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Short Notes (Questions-Answers) On

Research Methodology

&

Medical Statistics

(For BAMS, MD, MBBS, B.Pharma, M.Pharma)

Dr. Prashant Kumar JhaGCIP, DIM, PGDEE, M.Sc. Ph.D.

Dr. Sanjaya K.S.MD (Ayu)

Principal,

ALNRMAMC

Reader, ALNRMAMC

First Edition: 2017

© ARMARC Publications,

Aroor Educational Trust,

ALN Rao Memorial Ayurvedic Medical College,

Koppa-577126

Dist.: Chikmagalur, Karnataka, India

Patron: Aroor Ramesh Rao

All rights are reserved. No Parts of this book

can be reproduced or stored in information

system without prior written permission of Author.

Preface

1. Research in Ayurveda 1 - 16

Definition and etymology of Anveshana,Gaves-

hana, Prayeshana, Anusandhan, Shodha

Pramanas as tools of reaseach in Ayurveda

Historical background of research in Ayurveda

Scopes of research in Ayurveda

Reasons of need of research in Ayurveda

Importances and utilities of research in Ayurveda

2. Research and Types of Research 18-31

Definition, objectivity and goal of research

Types of research

Differences between qualitative and quantitative

research; merits and demerits of mixed research

Meaning of observation in research; types of ob-

servations and their link with potential issues in

research

Observation and interventional study designs and

their types

Research Methodology

i-ii

CONTENTS

1-2

2-8

8-11

11-12

13-15

15-16

18-20

20-23

24-25

25-26

26-30

Preclinical and clinical research designs

3. Research Processes 33-48

Research problem, selection of topic and its im-

portances

Review of literature and its importances

Hypothesis, its characteristics, ways of its testing

and its importances

Aims and objectives, their characteristics, points

to write them and their importances

Materials and methods, steps to write them and

their importances

Result/observation, its features, steps to write re-

sult/observation and its importances

Discussion, steps to write discussion and its im-

portances

Conclusion, steps to write conclusion and its im-

portances

Communication of research and methods of com-

munication

30-31

33-35

35-37

37-39

39-40

40-42

42-44

45-46

44-45

46-48

4. Concept of Ethics in Research and Importances

of Ethics in Research 50-51

5. Concept of Evidence Based Medicine (EBM),

Steps of EBM, Advantages and

Disadvantages of EBM 53-54

6. Scientific Writing, Its Purpose and Basic

Structure 56-57

7. Importances of IT (Information Technology)

in Data Mining and Research Portals in

Ayurveda 59-63

Importances of IT in Data mining

Research data portal concerned with Ayurveda

and contemporary medicine, steps to search data

using such portals

DHARA, Pubmed, Ayush ResearchPortal,

Bioinformatics Center Research Management

Informatics System

59-60

61-63

Medical Statistics

1. Introduction of Statistics 67-72

Statistics and its characteristics 67-68

Medical statistics, its importances and scopes 68-70

Functions and limitations of statistics 70

Statistical enquiry and its stages 69-72

2. Sample and Population 74-75

Difference between sample and population 74

Sample, use of sample, main objectives and

theory of sampling 74-75

3. Data and Variable 77-100

Data, types of data 77-79

Methods of data collection 79-81

Variables and types of variables 81

Data presentation and its importances 82

Tabulation and parts of table 82-84

Requisite of good table, types of table 84-85

Advantages of diagrammatic and graphical

presentation, differences between diagrams and

graphs. 85-86

Rules for constructing diagrams, types of diagrams 86-87

Line diagram or line chart 88

Bar diagram, important points to draw a bar dia-

gram, types of bar diagram. 88-93

Two-dimensional diagrams and their types,

contruction of pie diagram/chart 94-96

Histogram, difference between histogram and bar

diagram 96-97

Frequency polygon, frequency curve, pictogram,

cartogram 98-100

4. Central Tendency 102-110

Measures of location and measures of disper-

sion, measures of central tendency and mea-

sures of spread 102

Statistical average, its uses and desirable

properties 102-103

Mean, median, mode, geometric mean,

harmonic mean, range and interquartile range,

percentile, variance and standard deviation 103-110

5. Probability 112-121

Concept of probability with mathematical or

priori approach and relative frequency or

empirical approach. 112-113

Definition of experiment and random

experiment, trial and event, exhaustive cases,

favourable cases to events, mutually exclusive

events or cases, equally likely cases, indepen-

dent events, set, null set, sub-set, universal set,

outcome, addition theory of points. 113-114

Axiomatic probability, conditional probability,

addition theory of probability, multiplication

theory of probability, Bayes’ theorem 114-117

Normal distribution and its probability density

function and important properties 117-1119

Test of significance 119

Significance level, P-values mean in hypothesis

test, statistical significance 119-120

Type ‘I’ error, Type ‘II’ error 120-121

6. Statistical Tests 123-145

Nonparametric tests, advantages and disadvan-

tages of nonparametric tests, differences

between nonparametric and parametric tests 123-124

Corresponding nonparametric tests relevant to

parametric tests. 124-125

Skewness, different types of skewness,

kurtosis. 125-126

Correlation, types of correlation, causes of

correlation 126-127

Methods of studying correlation, Karl

Pearson’s coefficient of correlation 128-129

Wilcoxon rank-sum test, Wilcoxon signed-rank

test, Kruskal-wallis test, Spearman’s rank

correlation coefficient, McNemar’s test,

Chi square 129-134

Student’s t-test, its probability density function,

its chief properties 134-135

T-test and application of t-distribution 135-136

Types of t-test 136-137

Z-test, its properties and application 137-139

F-statistic, its properties and application 140

ANOVA 140-142

Assumptions of ANOVA, application and

properties of ANOVA 142

Principles of ANOVA 142-144

Post hoc tests and their uses 144-145

7. Statistical Software 147-149

Statistical software, importances of statistical

software, commonly used statistical software 147-149

Any of scientists, businessmen, students, politicians etc.

comes across research in his/her daily life by means of gathering

information, analyzing them and processing for better result with or

without knowing about the methodology or design. None of them

can negate the importance and utility of research and statistics. For

better performance and yield, we need to understand the

methodology or design of research with cognition of statistical

aspects. Students feel problem in apprehension with complexities

of subjects, so it becomes necessary to remind the students that

the original idea is simple and graspable.

Present book is directed at undergraduate and

postgraduate students from medical science (BAMS, MBBS) and

pharmaceutical science. It may also be helpful to researchers to

design their projects. The effort made in this book is to simplify the

subject for understanding and use at basic level. For the purpose,

topics are explained in terms of probable raising questions and

their answers. The book is segmented in research methodology

and medical statistics parts with appreciation of easy perceiving.7

chapters are included in each of Research Methodology and

Medical Statistics section.

Research is not new to Indian medicine, so the chapter

starts with citations of research in different ancient texts. Relevance

of those citations with present research methodology is time-tested.

Preface

i

Illustrations are inserted at appropriate place for understanding.

Research designs are classified with basic consideration of aim of

research. Instructions about important points to write the research

processes are mentioned. Idea about medical ethics, evidence based

medicine, scientific writing etc. are presented. Tools and techniques

to utilize the information technology for research are added.

In Medical Statistics portion, other than the introduction

of statistics and medical statistics, basic information of data and

use of proper data collection methods are given. It is observed

that many of researchers lack the information about the appropriate

technique of data presentation, so it is made easy to understand

and opt with suitable one. Important parametric and nonparametric

tests are shown to be selected according to taken research problems

and research design. Some of commonly used statistical softwares

are quoted with idea to use for the purpose of statistical analysis.

I am grateful to all of them who enabled me to shape this

work as book. Story starts with my god, Lord Hanuman, who

shows the path for creation. A great inspiration came from the

president of Aroor Educational Trust, Honourable Aroor

Ramesh Rao sir, his wife Smt. Shantha Rao and his son Shri

Arvind Rao sir. Any thankfulness in words is less for them. Right

from beginning of my study in research since last 17 years, my

father Shri Bimal Chandra Jha taught me to share the knowledge

to world in very simplified way what maximum of persons can

easily get. I have tried my best to make the subject as well as

ii

Koppa: 2nd January 2017 Dr. Prashant Kumar Jha

iii

language used with this book easier. I am thankful to you. Other

than my wife, my mother and other family members, lots of people

encouraged at a time or many times for creative works related

with my research projects. My gratitudes are always there with

you all. I appreciate and extend my thankfulness to all my students

who insisted to bring my teachings of their classes in book form.