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DA2, EP5 Evidence-based and science-informed choices in education: the case of technology

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Page 1: Ep5

DA2, EP5

Evidence-based and science-informed choices in education: the

case of technology

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Digital revolution?

Andrea Formica
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Digital natives?Prensky, 2002

Formica Andrea
Digital literacy cannot be bound to computer related skills, but becomes a matter of gaining an attitude towards the opportunities (and side-effects) represented by new media technologies and practices.
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Teaching machinesmore than audio-visual supports: interaction

(Skinner, 1954)

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Horizontal interaction

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Interaction with real contexts

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Interaction with simulations

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Playful interaction

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Interaction with different forms of digital information : access, presentation, creation

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Digital creation (programming) and literacy

Andrea Formica
Skinner teaching machines: - Mass education- Machine tutoring: no stress, own rythm, repetition, itneractivity- Vs Passive mediaBUTwhere's the learner?The learner is considered as a hollow box
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Is there a good way/bad way for introducing technologies in education?

Andrea Formica
Philosopher Luciano Floridi describes our era as the result of an information revolution. The information turn has made of us inforgs (connected information organisms) evolving in the infosphere: a place where distinctions between learning from digital on-line – as opposed to physical, off-line one - interactions and contents are less and less relevant. Let us imagine walking in the street with our mobile phone in our pocket (not a huge leap of imagination, in fact). Someone calls from far away, we answer and engage in a conversation about a strange art object we are looking at, right in front of us; a picture of the mysterious object is soon taken, and sent to the phone-friend. The phone-friend, tickled by curiosity, searches the Internet for street exhibitions in our town. Meanwhile, we approach the object, and find a code; we then point the camera of our smart-phone onto the code, and an artist appears next to the mysterious object - on the screen of our phone, of course -, ready to explain the meaning of the artwork, and to guide us - GPS activated - through an entire maze of no-more so mysterious objects of art that are physically installed in town and through another maze of artworks that the same artist has created with digital tools: representations that are activated by special codes disseminated in the town and that we see on the screen of our telephone, when we point the camera on the real spot. By simply using a smart-phone one can experience that “The digital is spilling over into the analogue and merging with it” (Floridi 2007, p. 64), and that the real world is part of the infosphere (the picture you sent to your phone-friend). This is why the infosphere is “now vast and infinite” (Floridi 2007, p. 62), ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) being “among the most influential factors that affect the ontological friction in the infosphere” (Floridi 2004, p. 63). Friction is the resistant force to the flow of information within a certain region of the infosphere; when friction is low, information freely circulates in a way that makes inforgs – as inhabitants of the infosphere – not necessarily savvy, but at least informed: they have no right to claim ignorance, and they know that others know. Mobile phones have done much to reduce friction. They are so portable, always in (the pocket) and always (switched) on, that they are much more similar to glasses for short-sighted people, than to sophisticated ICT. But they are sophisticated ICT. This fact transforms those who wear them in nicely sophisticated ITentities with troubles in sight. Troubles mainly concern ethical issues, such as the risk that the digital divide - the unequal distribution of information technologies, hence: of friction in the infosphere - will generate new populations of “excluded” across and within societies.
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Is there a good way/bad way for using technologies in education?

Andrea Formica
Philosopher Luciano Floridi describes our era as the result of an information revolution. The information turn has made of us inforgs (connected information organisms) evolving in the infosphere: a place where distinctions between learning from digital on-line – as opposed to physical, off-line one - interactions and contents are less and less relevant. Let us imagine walking in the street with our mobile phone in our pocket (not a huge leap of imagination, in fact). Someone calls from far away, we answer and engage in a conversation about a strange art object we are looking at, right in front of us; a picture of the mysterious object is soon taken, and sent to the phone-friend. The phone-friend, tickled by curiosity, searches the Internet for street exhibitions in our town. Meanwhile, we approach the object, and find a code; we then point the camera of our smart-phone onto the code, and an artist appears next to the mysterious object - on the screen of our phone, of course -, ready to explain the meaning of the artwork, and to guide us - GPS activated - through an entire maze of no-more so mysterious objects of art that are physically installed in town and through another maze of artworks that the same artist has created with digital tools: representations that are activated by special codes disseminated in the town and that we see on the screen of our telephone, when we point the camera on the real spot. By simply using a smart-phone one can experience that “The digital is spilling over into the analogue and merging with it” (Floridi 2007, p. 64), and that the real world is part of the infosphere (the picture you sent to your phone-friend). This is why the infosphere is “now vast and infinite” (Floridi 2007, p. 62), ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) being “among the most influential factors that affect the ontological friction in the infosphere” (Floridi 2004, p. 63). Friction is the resistant force to the flow of information within a certain region of the infosphere; when friction is low, information freely circulates in a way that makes inforgs – as inhabitants of the infosphere – not necessarily savvy, but at least informed: they have no right to claim ignorance, and they know that others know. Mobile phones have done much to reduce friction. They are so portable, always in (the pocket) and always (switched) on, that they are much more similar to glasses for short-sighted people, than to sophisticated ICT. But they are sophisticated ICT. This fact transforms those who wear them in nicely sophisticated ITentities with troubles in sight. Troubles mainly concern ethical issues, such as the risk that the digital divide - the unequal distribution of information technologies, hence: of friction in the infosphere - will generate new populations of “excluded” across and within societies.
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Cognitive enhancement in the light of scientific research and experimental evidence

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Should learners swallow smart pills?

Gazzaniga, 2005Greely et al., 2009

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Should learners train their brain?

http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/video/d/drkawashimaintroductiontodrkawashimacasestudy.asp

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Brain training effects on cognition(Owen et al. 2010)

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Brain training effects on cognition(Owen et al. 2010)

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Problems with training products

• (Green & Bavelier, 2008):– “remarkable specificity of learning. In other words, improvement

is observed only in the trained task, with little to no transfer of learning being observed even for very similar untrained tasks”

– “training tasks are often boring and unpleasant may decrease the probability of full compliance with the regimen, which in turn will negatively affect final result”

– “improvement in performance is not always due to training-induced learning. Instead, changes in mood, level of motivation, or even desire to please the investigator can all lead to temporary improvements in performance, which without care in experimental design, can easily be mistaken for true learning effects”

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Experimental issues for training studies

• (Green & Bavelier, 2008):– Establish the causal link– Include a control group that controls for test–

retest, psychological and motivational effects (Hawthorne effect)

– Establish the capacity of transfer

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Video games effects on attention

• (Green & Bavelier, 2008):– Recent work indicates that action video game experience

leads to enhanced performance on a number of tasks:• action game players outperform their peers on the multiple-object

tracking task• useful field of view task, wherein participants must localize a

quickly flashed target amongst a host of distracting objects • superior capabilities on the attentional blink task• skilled in action game playing can also resolve visual details in the

context of tightly packed distractors, as in the crowding task• enhanced mental rotation abilities • Action video game experience has been shown to transfer to even

high-level real-world tasks, such as piloting procedures (Gopher, Weil, & Bareket, 1994)

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Video games effects on attention

• (Green & Bavelier, 2008):– Tested skills are slightly different from the skills

that are trained by the video game– But it is not the case that action video games

enhance every perceptual and attentional performance or that every video game enhances the same skills

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Video games: from experimental conditions to transfer

• (Boot, et al., 2008)– Purpose of the study:

• Establish effects of video game playing on several cognitive abilities (attention, mental rotation, memory, reasoning)

• Examine the effect of game type– Participants either played a fast-paced action game, a slower-

paced strategy game, or a puzzle game.

• Cross-sectional groups (expert vs. non-gamers) + Longitudinal study (non gamers before and after trainingwith different types of video games compared to passive control group)

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Video games: from experimental conditions to transfer

• (Boot, et al.,)– Results: different capacities in players and non-players

• Players better at tracking objects, visual short memory,

– No effect of 21 hours training on non players, even if training improves game skills• Not even on tasks in which video games experiences has

been proved beneficial ex. By Green & Bavelier• Slight differences in tasks might play a role (no differences

between gamers and non-gamers in tasks for which this trend seems to be proved)

• This consideration is meaningful for transfer

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Video games effects on attention

• (Rueda, et al., 2005)– Attention develops between 3 and 7 years of age

under genetic control and possibly environmental influence

http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218392700

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Video games effects on attention• (Swing, et al., 2010)

– 1323 middle childhood participants were assessed during a 13-month period by parent- and child-reported television and video game exposure as well as teacher-reported attention problems. Another sample of 210 late adolescent/early adult participants provided self-reports of television exposure, video game exposure, and attention problems.

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Dr Kawashima brain training: effects on learning

(Miller & Robertson, 2010)

• Participants– 32 schools • 4 local authorities • Complete data for 634 P6 children

• Method– Randomised controlled trial (stratified random sample) •– 2 conditions:

• Experimental group, who used the Nintendo half an hour a day, 5 days a week playing Dr. Kawashima’s brain training

• A control group, where the teachers were asked not to change their normal routine

– Treatment period 9 weeks – Data collected: pre and post measures of computation (accuracy and

speed),various self-measures, (eg mathematics self-concept). • Findings

– Statistical gains on accuracy and speed (both) with mean greater gain for experimental group

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A case for science-informed evidence-based practices- Much more research is needed before recommending

brain training and video games as effective for enhancing cognitive performances

- Ethical issues should be deeply investigated

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Science-informed education

• Bruer’s equation:– Cognitive science :

education = biology : medicine

– What works and why it works

(Bruer, 1993)

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Science-informed education

• We shoudln’t trust our intuitions• Naïve epistemological beliefs and

intuitions can be false– Memory– Vision

• Rationality biases influence our judgment, ex.:– Overconfidence– Confirmation bias– Illusory correlation– Hindsight bias(Nickerson, 1998)

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Evidence-based education

• The integration of professional wisdom with the best available empirical evidence in making decisions about how to deliver instruction (US Department of education)

• NCLB (No Child Left Behind, 2001)– Standard-based education

reform– Teach to test problem– No revolution, yet

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Evidence-based education

• Davies, 1999• Slavin, 2002• Educational Researcher– What Works Clearinghouse– EIPEE Evidence-based Education Policy in Europe – Coalition for Evidence-Based Education

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Evidence-based medicine (EBM)• Evidence based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of

current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. • The practice of evidence based medicine means integrating individual clinical

expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.

• By individual clinical expertise we mean the proficiency and judgment that individual clinicians acquire through clinical experience and clinical practice. Increased expertise is reflected in many ways, but especially in more effective and efficient diagnosis and in the more thoughtful identification and compassionate use of individual patients' predicaments, rights, and preferences in making clinical decisions about their care.

• By best available external clinical evidence we mean clinically relevant research, often from the basic sciences of medicine, but especially from patient centered clinical research into the accuracy and precision of diagnostic tests (including the clinical examination), the power of prognostic markers, and the efficacy and safety of therapeutic, rehabilitative, and preventive regimens (Sackett et al., 1996)

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Evidence-based practice (EBP)• Preferential use of interventions that

have been proven to have statistically significant effectiveness through systematic, empirical research– Gold rule: randomized, double-blind

placebo-controlled trials– Meta-analyses & Systematic reviews

of the literature• Help well-informed decisions• Sorts effective interventions from non-

effective ones and in particular from – Quackery– Rule of thumb, customs & intuitions– Gut’s feelings & personal beliefs

http://www.acceleratedlearningmethods.com/doman-method.html

• Cochrane Collaboration• Campbell Collaboration• Royal Society Science Policy center

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Translational medicine (TM)

• “Translational research involves moving knowledge and discovery gained from the basic sciences to its application in clinical and community settings. This concept is often summarized by the phrases "bench-to-bedside" and "bedside-to-community" research.” (Institute of Translational Health Sciences)– Development of EBE = validate the

clinical potential of biomedical research discoveries

– Find solutions for increasing the efficiency of the process (Marincola,2003)

– Speed the process (17 years) (Chumlea, 2008)

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Translational medicine (TM)

• Two-way road (Marincola, 2003)– form bench to bedside =

extract and validate interventions from novel discoveries

– From bedside to bench = identify new hypotheses from direct human observation

• Integrates research from basic sciences, social sciences, political sciences (Chumlea, 2008)

• Translational research Awards • Journal of Translational Medicine, Translational research, Americal Journal of Translational Research• Science Translational Medicine

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• Harvard Graduate School of education, Research Schools Program• Research Schools Will Directly Link Research and Practice

http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news_events/features/2007/01/18_researchschools.html• Dean Mary Brabeck: Putting Clinical Findings to Work in the Classroom http

://blogs.nyu.edu/blogs/ejf9434/steinhardtcommentaries/2008/06/dean_mary_brabeck_putting_clin.html

• Facilitate the way from the lab to the classroom – Research that is

motivated by the need of practical applications

– Facilitations to the testing in in-vivo situations of interventions suggested by experimental models

• Facilitate the way from the classroom to the lab– Feedback to researchers

about the effects of the interventions

– Suggestion to researchers of hypotheses based on direct observation in in-vivo situations

Translational education?

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Translational education?

• Define the body of knowledge

• Identify ethical issues• Promote Clearinghouses

and Journals/Conferences• Promote research• Change the profession

– New professions– New forms of training for

educators

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Medicine-inspired education

1. Scientific research informs practice

2. Evidence-based practice

3. Translational practice

• Which are the differences-similarities between medicine and education?– Aims– Actors

• Providers• Users

– Practices & Actions– Knowledge– Role in society– …

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• Gut’s feelings (Marie Picard)/Limits of meta-analyses (Emmanuel Trouche-Raymond)

• Social consequences of a-social education (Marie Picard, Timothée Behra)• What’s working when it works?

– Novelty effect (Sarah Arnaud)– Additional time spent on blend conditions (Asma Aldashti)– Technology per se or how it is used by the teacher: motivation, … (Asma

Aldashti)– What’s not working on the other side (Claire Pelofi)– Type of content (Muriel Perbet-Fayard, Emmanuel Trouche-Raymond)– Nature of the interaction – more or less active (Ilaria Gaudiello)

• Evidence on power-point presentations (Timothée Behra)• Accountability & validation (Muriel Perbet-Fayard)• How can we give the opportunity of internet away ? (Sacha Vorobyova)

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• Nouri & Shahid, 2005 http://gpae.bryant.edu/~gpae/vol2/04-046%20The%20Effect%20of%20PowerPoint%20Presentations%20on%20Studen

• Nouri & Shahid, 2008 http://www.aejournal.com/ojs/index.php/aej/article/viewFile/99/69

• t%20Learning.pdf• Bartsch & Coben, 2003

https://apps.lis.illinois.edu/wiki/download/attachments/4366090/Effectiveness+of+Powerpoint+Presentations+in+Lectures.pdf

• Bowman, 2011http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCG/is_2_36/ai_n32447969/

• Cassady, J. C. (1998). Student and instructor perceptions of the efficiency of computer-aided lectures in undergraduate university courses. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 19, 175-189.

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Timothée Behra• La psychologie naïve dit que nous apprenons mieux lorsque quelqu'un nous explique quelque chose que lorsque nous

travaillons par nous même. • Les résultats de la méta-étude semblent aller dans le sens inverse, même si les méthodes mixtes donnent un plus grand

avantage que les méthodes purement "online". Il se peut que ce soit parce que quand nous sommes en classe, nous pouvons ne pas travailler, alors que c'est moins le cas lorsque nous sommes seuls face à notre ordinateur… à condition bien sûr que seuls les logiciels dédiés au travail soient accessibles.

• Une des principales conclusion de cette méta-analyse est que nous n'avons pas suffisamment de données concernant l'apprentissage online pour la scolarisation primaire-secondaire (les K-12). C'est regrettable, car on peut penser que les résultats étudiés concernent des adultes déjà autonomes, et il serait intéressant de savoir si les jeunes enfants peuvent acquérir une telle autonomie de travail sans passer par un apprentissage classique.

• D'après moi, les futures études sur ce sujet devraient également prendre en compte le milieu social des enfants. En effet on pourrait penser que les parents s'impliquent plus dans la scolarisation à domicile que dans la scolarisation à l'école, donnant ainsi un plus grand avantage aux familles aisées.

• D'autre part, comme l'école est également un lieu de socialisation, il serait intéressant de voir l'impact de cette absence.

• Sinon, plus généralement, l'arrivée de la technologie dans l'enseignement ne me ravis pas plus que ça. L'utilisation systématique des présentations powerpoint, notamment, ne me parait pas toujours augmenter la qualité des cours dispensés (mais il est vrai que le recopiage de ce qui est écrit au tableau n'a rien de réjouissant). Il y a ici aussi, sur la manière dont les cours sont dispensés, beaucoup d'études empiriques à réaliser.

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Asma Aldashti• “ The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed modestly better than those receiving

face-to-face instruction” Surprise surprise!! For an instance, I found this result is quite striking. However, as I continued reading the rest of the report I found it literally supports my believes and predispositions toward the good teaching practices or strategies.

• I enjoyed reading this article because in a way or another it highlights the concept of “Teachers as Leaders” that emerged recently in the field of educational Leadership out there in english speaking countries such as U.S, UK, Canada and Australia. Teachers’ roles have been changed dramatically as a consequence of the constant and overwhelming change in societies around the world. IT rapid development is indeed an influential factor that teachers must have the wit to deal with. Teaching is not a behaviorist’ territory anymore! It is not limited to Robert Gagne’ hierarchy of learning that identifies eight steps where students are guided step by step through a learning experience. For him, little pieces are explored before revealing hoe they interact. Translating learning theories into successful classroom practice requires a skillful blending of teaching techniques, content development and sensitivity. For more than 7 hours per day, teachers try to create an environment that is conductive to learning. Within any classroom, there is likely to be a range of interests and intellectual capabilities as well as a landscape of concept formation and attitudes and learning habits.For me it is not surprising that these Meta analysts noted that online learning and face-to-face blended conditions often included additional learning time and instructional elements not received by students in control conditions. Teachers know that children are innately interested in learning new things. They capitalize on their students expanding interests and growing cognitive abilities in different ways. For instance, they create learning situations through manipulative, games, calculators, computers and different technology

• I do agree with the findings that these elements such as video, games, online quizzes and guide lines, media have the influence in students learning per se. But rather the art of implementing them by the teacher (and here I am talking about teaching k-12 only).

• Moreover, I am, personally, skeptical and conservative about those studies about the legitimacy of Online Medical training?? I would never go to the doctor whom I know that he had received his diplomas by such training courses. I think that caution is required even more here!?

• I missed » not » in the forth Paragraph: • I do agree with the findings that these elements such as video, games, online quizzes and guide lines, media have not the influence in

students learning per se. But rather the art of implementing them by the teacher (and here I am talking about teaching k-12 only).

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Sarah Arnaud• Il s’agit d’une méta-analyse réalisée par le ministère de l’éducation américain à partir de 46 études concernant la formation en

ligne, qui compare différents types d’enseignements et évalue leur efficacité. Cette méta-analyse met en évidence les résultats suivants : les élèves et étudiants qui suivent un enseignement en ligne réussissent mieux que ceux qui suivent le même cours en face-à-face. Les résultats augmentent encore avec un enseignement mixte, c’est-à-dire associant apprentissage en ligne et en face-à-face. Les outils du Web permettraient d’adapter les besoins à chaque élève ou étudiant, et de les rendre plus actifs dans leurs apprentissages.

• Ces résultats ne s’appliquent néanmoins qu’à l’enseignement au lycée et à l’enseignement supérieur. • Il faudrait pouvoir les appliquer aux jeunes enfants comme le préconise Timothée, et ne pas généraliser un système mixte à tout

l’enseignement avant de l’avoir fait. • En effet, ces résultats ne sont-ils pas biaisés par l’aspect « nouveau » d’un tel apprentissage pour des élèves scolarisés depuis

longtemps ? L’ennui que peut causer une habitude peut être à l’origine d’une moins grande motivation. Les élèves de lycée ayant des journées de cours très chargées depuis qu’ils ont trois ans, sont souvent lassés et fatigués, et leur concentration est rarement maintenue toute la journée. Or, l’outil informatique n’est pas encore associé au travail lorsqu’il est intégré dans le système scolaire, mais plutôt à des éléments ludiques et plus « divertissants ». Ainsi, si un système d’enseignement par apprentissage uniquement en ligne se généralisait, il deviendrait petit à petit la méthode traditionnelle, les ordinateurs seraient considérés comme des outils de travail, et une étude dans cinquante ans par exemple pourrait montrer que l’apprentissage face-à-face est plus efficace, parce que les élèves se trouveraient face à une situation nouvelle, dans laquelle une personne physique leur ferait cours, une interaction serait possible !

• Cela semble justifier le besoin d’une étude complémentaire chez les plus jeunes : il faudrait comparer des méthodes d’apprentissage différentes chez des groupes d’enfants au tout début de leur scolarité, car ils ne se seraient pas encore « habitués » à une méthode d’enseignement. Ces résultats pourraient alors montrer quelle méthode pourrait être à long terme la plus efficace en termes d’apprentissage.

• Intuitivement, la méthode « mixte » me parait être une bonne méthode en tant qu’elle pourrait permettre de maintenir une certaine concentration chez les élèves grâce au passage d’une méthode à l’autre. Il me semble qu’il est plus facile de travailler toute une journée lorsqu’on fait varier les méthodes et les contenus.

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Marie Picard• Les résultats de cette méta-analyse sont en effet frappants. Personnellement, je ne sais pas quel point de

vue adopter face à des résultats susceptibles de faire émerger des perspectives éducationnelles différentes et impliquant les nouvelles technologies de façon massive. Enfin si c’est ce qu’il faut comprendre. Après la lecture, sentiment n°1 : « Dommage, on informatise tout ce qui bouge » Sentiment n°2 : « Est ce que j’en ai peur parce que cela représente un changement important ? Pourquoi pas en somme ? »

• Je me méfie en effet de la faille dans laquelle il est facile de se glisser et de se cacher, c’est celle qui dit : garder les traditions, c’est mieux. Ca aussi c’est dangereux.

• C’est pourquoi il ne me semble pas inintéressant de tester ce genre de méthode éducationnelle, ou en tout cas l’intégration de nouveaux outils. Manifestement, l’efficacité en est démontrée.

• Néanmoins j’aimerais revenir sur des notions importantes et un peu mises de coté dans le contrôle de l’efficacité des nouveaux outils. Sur l’échantillon d’étudiants, on teste après entrainement : leur capacité d’apprentissage, ou en tout cas leur réussite dans une discipline. Qu’en est-il de leur intégration sociale, du regard critique porté sur le sujet, de leur acuité visuelle (écran en prolongé), de leur santé physique et mentale ?Mes tentations traditionalistes mises de côté, je ne parvient néanmoins pas à concevoir le quotidien des étudiants puisant leur enseignement sur informatique. La raison de cette rapide et meilleure efficacité n’est elle pas justement ce même l’objet d’inquiétude : c’est peut être l’abolition des interactions sociales dans le milieu scolaire qui augmente cette efficacité, car la distraction est moindre face à un écran, c’est certain. Dès lors cela n’est pas nécessairement positif.

• C’est là qu’il faut philosopher sur la question : La fin justifie-t-elle les moyens ?

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Claire Pelofi• Le résultat de cette méta analyse ne me semble pas tant refléter l’avantage de l’apprentissage en

ligne vs. l’apprentissage face à face, mais plutôt mettre en évidence les lacunes de l’apprentissage face à face. Mon intuition est, de même que le soulignait Timothée, qu’un apprentissage de type face à face sera toujours plus avantageux qu’un apprentissage sans interlocuteur direct. Ainsi, le fait que les résultats donnent l’avantage à l’apprentissage en ligne est plutôt révélateur de la médiocrité de l’enseignement auquel il est comparé.

• Et en effet, les conditions de l’apprentissage face à face, telles qu’on les trouve dans les écoles à l’heure actuelle, ne sont pas du tout optimales : une seule personne, parfois sans expérience, en face de 25 ou 30 enfants de même pas dix ans. De même l’organisation en rangée de table, qui fait que ceux du fond ne bénéficie pas de la même qualité d’enseignement que ceux du devant etc.

• Cela n’est qu’une intuition, il serait intéressant de mener des études ou la qualité de l’enseignement face à face serait variable (ex : un enseignant pour 10 enfants, vs. un enseignant pour 20 enfants, une organisation en rangé, vs. une organisation en rond) et ainsi voir de quelle façon l’efficacité de l’apprentissage face à face décroit. Ensuite, en prenant les conditions d’apprentissage face à face optimale, on pourrait les comparer à un apprentissage type en ligne.

• Il est évident que dans ces considérations entre la question du coût de l’enseignement. Jusqu’à quel point peut-on investir d’argent dans une éducation efficace ? Mais réciproquement, l’enseignement en ligne est il une alternative satisfaisante au manque de moyens investit dans l’enseignement face à face ?

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Muriel Perbet-Fayard• S’interroger sur l’apport des enseignements en ligne est très intéressant, cependant la façon dont je vois la généralisation des

apprentissages en ligne n’est pas très réjouissante.• Je suis d’accord que ce genre d’enseignement peu apporter un support de cours mais je crains, comme il a déjà été dit dans les

posts précédents, qu’en généralisant les enseignements en ligne (sur internet à distance) on perde une dimension humaine énorme.

• Comment font les élèves qui ont des questions ? Est-ce qu’il y a la possibilité d’avoir des réponses instantanées comme dans une salle de cours ? Avec peut être des milliers d’étudiants effectuant le même enseignement un suivit n’est-il pas encore plus difficile à mettre en place ?! Y a-t-il des liens maintenus avec une administration, un conseil pédagogique ? Où est le suivie car si cela profite a certain, les personnes en difficulté ne vont-elles pas se retrouver encore plus seules avec leur difficultés ? Bien que des groupes de travail peuvent être mis en place je crains que le sentiment de faire partie d’une classe, d’une promo ne disparaisse. Pour moi ce sentiment participe à l’apprentissage et à la collaboration entre étudiants et surtout à la sociabilisassions.

• D’autre part, je crois comprendre que les effets positifs de l’apprentissage en ligne varient en fonction des enseignements (sujets de l’apprentissage). Ainsi je me demande, est ce que tous les enseignements se prêtent à un apprentissage en ligne ? Dans quelles mesures peut-on déterminer qu’un enseignement peut être appris en ligne ? Pour l’insertion de ce type d’apprentissage en primaire, collège (et lycée) comment dispenser un cours de sport en ligne (ce qui fait partie des programmes scolaires et des dispositifs contre l’obésité infantile) ?Si je comprends bien cette méta-analyse traite des enseignements en ligne = sur internet plus ou moins à distance. Ainsi je me demande s’il n’y a pas des problèmes de fiabilité des enseignements, n’importe qui peut proposer des enseignements à distances sur internet ?! Comment savoir qu’une université virtuelle est reconnue, que ce n’est une escroquerie ? Est-ce les diplômes ainsi obtenues vont être reconnu auprès des employeurs ??

• Pour conclure, je dirais que pour moi l’utilisation des méthodes en ligne sont un complément des enseignements scolaires classiques. Je pense que la partie « théorique » de l’apprentissage doit se faire en classe avec un enseignant pouvant répondre aux questions. Je vois les méthodes en ligne comme un moyen de mettre en pratique la théorie, les concepts appris en classe, de proposer des exercices ainsi que des pistes de recherche autonome pour que les étudiants puissent aller chercher des informations seuls.

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Emmanuel Trouche-Raymond• Je crois qu’il est clair que la question des bénéfices et les inconvénients que l’on peut tirer d’un apprentissage

« on-line » doit être évaluée. Mais que nous apporte cette méta-étude dans cette optique ? A mon avis , pas grand chose… En effet, il me semble que la bonne question n’est pas « l’apprentissage on-line est-il efficace? » mais plutôt lesquels le sont ?

• On peut se réjouir d’apprendre qu’une méthode mixte est plus avantageuse mais peut-être pouvait-on s’en douter… Le problème d’un bon apprentissage me semble seulement déplacé , car les données les plus pertinentes, comme les différences entre les apprentissages ‘on-line’ plus fines que « être indépendant », ou « en groupe ».

• De plus, je partage le constat fait par mes camarades sur les conditions actuelles d’enseignement mais je connais déjà les réponses à certaines interrogations : Oui moins d’élèves par classe favorise l’apprentissage.

• Cependant tripler le nombre de professeur semble une solution si peu réaliste, que la bonne question devient : « Comment utiliser l’apprentissage on-line plutôt que que faut-il « en général utiliser l’apprentissage on-line ».

• Du coup , quelques pistes de réflexion sur le sujet :-Les travaux de Rémi Brissiaud sur un logiciel permettant aux élèves de visualiser une division , avec une vrai réflexion sur la psychologie de l’apprentissage.-Pour faire face à l’hétérogénéité d’une classe une solution pourrait être de donner des exercices « on-line » à faire de telle sorte que les élèves les plus en difficultés y passe plus de temps, en passant plus de temps sur des étapes clefs. Méthode que permet le logiciel de R.Brissiaud. J’aurais préféré avoir une meta-étude plus fine, sur les apprentissages « on-line » seulement.Enfin, j’entend bien sur l’argument qui reproche à l’ordinateur un manque de social. Mais il me semble capital d’enseigner/ d’habituer les élèves aux bon usages sociaux d’internet, gestion de leur données privées, etc…

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Ilaria Gaudiello• This report makes me think about my little recent experiences.. I had during the last year both some experience of face-to-face and of on-line

(asynchronous) teaching. In these experiences I could remark• - In on line learning, technology allows students to easily keep trace of the educational path. This prompts teachers to leave to the students this job

of keeping trace and so the job of building a continuity in their formative procedures. This could make learners more autonomous in the best case, more lost in the worst case- In on line learning, contents of courses are prefixed and not so much negotiable between teachers and learners- In on line learning, the accent is more on homeworks as well made products- In on line learning, students are more likely to verify the reliability of the information- In on line learning students communicate among each other much more for technical problems than on learning content issues- In on line learning, some practices are, if not excluded, at least discouraged: for example, presentations to the class help students to simplify concepts in their head..in online learning students can help each other with immediate feedback on chat but it is difficult to exchange long, structured and coherent discourse like presentation- In face-to-face learning, technology is often included as a tool of search and communication- In face-to-face learning the sense is co-constructed during a lesson, the learning content can easily be negotiated between teachers and learners, the accent is more on understanding (then homeworks are more something that witness the understanding and the presence)- In face-to-face learning, teacher is a living generator of contextual examples (an aspect which is quite lost in online learning, above all in asynchronous learning)

• Given the report we read and given some little personal experience, my general opinion is that tools are tools, that means: they have substantial effects on learning only if we do not master them (with substantial effects I essentially mean: understanding, memorizing, transferring). So I would not classify learning as online, face-to-face or mixed, but more as active, interactive, explanatory (a distinction which is mentioned in the report). I like this quotation of Philips who says

• “We remember 10% of what we hear, 15% of what we see, 20% of what we hear and see, 60% of what we do, 80% of what we do with active reflection, and 90% of what we teach. » (Phillips 1984 in Mosley and Kline 2006)Pushing students to “teach” (e.g. to do presentation in front of the class) is something that is not so easy with online learning. So I still think there are some aspects of face-to-face learning (flexibility of the content with relation to the auditory, narrative of the lesson which allows the teacher to better convey his personal experience in a lesson, collective construction of meaning, possibility for students to teach etc.) that we miss in online learning. For this reason I would not support the substitution of face-to-face with on line. On the issue of mixed learning (face-to-face + online) I recognize that there are some useful aspects of online (accessibility to sources, possibility to compare methods, tools and content) which are worth to be taken into account when it comes to budget decisions. But first we should take care about people who can master these new form of learning.

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Vorobyova Sasha• This study is interesting because it questions the very fundamentals of 'traditional' face-to-face

education that have been dominant in our society since Aristotle's academia. Whereas technology undoubtedly has its benefits in the sense of not having to travel to see your teacher, until this study (as far as I know), there were no truly proven benefits of online education- on the contrary, most people

The Internet has such a wide scope and variety of uses, that is is only logical that it be used for teaching purposes. And now, with the proof of its efficiency, it can be used with no impediment with students of all ages. Of course, the question still stands (as Timothée pointed out) of whether school-age children would have the same results. Even with mixed internet and face-to-face learning, using a computer for learning purposes requires a certain autonomy and self-sufficiency that younger children don't necessarily possess. Therefore, while computers can be used in classrooms and kindergardens with the presence of the pedagogues, I believe that until high-school (lycée) age, it would be too early to talk about autonomous computer learning.

In conclusion, I think that mixed learning techniques are the key to a successful start of Internet and computer learning, and that many more studies should be done on specific aspects of the learning process and how they are affected by technology. Personally, my topic of focus for M2 will be machine-human interaction and dialogue and how it affects language learning in virtual environments- I think that this is a very promising and interesting direction in our world today.