggott 226 Extrusion problems solved: food, pet food and feed M. N. Riaz and G. J. Rokey 227 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 1 Edited by K. V. Peter 228 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2 Edited by K. V. Peter 229 Bread making: improving quality Second edition Edited by S. P. Cauvain 230 Emerging food packaging technologies: principles and practice Edited by K. L. Yam and D. S. Lee 231 Infectious disease in aquaculture: prevention and control Edited by B. Austin 232 Diet, immunity and inflammation Edited by P. C. Calder and P. Yaqoob 233 Natural food additives, ingredients and flavourings Edited by D. Baines and R. Seal 234 Microbial decontamination in the food industry: novel methods and applications Edited by A. Demirci and M. O. Ngadi 235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods Edited by D. Schrenk 236 Robotics and automation in the food industry: current and future technologies Edited by D. G. Caldwell 237 Case studies in food safety and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar, 238 Computer vision technology in the food and beverage industries Edited by D.-W. Sun 239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and nutraceuticals Edited by N. Garti and D. J. McClements 240 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods: improving quality Edited by J. A. Delcour and K. Poutanen 25. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 The quest to preserve and extend the consumable longevity of foods derived from meat, poultry or seafood is one which is pursued with as much enthusiasm and energy today as it has been over the last several hundred years. While many approaches have been used to accomplish these objectives, packaging is para- mount among them. In fact, most of the approaches used to bring about muscle food preservation are quite limited in the absence of utilizing suitable packaging technologies. This is particularly true when considering the challenges presented by the modern-day retailing of such food products. Food chain distribution systems designed for the commercial movement of food products from the point of manufacture through to their retail display and sale are both complex and demanding. This equally applies to all meat, poultry and seafood products. Muscle-based products that appear on supermarket shelves today may have their origins many thousands of miles away from where they are being sold, they may have been processed either minimally or fully to meet market demands, they may be required to meet specialized storage conditions and deliver upon expected shelf life and they will need to meet all of the expectations that markets specify in terms of addressing food safety and traceability issues. Modern-day consumers, of course, understand much of this and take it as a given that when purchasing muscle-based food products in their local supermarket that they are buying quality, safety and stability as integral product components, but consumers will have their own specific product demands which will be comprised of issues such as: value-for-money, nutritional requirements, information and convenience. Consequently, packaging plays the pivotal role in coping with all of these situa- tions and demands. Many packaging systems currently exist for use with muscle-based food products, each one with its own unique attributes and potential for application, from short-term storage (about one week) employing overwrapping, to longer-term Preface 26. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xxviii Preface modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) storage (about two to six weeks), to very long-term storage (weeks to months) using a host of approaches to providing gas- less packaging systems often employing vacuum to do so. These packaging systems are usually employed singly, but can be combined in different ways (like overwrapped products being held under bulk gas flushed conditions, a commercial approach called mother packing). While the formats described above might suggest regimented and set approaches to packaging muscle food products in centralized meat, poultry and seafood packaging plants, nothing could be further from the truth. The packaging of muscle-based food products is a dynamic process which is constantly evolving as we learn more about the productpackage interaction. The productpackage interaction is quite complex and affected by numerous factors. On the muscle-based food product side of the interaction, factors such as pre- and post-slaughter factors (from farming or catching through to chilling following slaughter), further processing (from reforming or restructuring of muscle foods with ingredient manipulation through to cooking or the use of novel processing technologies) and final product composition all play a role in creating a unique set of challenges which the ultimate packaging system will have to con- tend with. Additionally, from the package side of the interaction, factors such as alterations in packaging materials and constructions, developments in material sciences, selection and use of gas mixes, compatibility of packaging materials with muscle food production processes, capacity to deliver safety, quality and shelf-life throughout the chill chain, utilization of smart packaging technologies, environmental concerns and issues pertaining to sustainability, evolving legal issues, unit costs and market demands and compatibility with consumer aspira- tions and expectations equally present their own difficulties. The packaging of muscle-based foods is a dynamic process and it needs to be in order to meet the challenges of our various global food markets. It is for this reason that it was decided upon to develop this publication. All of the issues highlighted above, as part of the productpackage interaction, have been raised as issues within this book in one way or another. The information gathered and the case studies presented by each of the contributing authors will adequately high- light the progress that we have made in the area of muscle food packaging over a great many years, will show the current status of muscle food packaging and the developments being made in packaging technologies presently and will illumi- nate the passages within which we must travel to address the packaging issues that may confront us within the packaging arena tomorrow. J. P. Kerry 27. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 1 Major microbiological hazards associated with packaged fresh and processed meat and poultry C. N. Cutter, R. N. Senevirathne, V. P. Chang, R. B. Cutaia, K. A. Fabrizio, A. M. Geiger, A. M. Valadez and S. F. Yoder, Pennsylvania State University, USA Abstract: This chapter discusses major microbiological hazards associated with packaged fresh and processed meat and poultry, including survival and growth of microorganisms in meat and poultry products, as well as the role of product composition and intrinsic and extrinsic factors (water activity, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, atmosphere, temperature, etc.) affecting microbial growth in these products. Additional information addresses foodborne outbreaks related to packaged fresh and further processed meat and poultry caused by pathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Aeromonas spp. and novel packaging techniques that may be employed to control these pathogens. Key words: foodborne pathogens, pathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas spp. 1.1 Introduction: survival and growth of microorganisms in meat and poultry products The many properties of meat and poultry, including intrinsic, as well as extrinsic variables, will determine the survivability of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. Microorganisms require plentiful sources of water; adequate carbon sources (sugars, alcohols) for energy, nitrogen (amino acids), B vitamins, related growth factors and various minerals, in order to survive. Other factors, such as water activity (aw) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of meat and poultry 28. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 4 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging products can influence significantly the growth and proliferation of organisms. Additionally, extrinsic parameters of meat and poultry, including pH, relative humidity, temperature and gaseous atmosphere affect microbial growth as well as survivability (Cutter, 2002). 1.1.1 Product composition The composition of meat and poultry products can affect the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Generally speaking, fresh meat or poultry that has undergone rigor is composed of macromolecules such as protein, fat, as well as trace minerals. Compositionally speaking, most meat and poultry is made up of 18% protein, on average, but can range from 12% to 20%, depending upon the type of meat or animal source. Meat products are typically low in carbohydrates (06%), except those that have been supplemented for fermentation purposes, for flavor or purely for the creation of specific appearances. For fat content, meat and meat products average 3% fat (w/w), but fat levels can vary widely and can range from 3% to 45% (Jay et al., 2005), depending upon the product and how it is processed. Low molecular weight soluble components, including creatine phosphate to glycogen to amino acids and dipeptides, minerals and vitamins, also contribute to the composition of these food products (~3.5%; Jay et al., 2005). Additionally, the presence of water in muscle tissue also affords microorganisms with another necessary component to support microbial growth. In fact, muscle is composed of approximately 75.5% water, but again, levels can range from 42% to 80% (Jay et al., 2005). As described above, water is an important component of meat and poultry and, consequently, its presence supports microbial growth. Moisture content, or water activity (aw), are terms used interchangeably when describing the amount of water in a food product or system. However, aw is defined as the energy status of the water in the system. It is equal to the relative humidity of the air in equilibrium with a sample in a sealed chamber. It is defined as the vapor pressure of water in a sample divided by the vapor pressure of pure water held at the sample temperature therefore, water activity and moisture content together provide a complete moisture analysis (Decagon, 2010). aw measurements range from 0 to 1.0, with moisture-laden products having an aw of 0.90 or greater, while products with an aw of < 0.50 are intermediate moisture products, typically described as dry, and are relatively shelf stable. From a microbiological perspective, the aw of meat and poultry is an important intrinsic property that will influence the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Fresh meats and poultry typically exhibit aw values of > 0.95 (Jay et al., 2005). Processing can also influence significantly the ultimate aw, depending upon the type of parameters (heating, cooling, drying, etc.) or compounds (marinades, salt concentrations, carbohydrates, etc.) employed. Various microorganisms have varying aw requirements. For example, Gram- negative organisms (such as E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., etc.) have a minimum aw requirement of 0.96 to 0.93 for growth, whereas Gram-positive, non-spore-formers (Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus 29. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and poultry 5 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 aureus, etc.) can grow to a lower aw of 0.90 to 0.94 (Farkas, 1997). By lowering the aw of a muscle food, one can increase the lag phase of bacterial growth and, ultimately, decrease the growth rate (Farkas, 1997). Additionally, factors such as pH, temperature, nutrient content, presence of antimicrobials or oxidation-reduction potential, work synergistically with aw (Jay et al., 2005). For example, when stored at a specific temperature, the ability of microbes to grow on meat and poultry is reduced as the aw is lowered. Similarly, addition of salts or solutes in a mari- nade to a muscle food and storage under refrigeration will hamper the ability of the pathogenic organism to grow. The difference in aw limits for microbial growth may be reflected in osomoregulatory capacities since mechanisms of tolerance to low aw are different in bacteria and fungi (Farkas, 1997). The strategy employed by microorganisms to protect against osmotic stress under extreme conditions of low aw appears to be the intracellular accumulation of salts, polyols, amino acids or compatible solutes such as potassium ions or amino acids in bacteria (Cutter, 2002; Farkas, 1997; Jay et al., 2005). In conjunction with aw, the relative humidity of the storage environment is also important in determining the growth of microorganisms in foods (Jay et al., 2005). Careful consideration should be given when storing low aw foods in environments where the relative humidity is high since moisture will transfer from the environment to the food. The change in the aw of the muscle food has the potential to affect the growth of microbes. Conversely, high aw foods held in packaged environments with low relative humidity tend to lose moisture in the transfer of moisture from the food to the environment. In this case, microbial growth may be slowed by the loss of available water, but unde- sirable quality changes in the food may occur. It is possible that by altering the gaseous environment, microbial growth can be minimized without lowering the relative humidity (Jay et al., 2005). 1.1.2 Storage temperature and oxidation-reduction potential Another property that influences the growth of microorganisms is storage temperature. While microorganisms grow over a wide range of temperatures, the general temperature ranges for microbial growth are: psychrophiles (15C to 20C with an optimum of 10C); psychrotrophs (5C to 35C with optimum of 20C to 30C); mesophiles (10C to 35C with optimum of 30C to 40C); and ther- mophiles (40C to 90C with optimum of 55C to 65C) (Cousin and Rodriguez, 1987). Above the optimal growth temperature, the growth rates decrease pre- cipitously; below the optimum, growth rates also decrease, but do so gradually (Montville and Matthews, 2008). The influence of temperature on microbial growth and physiology is obvi- ous; yet the influence of temperature on gene expression is equally important (Montville and Matthews, 2008). For example, psychrophilic organisms not only grow slower under refrigerated conditions, but they also express different genes and are physiologically different than mesophilic organisms (Montville and Matthews, 2008). Temperature also influences the expression of other genes and their representative proteins, such as toxin production in Yersinia enterocolitica, 30. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 6 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging internalin production by L. monocytogenes, or production of heat shock proteins involved in thermal resistance in Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Montville and Matthews, 2008). The oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of a substrate may be defined as how easily a substrate loses or gains electrons (Jay et al., 2005). When a substance is oxidized, it loses electrons and these electrons must be accepted by another substance, which then becomes reduced (Jay et al., 2005). Aerobic microorganisms require positive ORP values (i.e., oxidized) and therefore, can lower the ORP of their environment. Anaerobes require negative ORP values (i.e., reduced) and therefore, cannot lower the ORP of their environment (Jay et al., 2005). The ORP of a muscle food is determined by the resistance to change the potential of the food, the oxygen tension of the atmosphere around the food, and the access which the atmosphere has to the food (Jay et al., 2005). Substances, such as sulfide groups, help in maintaining reduced conditions in foods (Jay et al., 2005). Thus, it is the presence or absence of appropriate quantities of oxidizing and reducing compounds in muscle foods that are important to the growth and activity of microorganisms (Cutter, 2002; Jay et al., 2005). 1.1.3 Atmospheric composition Perhaps the major technical role played by packaging during containment of meat and poultry is its influence on the water vapor, gas composition and partial pressure in the headspace or atmosphere of the packaged food (Cutter, 2002). Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) are the three gases used primarily in commercial modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of muscle-based products. Oxygen generally stimulates the growth of aerobic bacteria, while inhibiting strictly anaerobic bacteria. Oxygen also is necessary to maintain the bright red color of fresh red meat, but, concurrently, it will contribute to lipid oxidation. Nitrogen is an inert, tasteless gas that exhibits low solubility in water and lipids. It is used to replace O2 in some packaging regimens in order to delay oxidative rancidity and inhibit the proliferation of aerobic microorganisms. Additionally, nitrogen is used as a filler-gas to prevent collapse of packaging (Davies, 1995; Stiles, 1991). Carbon dioxide, which is both a water- and lipid-soluble gas, primarily exerts bacteriostatic effects on selective groups of microorganisms in modified atmospheres. The presence of CO2 not only prolongs the lag phase of bacterial growth, but also decreases the growth rate during the logarithmic phase (Davies, 1995). Any bacteriostatic effect exerted by carbon dioxide is determined by gas concentration used, gas to product ratio, age and load of the initial bacterial population, temperature and composition of the muscle food product. The modes of CO2 action on certain bacteria may include: an alteration of the cell membrane function such that nutrients and absorption are affected; inhibition or decrease in enzymatic reactions; intracellular pH changes and/or changes in the physicochemical properties of proteins (Farber, 1991). Under some packaging conditions, carbonic acid may be formed when CO2 interacts with water, lowering the pH and inhibiting or interfering with microbial growth on the surface of 31. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and poultry 7 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 muscle foods (Gill, 1986). Another gas, carbon monoxide (CO), has been used to preserve muscle foods and to overcome color deterioration of packaged meats (Gill, 1986). However, carbon monoxide has a limited effect on spoilage microorganisms (Gill, 1986; Stiles, 1991). 1.2 Vacuum packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) to control microbial populations associated with meat and poultry products When discussing gas and/or surrounding atmospheres and the effect on microbial populations associated with muscle foods, it is important to include some information about vacuum packaging (VP) and MAP. VP is accomplished by evacuat- ing the air from within a package and ensuring that it continues not to possess an atmosphere prior to heat-sealing (Brody, 1989; Cutter, 2002; Davies, 1995). In the process of VP, a pressure differential exists between the package exte- rior and interior. This pressure differential can cause package collapse in some rigid packages, but may be very well suited for some types of flexible packaging (Brody, 1989). The gaseous atmosphere surrounding the meat or poultry product is likely to change during storage due to respiration of the muscle food itself or via the metabolism of microorganisms found on the food surface (Davies, 1995). Conversely, modified atmospheres are generated by the initial alteration of the gaseous environment in the immediate vicinity of the muscle food. The gaseous environment within MAP is altered in order to slow down the respiration rate of the muscle foods as well as microbial growth, and to reduce enzymatic degrada- tion resulting in an extension in the shelf life of the food (Cutter, 2002; Stllman et al., 1994). Because fresh foods may be naturally respiring or contain microorganisms that respire, O2 is consumed and CO2 and water vapor are produced, reaching a steady-state composition within the package (Brody, 1989; Ooraikul, 1991). Depending upon the type of packaging material(s) used, the package may also transmit oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor, resulting in changes to the gaseous environment surrounding the product. VP can be considered a variation of MAP in that the removal of air is an atmospheric modification and not carried out specifically by the introduction of gases (Brody, 1989; Cutter, 2002). The absence or reduction of oxygen in VP foods may permit conditions suitable for the growth and toxin production by anaerobic pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum (Brody, 1989). Additionally, the suppression of aerobic spoilage organisms may create conditions favorable for the growth of pathogenic aerobic bacteria such as L. monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Aeromonas hydrophila and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (Brody, 1989). While the presence of CO2 in VP products inhibits the growth of some Gram-negative spoilage organisms, lactic acid spoilage bacteria are less affected by elevated levels of CO2 and grow well. Based on this information, VP and the atmosphere it creates in and around muscle foods may selectively favor the growth of obligate and facultative anaerobic 32. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 8 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging pathogens (Cutter, 2002). As mentioned previously, several factors are known to influence the antimicrobial effect of CO2 in MAP. Specifically, the initial microbial load, concentration of gas, temperature and film permeability affect microbial growth (Cutter, 2002; Ooraikul, 1991; Stiles, 1991). MAP can be inhibitory to some microorganisms, including a number of Gram-negative organisms; yet, Gram-positive organisms can grow slowly under modified atmospheres (Brody, 1989; Farkas, 1997; Ooraikul, 1991) Additionally, since O2 is removed and replaced by other gases in MAP, there is the potential for outgrowth of pathogens such as L. monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus and Clostridium botulinum (Farkas, 1997). Furthermore, the effect of VP and MAP against microorganisms associated with fresh or further processed meat and poultry decreases as the temperature increases. Therefore, elevated temperatures that may be seen with temperature abuse throughout storage, transport, or distribution could permit the growth of once-inhibited microorganisms and create food safety issues (Brody, 1989). Despite these limitations, it has been proposed that the risks of foodborne pathogens associated with modified atmospheres are no greater, and are frequently less than, those from aerobically stored foods (Cutter, 2002; Davies, 1995). It has been well established that most microorganisms grow at pH values around 7.0, with some molds growing between pH 0 and 11; bacteria growing between pH 3 and 11; and yeast growing between pH 1.5 and 8.50 (Jay et al., 2005). In some instances, pH fluctuations on meat and poultry occur as a result of metabolites (e.g., organic acids) produced by the microbes associated with the product over time (Genigeorgis, 1985). In other instances, pH changes can occur due to the amount of gas and/or atmosphere applied. In cases of MAP in which carbon dioxide is used, the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid on the surface can result in a pH drop that has the potential to affect microbial growth (Genigeorgis, 1985). Along these lines, high levels of carbon dioxide in a packaged product could result in higher levels of carbonic acid on the surface, resulting in lower microbial levels. When microorganisms encounter environments exhibiting pH values above or below their optimal pH, they must adjust by expelling or importing hydrogen ions in an effort to maintain an internal pH near neutrality (Jay et al., 2005). Adverse pH conditions also may affect respiring microorganisms by denaturing DNA, altering cellular enzymes or disrupting the transport of nutrients into the cell (Jay et al., 2005). Ultimately, these changes can result in cellular death. 1.3 Notable foodborne outbreaks related to packaged fresh and further processed meat and poultry In addition to the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, as well as packaging materials, on microbial growth, it is important to understand the biological hazards associated with the presence of pathogens which are specifically involved with, and relate to, muscle foods: their properties, mechanisms of infection, inci- dents of foodborne illness and potential control measures. Of these pathogens, 33. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and poultry 9 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., L. monocytogenes and Shiga-toxin producing E. coli are considered the most important bacteria with regard to public health. Additional concerns associated with Yersinia spp., S. aureus, C. botulinum, C. perfringens, B. cereus, Aeromonas spp. and Shigella spp. also will be discussed. Some notable foodborne outbreaks, packaging type (if known) and other outbreak statistics related to fresh and further processed meat and poultry products (19882010) are presented in Table 1.1. Major microbiological hazards associated with packaged fresh and further processed meat and poultry are discussed in the following sections. 1.3.1 Salmonella spp. Salmonella spp. are Gram-negative, small, non-spore-forming, motile and facultative anaerobic rods (Jay et al., 2005). Salmonella spp. are commonly distrib- uted in nature, with humans and domestic animals being the primary reservoirs of the organism. Salmonella spp. are differentiated serologically by their somatic (O) antigen, flagellar (H) antigen or capsular antigen (K) and classified by group A, B, C, D, etc. The most prevalent serotypes are Salmonella Enteritidis (SE), S. Typhimurium and S. Heidelberg, accounting for the majority of human salmonellosis cases. Salmonella spp. can grow between 5C and 47C, with an optimum temperature of 3537C, and can survive in a pH range of 4.59.0, with the ideal pH being 6.57.5. Most Salmonella spp. grow aerobically at aw of 0.9450.999 (Jay et al., 2005). Salmonella spp. cause the gastrointestinal disease known as salmonellosis. The minimum infective dose in humans ranges from 107 to 109 cells/gram of food (Jay et al., 2005). The general symptoms of salmonellosis in humans occur within 1236 h after the bacteria are ingested and may include diarrhea, vomit- ing, abdominal cramps or fever, generally persisting for one to seven days. The virulence of S. Typhimurium in humans is attributed to several mechanisms. Lipopolysaccharide components of the cell wall and endotoxins have been sug- gested as the cause of fever in salmonellosis (Jay et al., 2005). Salmonella spp. do not possess enterotoxins, but are capable of penetrating the ileum and the colon of the gastrointestinal tract in humans, causing inflammation. In some instances, the organism may establish a systematic infection following penetra- tion of blood and lymphatic vessels, causing bacteremia in infected individuals (Flowers et al., 1988a, 1988b). In some salmonellosis cases, severe dehydration can lead to death of infected individuals. Other symptoms may include muscu- lar weakness, faintness, restlessness and drowsiness (Jay et al., 2005). Another clinical manifestation of Salmonella spp. infection is enteric fever, more commonly known as typhoid fever, which is caused by S. Typhi (Gonzalez-Escobedo et al., 2011). Salmonella spp. have been implicated in meat borne illnesses for several decades. Salmonellosis represents a serious problem worldwide, with billions of dollars spent each year due to the illness, including on: lost wages, medical expenses, lawsuits and product recalls (Buzby and Roberts, 2009; Todd, 1989). 34. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Table1.1Notablefoodborneoutbreaksrelatedtopackagedfreshandfurtherprocessedmeatandpoultry(19882010) Organism responsiblefor outbreak Year(month/months) outbreakoccurred Meatandpoultry vehicle(s) Typeof productand/or packagingtype Approximate numberof confirmed illnesses Affected country Number ofaffected states(USA) orcountries Reference Salmonellaspp.2007(JanOct)Frozenpotpie productswith chickenand turkey RTE65USA35CDC Database1 2009(Nov)2010(Jan)Italiansausage, salami RTE272USA44CDCDatabase 2009(MayJune)GroundbeefMAP14USA1CDCDatabase 2010(April)Chickenandrice; frozenentre RTE44USA18CDCDatabase Campylobacterspp.2005(June)ChickensaladUndercooked chicken 77Denmark1Mazicketal., 2006 Clostridium perfringens 1998(April)Beef,brisket; sausage, unspecified VPandMAP50USA1FIODatabase2 Escherichiacoli O157:H7 1992(Nov)1993 (Feb) Beef,groundbeefUnknown500USA1FIODatabase 1998(April)Roastbeef,sausage, Genoasalami VPandMAP39Canada1FIODatabase 1999(Nov)Roastbeef,sausage, salami VPandMAP143Canada1MacDonald etal.,2004 2000(July)GroundbeefUnknown4USA1FIODatabase 2000(Nov)GroundbeefRetailtube/chub packages 46USA1FIODatabase 2002(JuneJuly)GroundbeefMAP35USA7Vogtand Dippold, 2005 35. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 2002(Aug)GroundbeefMAP/Chub/ Boxed 57USA2FIODatabase 2003(Aug)TenderizedsteakVP12USA3Laineetal., 2005 2004(June)BeefsirloinsteaksMAP/BoxedUSA1FIODatabase 2005(April)GroundbeefMAP3USA1FIODatabase 2007(March)Beef:steak,sirloin, beeftips, tenderizedbeef Boxed8USA1 2007(May)Beef:tri-tip,bladed, tenderized Unknown124USA1FIODatabase 2007(Aug)Groundbeef, hamburger MAP12USA2FIODatabase 2007(Aug)Groundbeef, hamburger Boxed/ Unknown 47USA4FIODatabase 2007(Dec)2008(Jan)GroundbeefBoxed/ Unknown 6USA2FIODatabase 2008(May)GroundbeefVP/MAP/ RetailTube 32USA13FIODatabase 2008(May)GroundbeefVP/MAP/ RetailTube 35USA9FIODatabase 2009(April)GroundbeefVP/MAP/ RetailTube 23USA6FIODatabase 2009(May)GroundbeefUnknown6USA1FIODatabase 2009(May)Luncheonmeat: turkey,ham RTE42USA1FIODatabase 2009(Sep)Groundbeef, hamburger MAP/Chub26USA4FIODatabase 2009(Oct)GroundbeefMAP/Boxed20USA1FIODatabase 2010(Aug)Beef:tenderloin, chunks,ground Unknown5Canada1FIODatabase (Continued) 36. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Table1.1Continued Organism responsiblefor outbreak Year(month/months) outbreakoccurred Meatandpoultry vehicle(s) Typeof productand/or packagingtype Approximate numberof confirmed illnesses Affected country Number ofaffected states(USA) orcountries Reference Escherichiacoli O111:NM 1994(Dec)1995(Feb)Semi-dry,fermented sausage Unknown81South Australia 1FIODatabase Non-Escherichia coliO157:H7 STEC 1999(Dec)Groundbeef, hamburger VP/MAP/ RetailTube 10USA1FIODatabase 2000(March)Beef:seemerrolle, bottomround steaks Unknown11Germany3FIODatabase Listeria monocytogenes 1988Luncheonmeat, sausage,turkey franks RTE1USA1FIODatabase 1998(Jan)Sausage, frankfurters, turkeydelimeats VP/MAP-RTE108USA22FIODatabase 2000(May)Turkeyluncheon meat,sausage VP/MAP-RTE29USA11FIODatabase 2002(July)Luncheonmeat, sausage VP/MAP-RTE54USA3FIODatabase 2005(July)Turkeyluncheon meat VP/MAP-RTE13USAUnknownFIODatabase 2008(June)LuncheonmeatVP/MAP-RTE57CanadaUnknownFIODatabase 2009(May)Chickenluncheon meatwraps Boxed luncheons 5AustraliaUnknownFIODatabase 37. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 2010Luncheonmeat, sausage,salami, ham(cooked, cotto) Unknown2CanadaOntarioFIODatabase Staphylococcus aureus 2008Hamandpasta dishes Unknown11USA1FIODatabase 201017USA1 Notes:RTE=ready-to-eat;MAP=modifiedatmospherepackaged/packaging;VP=vacuumpackaged/packaging. CommerciallyavailableRTEproductsmaybepurchasedinVPfromstoreshelvesorobtainedslicedtoorderfromthedelicatessenandtransportedhomeinaerobic packagingmaterials. 1 CentersforDiseaseControl(CDC)andPreventionDatabase(2010).Availableat:http://wwwn.cdc.gov/foodborneoutbreaks/ 2 FoodborneIllnessOutbreak(FIO)Database.Availableat:http://www.outbreakdatabase.com/ 38. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 14 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Outbreaks caused by Salmonella spp. have been associated with foods derived from animals, including pork, eggs, poultry, low fat and whole milk, raw ground beef, ice cream, cheese, sausages and cured meats (ham, bacon and tongue). In 1994, a meat-related outbreak was linked to the consumption of raw ground beef contaminated with S. Typhimurium. This outbreak yielded a total of 158 confirmed cases experiencing symptoms (diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever and nausea) and 17 hospitalizations. The source of contamination was linked to improper sanita- tion of utensils used to mince meat (Roels et al., 1997). In an outbreak involving improperly cooked beef jerky that occurred in 1995, individuals exhibited symptoms of salmonellosis, with 59 of the infected individuals requiring hospitaliza- tion. Strains which were isolated from 18 out of 59 patients proved positive for Salmonella Agona (Taylor et