HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermanyLecture 1Lecture 1

Germany’s ‘Special Germany’s ‘Special Path’Path’

Group 1: Monday 13.00-14.30Group 1: Monday 13.00-14.30

Room: H2.41Room: H2.41Rupert Cheyne Rupert Cheyne

Peter Clemons Peter Clemons

Jessica Davies Jessica Davies

Jamie Holland Jamie Holland

Olivia Hill Olivia Hill

William James William James

James MacGregorJames MacGregor

Claire MillarClaire Millar

Juliette NordbergJuliette Nordberg

Ferdinand NybergFerdinand Nyberg

Group 3: Tuesday 11.30-13.00Group 3: Tuesday 11.30-13.00

Room: H3.15Room: H3.15Lee Atkins Lee Atkins

James Edge James Edge

Victoria Elton Victoria Elton

Philippa Kemp Philippa Kemp

Benjamin Magee Benjamin Magee

Karla SharpKarla Sharp

Group 2: Tuesday 10.00-11.30Group 2: Tuesday 10.00-11.30Room: H3.15Room: H3.15Joseph Billinness Joseph Billinness Charlotte Dunlavey Charlotte Dunlavey Matthew Jowers Matthew Jowers Christopher Luck Christopher Luck Daniel Stevens Daniel Stevens Marco WirrerMarco Wirrer

Group 4: Tuesday 14.00-15.30Group 4: Tuesday 14.00-15.30Room: H2.43Room: H2.43Robert de Kort Robert de Kort Jack Donelan Jack Donelan Danielle Garrity Danielle Garrity Charles HargraveCharles Hargrave Charlotte Jayaseelan Charlotte Jayaseelan Alex Jackson Alex Jackson James LowerJames LowerMary McCarthyMary McCarthyNisha PatelNisha PatelRobert RipamontiRobert RipamontiHarry RoseHarry RoseCharlotte RoundingCharlotte RoundingMatthew WrightMatthew Wright

What comes to What comes to mind when you mind when you

think of Germany think of Germany and the Germans?and the Germans?

J. S. Bach (1685-1750) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) Bertold Brecht (1898-1956)

Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804) Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) Geprge Grosz (1893-1959)

Module ThemesModule Themes

The Making of the modern German The Making of the modern German state and society.state and society.

Germany’s transformation from Germany’s transformation from maverick to model state.maverick to model state.

Diversity.Diversity. Germany’s ‘Special Path’ Germany’s ‘Special Path’

((SonderwegSonderweg).).

Germany’s ‘special path’ (Germany’s ‘special path’ (Deutscher Deutscher SonderwegSonderweg))

Distinctive German way to modernity which contrasts with the standard Distinctive German way to modernity which contrasts with the standard (West European, British, French) way(West European, British, French) way

Industrialization: belated industrial revolution, several decades after Industrialization: belated industrial revolution, several decades after that of Englandthat of England

Failed bourgeois revolution in Germany (defeat of the democratic Failed bourgeois revolution in Germany (defeat of the democratic revolution of 1848)revolution of 1848)

German unification not a result of the success of a liberal and German unification not a result of the success of a liberal and democratic movement but created by the militarist Prussian state democratic movement but created by the militarist Prussian state (born in war)(born in war)

Weimar republic not accepted by large part of the population, seen Weimar republic not accepted by large part of the population, seen as a result of the defeat and forced onto Germany by the victorious as a result of the defeat and forced onto Germany by the victorious EntenteEntente

Continuous dominance of antidemocratic, reactionary elites Continuous dominance of antidemocratic, reactionary elites (ostelbian agrarians, estate owners and “big business”)(ostelbian agrarians, estate owners and “big business”)

Traditions of Prussian militarismTraditions of Prussian militarism Culminating in: Third Reich, seen as logical result of the German Culminating in: Third Reich, seen as logical result of the German

“special path”“special path”

The Holy Roman Empire, 800-The Holy Roman Empire, 800-18061806

The ‘loose association of territories that preceded the creation of the The ‘loose association of territories that preceded the creation of the modern German state.’ (Tim Kirk)modern German state.’ (Tim Kirk)

Usually considered to have come into being with the coronation of Usually considered to have come into being with the coronation of Charlemagne as ‘Emperor of the Romans’ in 800, but the term Holy Charlemagne as ‘Emperor of the Romans’ in 800, but the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Roman Empire of the German Nation (Heiliges RHeiliges Römisches Reich ömisches Reich deutscher Nationdeutscher Nation) was formally adopted in 1512.) was formally adopted in 1512.

At its greatest extent it encompassed modern-day Germany, At its greatest extent it encompassed modern-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium and parts of France and Italy. Austria, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium and parts of France and Italy.

After the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Thirty Years After the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Thirty Years War there were still 234 territories and 51 ‘Imperial Cities’.War there were still 234 territories and 51 ‘Imperial Cities’.

The territories that made up the HRE were self-governing, but their The territories that made up the HRE were self-governing, but their sovereigns owed allegiance to the Emperor, who was elected by 7 sovereigns owed allegiance to the Emperor, who was elected by 7 Elector-Princes (3 ecclesiastical, 4 secular).Elector-Princes (3 ecclesiastical, 4 secular).

Rudolf von Habsburg, Duke of Austria, became Emperor in 1273. Rudolf von Habsburg, Duke of Austria, became Emperor in 1273. His descendents ruled the Empire off and on until it was abolished. His descendents ruled the Empire off and on until it was abolished. From the 15From the 15thth Century there were no non-Habsburg Emperors. Century there were no non-Habsburg Emperors.

The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 by the Treaty of Pressburg, after the defeat of Austria by Napoleon.by the Treaty of Pressburg, after the defeat of Austria by Napoleon.

The Holy Roman Empire in 1789

The French Revolution and The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, 1789-Napoleonic Wars, 1789-

18151815 Exported the principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood (Exported the principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood (LibertLibertéé, ,

égalitéégalité, , fraternitéfraternité)) Broke the power of the old Monarchical regimes and states in Broke the power of the old Monarchical regimes and states in

Central Europe.Central Europe. Saw the emergence of the idea of ‘Nationalism’ – the term first Saw the emergence of the idea of ‘Nationalism’ – the term first

appeared in the writings of the Jesuit Abbé Barruel in 1798appeared in the writings of the Jesuit Abbé Barruel in 1798 ‘‘The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars witnessed the first upsurge The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars witnessed the first upsurge

of Nationalism in European history, partly under the inspiration of of Nationalism in European history, partly under the inspiration of the French armies and message of liberation, partly in reaction the French armies and message of liberation, partly in reaction against those armies and the realities of occupation and against those armies and the realities of occupation and oppression.’ Robert Gildea, oppression.’ Robert Gildea, Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800-Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800-19141914 (Oxford: OUP, 1996) (Oxford: OUP, 1996)

Effects on GermanyEffects on Germany German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the

French revolution and saw the French armies as liberators.French revolution and saw the French armies as liberators. 1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz 1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt Napoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolishedNapoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolished

Number of states reduced to 39Number of states reduced to 39

Puppet rulers installed in German Puppet rulers installed in German statesstates

Confederation of the Rhine formedConfederation of the Rhine formed

French legal system imposedFrench legal system imposed Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation turned Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation turned

popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon. popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)(1762-1814)

Dismissed as professor Dismissed as professor of philosophy at the of philosophy at the University of Jena in University of Jena in 1799 for his support of 1799 for his support of the French Revolution.the French Revolution.

Addresses to the Addresses to the German NationGerman Nation (1807- (1807-08): Argued that France 08): Argued that France now represented now represented despotism and that it despotism and that it was therefore up to ‘the was therefore up to ‘the German nation’ to be German nation’ to be the champion of liberty. the champion of liberty. The The VolkVolk (people) (people) should thus rise up and should thus rise up and drive out the invader.drive out the invader.

Effects on GermanyEffects on Germany German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the

French revolution and saw the French armies as liberators.French revolution and saw the French armies as liberators. 1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz 1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt Napoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolishedNapoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolished

Number of states reduced to 39Number of states reduced to 39

Puppet rulers installed in Puppet rulers installed in German statesGerman states

Confederation of the Rhine Confederation of the Rhine formedformed

French legal system imposedFrench legal system imposed Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation

turned popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon. turned popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon. 1813-14: Wars of Liberation. 1813-14: Wars of Liberation.

The Congress of Vienna, The Congress of Vienna, 1814-151814-15

Restored deposed monarchs Restored deposed monarchs to their thrones and sought to to their thrones and sought to re-establish the re-establish the ancien rancien réégimegime in Europe.in Europe.

Granted Prussia extensive Granted Prussia extensive territory in the Rhineland – the territory in the Rhineland – the population of the Kingdom of population of the Kingdom of Prussia doubled overnight. Prussia doubled overnight.

Established the German Established the German Confederation.Confederation.

The German The German ConfederationConfederation

Made up of 39 German StatesMade up of 39 German States Designed to help preserve the status quo rather than as Designed to help preserve the status quo rather than as

a basis for a United Germany.a basis for a United Germany. The Austrian Chancellor Metternich saw it as a means of The Austrian Chancellor Metternich saw it as a means of

preserving Austrian dominance over Germany.preserving Austrian dominance over Germany. The Federal Diet (parliament) met at Frankfurt and was The Federal Diet (parliament) met at Frankfurt and was

made up of (unelected) representatives of all the states. made up of (unelected) representatives of all the states. It was always chaired by the Austrian representative. In It was always chaired by the Austrian representative. In theory the Diet could appoint ambassadors, negotiate theory the Diet could appoint ambassadors, negotiate treaties on behalf of members and organize a Federal treaties on behalf of members and organize a Federal Army. In practice little was ever done because the Army. In practice little was ever done because the unanimous agreement of all 39 states was required.unanimous agreement of all 39 states was required.

What is a Nation?What is a Nation? Johann Gottfried von Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder

(1744-1803): The (1744-1803): The VolkVolk (‘nation’ (‘nation’ or ‘race’) is the decisive or ‘race’) is the decisive determinant of human identity. determinant of human identity. The nation is therefore identified The nation is therefore identified not with the state (which is an not with the state (which is an artificial body), but with the artificial body), but with the ‘organic body’ of the ‘organic body’ of the VolkVolk..

Johann Goethe (1749-1832): No Johann Goethe (1749-1832): No need for a nation-state – need for a nation-state – Germany was a ‘cultural Germany was a ‘cultural community’ like Ancient Greece.community’ like Ancient Greece.

Geog Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Geog Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): An individual only (1770-1831): An individual only achieved their full potential achieved their full potential through service to the state.through service to the state.

German nationalism based on German nationalism based on the idea of a racial/cultural the idea of a racial/cultural community with shared community with shared language, history, traditions, language, history, traditions, myths etc.myths etc.

“A nation can therefore be defined as a named human population sharing an historic territory, common myths and historical

memories, a mass public culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties

for all members.” Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno, Las Vegas, London) 1991, p. 14.

Where is Germany?Where is Germany? Both The Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire Both The Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire

incorporated territory outside the German Confederation incorporated territory outside the German Confederation and non-German citizens.and non-German citizens.

GrossdeutschlandGrossdeutschland (Greater Germany) – would (Greater Germany) – would incorporate the German-speaking parts of the Austrian incorporate the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire and would maintain Catholic Austria’s leadership Empire and would maintain Catholic Austria’s leadership of Germany.of Germany.

KleindeutschlandKleindeutschland (Little Germany) – would exclude (Little Germany) – would exclude Austria but include the whole of Prussia (including her Austria but include the whole of Prussia (including her ‘Polish’ territories), leaving Protestant Prussia as the ‘Polish’ territories), leaving Protestant Prussia as the dominant German state.dominant German state.

The Revolutions of 1848The Revolutions of 1848 Causes: Economic Crisis (1846-47)Causes: Economic Crisis (1846-47)

Demographic change (growing population, urbanization etc.)Demographic change (growing population, urbanization etc.)

Poor harvests leading to faminePoor harvests leading to famine

Cholera epidemicCholera epidemic

Dissatisfaction with conservative political climateDissatisfaction with conservative political climate 24 Feb. 1848: Revolution in France – King Louis Philippe overthrown and a 24 Feb. 1848: Revolution in France – King Louis Philippe overthrown and a

Republic established.Republic established. 13 March: Demonstrations in Vienna lead to the fall of Metternich13 March: Demonstrations in Vienna lead to the fall of Metternich 24 October: The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand (1835-48) abdicates in favour 24 October: The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand (1835-48) abdicates in favour

of his nephew Franz Josef (1848-1916).of his nephew Franz Josef (1848-1916). 13 March: Prussian troops fire on demonstrators in the palace square in 13 March: Prussian troops fire on demonstrators in the palace square in

Berlin, leading to 2 days of riotingBerlin, leading to 2 days of rioting 16 March: News of Metternich’s fall reaches Berlin. King Friedrich Wilhelm 16 March: News of Metternich’s fall reaches Berlin. King Friedrich Wilhelm

IV (1840-61) agrees in principle to a new constitution, parliament and an end IV (1840-61) agrees in principle to a new constitution, parliament and an end to censorship.to censorship.

18 March: More fighting in Berlin – at least 300 rioters killed by the Army.18 March: More fighting in Berlin – at least 300 rioters killed by the Army. 21 March: Friedrich Wilhelm grants a series of reforms including the 21 March: Friedrich Wilhelm grants a series of reforms including the

appointment of a liberal ministry.appointment of a liberal ministry. August-November: The Prussian King reasserts his control. Martial Law is August-November: The Prussian King reasserts his control. Martial Law is

introduced in November and the liberal constitution and parliament introduced in November and the liberal constitution and parliament overturned. overturned.

The Frankfurt The Frankfurt ParliamentParliament

5 March 1848: The Heidelberg Declaration: 5 March 1848: The Heidelberg Declaration: calls for a single German state governed by calls for a single German state governed by a united German parliament.a united German parliament.

31 March: 574 representatives from the 31 March: 574 representatives from the German states met in Frankfurt to agree on German states met in Frankfurt to agree on what form the new German parliament what form the new German parliament would take (the would take (the VorparlamentVorparlament).).

After elections in April the parliament met in After elections in April the parliament met in Frankfurt in May 1848. It was largely made Frankfurt in May 1848. It was largely made up of liberal middle-class professionals up of liberal middle-class professionals (teachers, lawyers etc.) and was moderate in (teachers, lawyers etc.) and was moderate in character. character.

The Assembly soon became bogged down in The Assembly soon became bogged down in debate over what form a united Germany debate over what form a united Germany should take and how it should be governed.should take and how it should be governed.

June: A provisional government led by the June: A provisional government led by the Habsburg Archduke John was elected, but it Habsburg Archduke John was elected, but it had no real power and an ill-defined role.had no real power and an ill-defined role.

March 1849: A Constitution for a united March 1849: A Constitution for a united German Empire agreed and the Imperial German Empire agreed and the Imperial crown was offered to the King of Prussia, crown was offered to the King of Prussia, who refused it. The rulers of Bavaria, who refused it. The rulers of Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover also rejected the Saxony and Hanover also rejected the Constitution.Constitution.

May 1849: The parliament expelled from May 1849: The parliament expelled from Frankfurt and moved to Stuttgart.Frankfurt and moved to Stuttgart.

June 1849: The parliament forcibly broken June 1849: The parliament forcibly broken up by the King of Wup by the King of Württemberg’ s troops.ürttemberg’ s troops.

The ZollvereinThe Zollverein Prussian Tariff Reform Law Prussian Tariff Reform Law

(1818): Designed to protect (1818): Designed to protect Prussian industry from cheap Prussian industry from cheap imports & break down internal imports & break down internal barriers to free trade.barriers to free trade.

1818-34: Prussia tried to 1818-34: Prussia tried to encourage free trade within encourage free trade within Germany by forming customs Germany by forming customs unions with neighbouring states.unions with neighbouring states.

By 1836 the Prussian Customs By 1836 the Prussian Customs Union (Union (ZollvereinZollverein) was made up of ) was made up of 25 states with a population of 26 25 states with a population of 26 million. Trade barriers & customs million. Trade barriers & customs duties between members were duties between members were abolished and there were moves abolished and there were moves towards standardization of weights towards standardization of weights and measures and currency.and measures and currency.

The Development of The Development of PrussiaPrussia

Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade & railway building all doubled between foreign trade & railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858.1851 and 1858.

1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued 1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but not political) reform.through limited social (but not political) reform.

1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his 1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm becomes regent.brother Wilhelm becomes regent.

Wilhelm I (1861-1858)Wilhelm I (1861-1858) Born in 1797 in BerlinBorn in 1797 in Berlin A soldier by training and a A soldier by training and a

conservative by instinctconservative by instinct Fought against Napoleon in Fought against Napoleon in

the Wars of Liberation & the Wars of Liberation & Waterloo CampaignWaterloo Campaign

Staunch opponent of Staunch opponent of RevolutionRevolution

A devout Protestant, he A devout Protestant, he believed that he was believed that he was answerable only to God.answerable only to God.

The Development of The Development of PrussiaPrussia

Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade & Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade & railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858.railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858.

1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of 1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but not political) reform.not political) reform.

1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm 1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm becomes regent. becomes regent.

1858: The ‘New Era’ – Wilhelm appoints a mixed ministry of liberals 1858: The ‘New Era’ – Wilhelm appoints a mixed ministry of liberals and conservatives and the Liberals gain 55% of the seats in the and conservatives and the Liberals gain 55% of the seats in the Prussian Diet.Prussian Diet.

1860: Army Reform Bill1860: Army Reform Bill 1860-1862: Constitutional Conflict.1860-1862: Constitutional Conflict. 1862: Otto von Bismarck appointed Minister-President.1862: Otto von Bismarck appointed Minister-President.

Austro-Prussian ConflictAustro-Prussian Conflict 1849-50: Austrian attempts to join the 1849-50: Austrian attempts to join the ZollvereinZollverein come to nothing, come to nothing,

leaving Austria as the political leader of the German Confederation, leaving Austria as the political leader of the German Confederation, but economically isolated.but economically isolated.

1850: The ‘Capitulation at Olmutz’ – Prussia forced to abandon her 1850: The ‘Capitulation at Olmutz’ – Prussia forced to abandon her plan to replace the German Confederation with a union led jointly by plan to replace the German Confederation with a union led jointly by Prussia and Austria.Prussia and Austria.

1862: Bismarck demanded that Austria recognize Prussia as its 1862: Bismarck demanded that Austria recognize Prussia as its equal within Germany.equal within Germany.

1864: German-Danish War – Austria & Prussia co-operate to 1864: German-Danish War – Austria & Prussia co-operate to prevent Denmark from annexing the Duchies of Schleswig and prevent Denmark from annexing the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. By the terms of the Convention of Gastein Schelswig was Holstein. By the terms of the Convention of Gastein Schelswig was ceded to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.ceded to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.

1866: Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian) War – Austria brings an 1866: Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian) War – Austria brings an action against Prussia in the Federal Diet & Prussia walks out action against Prussia in the Federal Diet & Prussia walks out declaring the end of the German Confederation. Prussia decisively declaring the end of the German Confederation. Prussia decisively defeats Austria a Sadowa (Kdefeats Austria a Sadowa (Königgrätz) on 3 July.öniggrätz) on 3 July.

Prussia AscendantPrussia Ascendant Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and

Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein.Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein. Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony, Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony,

Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia.Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia. Secret alliances signed with the South German states Secret alliances signed with the South German states

(Bavaria, Baden and W(Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg).ürttemberg).

The North German Confederation, 1866-71

Prussia AscendantPrussia Ascendant Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and

Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein.Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein. Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony, Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony,

Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia.Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia. Secret alliances signed with the South German states Secret alliances signed with the South German states

(Bavaria, Baden and W(Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg).ürttemberg). Austria excluded from Germany once and for all.Austria excluded from Germany once and for all. 1870-71: Franco-Prussian War1870-71: Franco-Prussian War 18 January 1871: Proclamation of the German Empire in 18 January 1871: Proclamation of the German Empire in

the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

‘Proclamation of German Unification’ (1888) by Anton von Werner