INTERNATIONAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION

THE EVOLUTION AND IMPORTANCE OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

31.05.2015

THE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS, PRAGUE

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32. Why visual communication is efficient and valuable? ............................................................................................................... 43. History of graphic design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 84. Today’s trends ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

CONTENTS

What we see with our eyes has a profound effect on what we do, how we feel, and who we are. Through experience and experimentation, we continually increase our understanding of the visual world and the way we are influenced by it. Psychologist Albert Mehrabian states that 93% of communication is nonverbal.01 Studies show that the human brain deciphers image elements simultaneously, while language is decoded in a linear, sequential manner taking more time to process. Our minds react completely differently to visual stimuli. Visuals are processed 60,000 times faster than text.02

Visual communication is communication through a visual aid and is described as the conveyance of ideas and infor-mation in forms that can be read or looked upon. Visual communication in part or whole relies on vision,[1] and is pri-marily presented or expressed with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, Industrial Design, Advertising, Animation colour and electronic resources. It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience.

Visual communication takes place through pictures, graphs and charts, as well as through signs, signals and symbols. It may be used either independently or as an adjunct to the other methods of communication.

Concern with the visual studies has been a major source of enquiry within art history and theory, and it is central to those concerned with graphics and pictorial representation in general. With the advent of computer-generated imag-es and the notion of virtual reality, concern with the visual has taken on added significance. Despite the changes into the computerised image generation, the new media, and the possibilities for interaction between sender/originator and receiver/viewer, the digital age has to contend with people. The human factor is always present. 03

01 http://www.billiondollargraphics.com/infographics.html

02 http://blog.mindjet.com/2011/11/powerful-facts-about-visual-communication/

03 Jamieson, Harry. Visual Communication : More Than Meets the Eye. Bristol, GBR: Intellect Books, 2007. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 16 Novem-ber 2014.

1. INTRODUCTION

When we look at the history of communication we can go as far as 30,000 BC to find the first visual symbol created by humans; The Chauvet Cave is the oldest known paintings dating to the Upper Paleolithic and could be seen as the first attempt from homo sapiens to communicate. After speech that approximately appeared 100,000 years ago, humans create the second major tool of communication with symbols. Writing eventually appeared about 5000 years ago and was of course significant in the development of communication. But it would be a mistake to consider writing as a simple evolution of drawings in communication, indeed both abilities are complementary.

These communication tools had their own and different impact on human and indeed « Thanks to millions of years of evolution, we are genetically wired to respond differently to visuals than text »01 Moreover, 50% of the human brain is dedicated to visual functions making it the optimal way to communicate (Smiciklas, 2012)02 Human provide universal response to particular stimuli which means that some reactions are deeply rooted in our past and genetically heritage. For example, psychologists make the hypothesis that the human innate appeal for images of wide, that provide a sen-sation of wellness, could be due to our past ancestors who spent their lives in Africa’s savannas. Human share common reactions to visual stimuli, in what extend these stimuli consist in an effective form of communication?

“People think using pictures”

Benjamin lee Whorf claimed that people see the world differently because of difference in their language. Indeed our language « shape the way we think ». As a result it would be difficult for someone to manipulate ideas and concept that has not be defined in its own language. But does it means that we are unable to think about things that we cannot name? Let’s take the example of babies, they are obviously capable of thinking and communicating whereas they have not words for it. How is it possible? Because they can think only by using images in their mind. For that matter John Berger says that « people think using pictures ».

This aptitude comes from our early ability to see before speaking as a baby. « The child looks and recognizes before it can speak »03. So, before being able to speak, babies are able to understand, recognize the world and even communi-cate because they can think without using words. Visual image consist in our very first apprehension of the world and as a result, our first tool to think and communicate. As grown up adults, we still think and communicate using pictures. This ability consists in and alternative to language barriers. Indeed, whenever two human beings do not share the same language, they can try to communicate through non-verbal communication and images.

This easy to use communication by visual resulted in the production of worldwide symbols aimed at communicat-ing easily the same idea to any viewer, without regarding its native language. As airport are places where many dif-ferent nationalities gather, professional develop import-ant system of international symbols to provide informa-tion to its users.

01 Stevenson Johnson, “Beauty and the Beastly PC, The Graphics on Your Screen Can Affect the Way You Feel—and Think,” Discover Vol-ume 25: Number 5 (May 2004): 20-21.

02 Susan Tinnish, Visual Communication - Communication Effectively Beyond the Written Word - http://hotelexecutive.com/business_re-view/4134/visual-communication-communicating-effectively-beyond-the-written-word

03 John Berge, Ways of Seeing (Penguin Books, 1972)

2. WHY VISUAL COMMUNICATION IS EFFICIENT AND VALUABLE ?

So visual communication can overcome language barrier and enable people to think without using words.

Better understanding

Moreover, visual communication can provide a more efficient explanation to help people understanding a concept or an idea. Graphic interpretations are instantaneous and easily accessible comparing to text. Indeed text involves more efforts from your brain as you have to decode text on a linear and sequential manner to interpret the meaning. On the contrary the brain is adapted to interpret simultaneously various images and is able to process them 60,000 times faster than text. Some simple concept, for example, are much more accessible thanks to a graphic description.

In some case, an illustration of a concept or an idea provides a really powerful tool to communicate as it enables a quick and easy comprehension of it.

Easy to remember

In addition to this comprehension value, visual elements happen to be easier to remember because of the process engaged by our brain. Indeed words and images are processed differently. We use our short-term memory to retain words whereas images go directly to our long-term memory. Psychologist Jerome Bruner of New York University shows thanks to its studies that people only remember 10% of what they hear, 20% of what they see but about 80% of what the see. Also 83% of learning occurs visually. 04

Seize attention

It is well known that visual capture and attract our attention. We are more likely to consider with better attention a visual material comparing to a text. Also a good design, colors and layout make us more attentive.

Emotional effect

Visual elements not only provide data more quickly and efficiently, or better attention but it also affect us on an emo-tional point of view. As a result images are use to quickly produce a emotional response to the viewer and influence him. J. Francis Davis, a media education specialist said that « Visuals are not only excellent communicators but also quick affect us psychologically and physiologically »05. On the physiological level, research shows that exposure to certain color influence us.

04 The Power of visual Content, Jenna McNaney, http://www.quick2launch.com/blog/25-the-power-of-visual-content

05 The Power of Visual Communication, Mike Parkinson, http://www.billiondollargraphics.com/infographics.html

Graphic Description Textual Description

A curved lined with every point equal

distance from the center

For example, being exposed to the red color would heighten our breathing rate and pulse. On the psychological level, images influence us because we use our imagination to interpret the stimulus.

Influence on decision-making

Because visuals have an effect on our emotion it influences our decision-making process. KissMetric06 revealed in its survey that “93% of people surveyed responded to visual appearance when choosing a new product ». In addition, the primary color used to identify the brand is responsible for 88% of brand recognition. Finally, 88% of surveyed place color as the primary reason when they are looking to buy a particular product. These figures underline the particular power of visuals when buying a product. We can wonder, how is it possible that appearance matters that much when choosing something? Why are we always more attracted by products with a better appearance without paying atten-tion to the efficiency of the product, if it works better than the less designed one? Don Norman answers this question by saying that this uncontrolled attraction is the result of « the extremely tight coupling between emotion and cog-nition » 07. Indeed, emotion and cognition play two different roles in the apprehension of the world. Emotion makes us judging the world whereas cognition helps us understand it. Human brains use both of these tools to evaluate its surrounding environment and it definitely affects our apprehension of things. As a result, when we decide to buy the more attractive product in comparison to another less attractive product, but which works as well as the first one, we implies emotion in our decision making process.

What is relevant to mention here, is the work of Nobel Prize, Herbert A. Simon who shown that our decisions are based on intuitive judgment and emotions.08 Most of the time, people cannot make rational decisions because of several bias that affect their decision-making process. They have incomplete information, time restriction and inability to calculate consequences, that is why they have to rely on their intuition (and as a result on emotions) to make a decision. Here again, we have another proof of the importance of emotion in our decision-making process. As visual communication affects our emotion, it affects our decisions.

Another experiments, led by the Stanford Persuasive Technology Lab, shows us how design counts in the perception of a product. In this experiment they asked 2,440 participants to evaluate the credibility of a website an 46,1% de-clared that the design of the website was the first criteria they chose to make their opinion about it. Moreover, Robins and Holmes (2008) shown that this opinion based on the website appearance is approximately made in 3.42 seconds. So this experiment shows us that about half of the population builds their opinion very quickly and on appearance criteria.

From textual to visual

According to Charles Brumback, the growing credibility that we give to visuals has an historical origin and is linked to re-emergence of graphics and visual content in mass media. Indeed, the textual communication only became well spread after the invention of the print by Gutenberg. At that time, including images or graphics was too expensive comparing to text. The mass culture was to pay attention to text, dealing the absence of images and graphics.

06 The Power of visual Content, Jenna McNaney, http://www.quick2launch.com/blog/25-the-power-of-visual-content

07 Don Norman, Discover magazine, « Beauty and the Beastly PC : The Graphics on Your Computer Screen Can Affect the Way You Feel -and Think”

08 Herbert Simon, Making Management Decisions : the role of intuition and emotion

But as printing costs decreased, graphics re-appeared as a credible and efficient communication tool. The decreasing power of newspapers made “the culture (…) moves from textual to visual literacy » 09

Not only the power of visual communication has genetically roots deeply rooted in human condition but also was empowered by the evolution of our culture from a literate to a more visual one.

Today this statement is even more true considering the amount of images peoples are exposed in their everyday life; magazines, newspapers, TV screen, smartphone, computer, printed adds…Visual communication has never been as spread in history as today. As Dr. Paul Martin Lester satiates in the Syntactic Theory of Visual communication “for many, understanding of the world is being accomplished, not through reading words, but by reading images». 10 This transformation of our society from text to visual made graphic communication even more relevant. Indeed, graphic communication is efficient because it gathers both advantages of text and graphics in order to deliver a message.

Information graphics called also infographics are visual representation of information, data or knowledge.11 They are powerful tool to explain quick and clearly complex information (signs, maps, journalism, education). Peter Sullivan in the London Sunday Times introduced the first information graphics. It influenced other newspapers and soon the use of information graphics gained various media. Television started using graphics in 2000 and now many TV subjects rely on the visualization of data. 12 As a result information graphic has become more powerful than ever. Indeed the combination of both text and color is a really efficient tool as it affects us both emotional and cognitively.

On the cognitive level graphics increase our level of communication as they enable comprehension, recollection and retention of data. Comprehension is our ability to understand the meaning of something, as we mentioned it above thanks to the circle example, some concepts are easier to understand thanks to their graphic interpretation. Recollec-tion is the process of remembering and retention is our ability to remember ideas or facts. Because images go directly in our long-term memory they are easier to remember. Besides key image helps us understanding the main idea of a text. On the emotional level, visual content engage other parts of our brain and make us to use our creativity. By engaging in a creative process, we understand better the material we are presented.

The benefits of graphic information is clear, it enables «to envision information -an what bright and splendid visions can result -is to work at the intersection of image, word, number, art. » Edward R.Tutfe 13 So Information graphics help us in our decision making process as it provides clear and quick infor-mation, but also engage our emotion and influence our intuition.

To Sump up, we have seen all the benefits that visual communication can provide. As the human brain is also con-ceived to communicate through visual interactions, visual communication is an important tool to understand better and faster some concepts and ideas. It also enable to seize people attention and to help us in our decision making process.

09 The Power of visual Content, Jenna McNaney, http://www.quick2launch.com/blog/25-the-power-of-visual-content

10 Syntactic Theory of Visual Communication , Paul Martin Lester

11 NewWorldEncyclopedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Information_graphics

12 Syntactic Theory of Visual Communication , Paul Martin Lester

13 Susan Tinnish, Visual Communication - Communication Effectively Beyond the Written Word

Prehistoric Arts

Historically, graphic design is linked with the evolution of human beings and may find its roots in the rock and cave art thousands of years Before Christ. Animals were drawn earlier than 30 000 BC in the Chauvet Cave01 in the South of France for example. These types of rock and cave art can be considered as the first sign of human graphic design.

Writing

Developing of writing also paved the way to what we call today graphic design. History of writing begins symbols that represents an object (pictograms) or an idea (ideograms). It is comonly accepted that pictograms evolved into cune-iform writing which after gave birth to syllabicwriting. Egyptian hieroglyphs that which are ideograms, phonograms (represent a sound), or determinative (show that the preceding sign is either an ideogram or a phonogram) may have been the link between pictograms and alphabet.02 Some modern languages, especially Chinese, still use pictograms instead of alphabet.

It is also known that first letterforms had been influenced by the tools used to draw them and the material upon which the form where written.03 The origin of serif for example, which is still very present in digital fonts today, has to be found in ink marks. So we can say that shapes and curves that reproduce our computers still show the heritage of sharpened bones writing on clay or brushes writing on papyrus. Moreover most of actual fonts find their roots in traditional Romanian calligraphy.04

01 http://www.larecherche.fr/actualite/evenement/grotte-chauvet-fin-polemique-01-07-2012-91253

02 http://languesanciennes.ens-lyon.fr/uploads/auxoriginesdel_alphabet_acorriger_.pdf

03 http://www.designhistory.org/Handwriting_pages/EarlyWriting.html

04 http://www.designhistory.org/Handwriting_pages/Evolution.html

3. HISTORY OF GRAPHIC DESIGN

Printing and industrial revolution

Around the 7th century, with the apparition of the first books in China and Korea we see the beginning of illustration. 05

In 1450 Gutenberg improve the printing system and is credited for the invention if modern printing that will radically help the spreading of books and later graphic design.

The industrial revolution will latter on radically increase the need of advertising and printing. In the 19th century, post-ers start to appear and quickly spread around the world. It was one of the earliest forms of advertisement and began to develop as a medium for visual communication. Posters were meant to promote political parties, advertise products or spread ideas to the public.

Broadsides were intended to have an immediate impact and so needed a graphical reflection behind it. Moreover they were made to be read from a certain distance and required larger type to be produced. 06

05 http://www.designhistory.org/BookHistory_pages/Incunabula.html

06 http://www.designishistory.com/1850/posters/

The diamond sutra, the earliest complete survival of a dated printed book

London street scene 1835

Art and Craft Movements

English Art and Craft movement or French “Art Nouveau” which appeared at the end of 19th century is a new step in graphic design history.07 Those are “complete art movement” present in architecture, clothing fashion, or paintings. They were born in response of tasteless and unharmonious industrial creations of the 19th century and try to bring beauty into everyday life objects. By trying to rejoin art and industry together, Art and Craft movement is one of the ancestor of modern graphic design.

Development of Advertising

In 19th century the spreading of newspapers also mark the development of advertising. The first advertising agency opened in 1841 in Philadelphia. In 1892 in the American advertisement world, writers and artists start to work together in creative teams. In 1898 a large advertisement agency hire the first art director into its company.08 In 1922, William a talented commercial artist, book designer and calligrapher first used the term “Graphic Designer”09 to describe his various activities in printed communication and advertising design. In the sixties, famous graphic designers start to influence and modernize the art of graphic communication by working for big companies and advertisement agencies. Most influential ones would be Paul Rand or Chermayeff & Geismar.

07 http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/Art_nouveau/106262

08 http://www.designhistory.org/Advertising_pages/FirstAd.html

09 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Addison_Dwiggins

Illustration of The Grammar of Ornament published in 1856 by Owen Jones which contained 37 propositions on “what make good design”

Paul Rand’s logo creations

Digitalisation and Internet Revolution

In 1960, William Fetter, graphic designer for Boeing Aircraft, first introduced the term computer graphics when defin-ing is work of three-dimensional wire frame models of pilots, cockpits and aircraft.10

In 1983 one of the first personal computer to have a mouth and a graphical user interface was commercialized by Apple and started to revolutionize graphic design.

Between 1983 and 1986, Susan Kare, a graphic designer working for the new generation of apple computers, the Mac-intosh, will push hard in order to make the interface friendly by creating new fonts and above all inventing icons that would assist people in operating the computer. 11

10 http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/agent/174

11 http://www.kare.com/about/bio.html

William Fetter’s work

ApplefirstpersonalcomputerwithGUIandmonth,“LisaI”

Susan Kare’s Macintosh icons

Computers will later integrate new types of fonts and images that uses Béziers Curves and straight lines instead of pixels, we call it “vector graphics”. These vectors graphics allows images to be resized and transformed without loss of quality, and “stairs effects” that we have in raster graphics.12

In 1989 Tim Berners-lee invented the World Wide Web, “an internet-based media initiative” meant to share informa-tion at CERN. This new breakthrough will later one conduct a modern revolution in communication diffusion which will radically popularize graphic design.

In parallel to this revolutions different graphic art and architecture movements continue to influence graphic design. It is the case of Modernism, Pop Art, Postmodernism,13 New Wave or Deconstruction for example.

12 http://graphicssoft.about.com/od/aboutgraphics/a/bitmapvector.htm

13 http://www.designhistory.org/PostModern_pages/EndInternational.html

Beziers curves

Andy Warhols’s Campbells packaging design, as a sample of Pop-Art.

Web 2.0

Nowadays graphic design is a flourishing sector that is constantly influenced by new technologies and user interfaces. The second notable series of innovations in graphic design field after the emergence of internet can be defined under the global name of what we call “Web 2.0”. Technically Web 2.0 is very difficult to define, it concerns the development of Ajax powered web applications, the fact to use the web as a platform, the democratization and freeness of the web, and the development of user friendly interface.01 We can basically resume Web 2.0 by saying that it is a new way of thinking the internet allowing people without specific knowledge to use it, built content, and share it easily. Intern functioning is more complex but extern using is accessible to everyone. It also corresponds to the huge boom of social web with thousands of people using social Medias.

In term of graphic design, Web 2.0 bring simplification and clarification of contents. All big companies changed their logo in order to correspond to the codes and expectations of a user friendly interface. Some graphic characteristics of Web 2.0 pages would be: simplification, glossy effects, bold logo, bigger text, strong colors, reflection, gradients, rich surfaces, simple icons... 02

This general simplification of graphic and interfaces also allowed everyone to become amateur graphic designers. To-day, everyone who learn how to use Adobe Illustrator and Photoshop can pretend to have graphic design skills. And everyone who is on Pinterest can find infinite sources of inspiration and new tendencies.

Skeuomorphism

The design tendency that emerged after the development of Web2.0 was skeuomorphism design. A Skeuomorph is a derivative object that retain ornamental design cue form and structures that were necessary in the original.03 The application in web graphic design is the tendency to reproduce shadows, textures and forms of real life objects on screen.

01 http://www.paulgraham.com/web20.html

02 http://webdesignfromscratch.com/web-design/web-2-0-design-style-guide/

03 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeuomorph

4. TODAY’S TRENDS

Web 2.0 social media logos

Flat Design

Today’s new tendency is Flat Design. Indeed, after having tried to reproduce real life on the screen, modern graphic design really focuses on usability and follows minimalistic design approach. The idea is to remove all distracting design elements and really focus on content and user’s goals. All the advantages of this new type of design are sum up here:

“Flat design brings with it everything that is appropriate for the modern web. Simple, minimalist web pages. This simpleness translating to a medium that is relatively easy to implement. The use of low contrasting colour pallets are easy on the eye. Sans serif fonts creating a feel of cleanliness. The removal of the ‘bells and whistles’ leaves us only what is important: Colour, Shape and Content. A presentation method which is effective at being both minimalist and beautiful. And with the rise of mobile computing, minimalism is a key advantage.”04

Flat design features “clean, open space, crisp edges, bright colours and two-dimensional/flat illustrations”.05 Windows 8 “metro” interface made of tiles may be the most famous example, but flat design touch today all the facets of web applications.

04 http://blog.usabilla.com/flat-design-going-far/

05 http://www.creativebloq.com/graphic-design/what-flat-design-3132112

Skeuomorphism old Ibook interface

Flat google plus interface

Moreover flat design thanks to its scalable characteristics is really in line with the other recent tendency in web design which is responsive design. Responsive websites are made of pages that can adapt to all different types of screen size, which is needed today as more and more users reach the internet through their tablets or smartphones.

Flat design becomes so popular today that everybody starts using it. However “flat” design does not mean “easy” design and a misuse of minimalism and simplification can finally lead to bad design. It is also said that flat design is so used today that it kills creativity and innovation. Designers fear to do something different at risk of being left behind! 06

Future trends?

So what’s next? Flat designed boomed in 2013 and is more and more used today. But like all tendencies it will start to decrease soon and will be replaced by a new trend. What will come after flat design? It is hard to say unless you know how to predict future. Some people claims that the next major design trend will be content-focused. A progressive disappearance of graphic details until reaching truly minimalist design in order to really focus on the only important thing that matters: content.07 Another thought is to say that “to know where we are going, we must look to the past”, so that new trends will reuse old ideas and make something new and updated with it.08

06 http://blog.usabilla.com/flat-design-going-far/

07 https://medium.com/@danishamughal/the-death-of-flat-design-fce6b90ff7a

08 http://www.theprimacy.com/blog/flat-design-whats-next/