WOMEN COACHES IN SPORTBy Rewa Gonzalez-Granda Inder

K0517329

AIMS:

To explore and understand females participation in sport.

Examine the factors affecting females participation in sport.

To explore and understand the lack of female coaches in sport.

Examine the factors affecting female coaches.

INTRODUCTION If women participate in sport, people assume

that it is their hobby

Males sexual orientation is hardly ever questioned because of their interest and participation in sports, and the media reaction to them multi-tasking parenthood or marriage alongside a career is a big plus

Women on the other hand have to fight for a picture of them sweating on the field as opposed to twiddling the ball in high heels for portraits

Ahmed, M(2003)

INTRODUCTION

Women's sexual preferences are constantly under attack, especially if they are rising athletes. They are also never commended for managing a full-time career and their personal relationships.

It is expected that if a woman steps into sports, she has to work twice as hard to maintain her familial responsibilities.

Ahmed, (2003)

DEFINITIONS:

Femininity has been characterized by certain qualities, such as sensitivity, fragility, dependence on men and slim (Coakley, 2001).

Masculinity has been characterized as aggression, tough, independent, strength and power (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2004).

Hegemony (masculinity) refers to the dominance of one form of masculinity over others (Connell, 1995).

TITLE IX

“No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.” 

(Coakley, 2007. p235).

TITLE IX Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

concentrated on the rights of all individuals, regardless of sex, to join in educational programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance.

Title IX required that both boys and girls have equal opportunities to participate in sports and derive the benefits of participation.

Title IX have been overshadowed by the losses women have suffered despite their supposed protection under Title VII.

Whisemant, 2003

TITLE IX

Since the passing of Title IX there was a rise in female participants in sport, including 90% of female coaches (Knoppers, 1994).

Nevertheless, females coaches gradually decreased in numbers and by 1985 there was a 32% decrease (True, 1986) as cited by Weiss & Stevens (1993). The reasoning for this decline can be explained by their high-pressured working schedules, lack of female role models and family life (Weiss & Stevens, 1993).

FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALES IN SPORT

Media

Social Class

Homophobia

Race

MEDIA

“Media stories and images provide the symbols, myths and resources which help constitute a common culture for the majority of individuals...” (Kellner, 1995)

MEDIA

Sports media associate male athleticism with strength, courage and competence, whilst at the same time relating female athleticism with sexual appeal, femininity and so-called limited physical capacity.

This stereotypical coverage represents a common sports culture in which men have the power and women do not (Duncan & Hasbrook, 1988).

Kane & Lenskyj, (1998)

MEDIAMale Sports Illustrated Cover

Female Sports Illustrated Cover

SOCIAL CLASS

Wilson (2002) stated that the ‘upper’ class are more likely to involved in sports, however, only certain sports , which are not associated with the ‘lower’ class .

Upper class more likely to be spectators and participants in sport (Coakley, 1998; Nixon & Frey, 1996; Scholsberg, 1987).

Social Class in sport is a paradox, which can be explained by Pierre Bourdiu’s concept of cultural capital

SOCIAL CLASS

According to Bourdieu all cultural consumption, including sports consumption, requires the appropriate preferences and tastes as well as skills and knowledge, which he terms cultural capital (Wilson, 2002).

As women usually do not earn as much as men, they might not be able to afford to participate in certain or desired sports.

HOMOPHOBIA AND RACE IN SPORT

Although opportunities and involvement have increased, many significant differences have been exacerbated by racial barriers (Theberge & Birrell, 1994)

Many factors affecting female participation and female coaching are Heterosexism and/or Homophobia (Coakley, 2007). Many females do not want to be perceived as lesbians and participating or coaching in sport could stereotype and generalize their role (Coakley, 2007).

WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?

“ Coaching remains one of the most prestigious areas of sport which embodies grossly unequal gender relations”

WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?

Evidence shows that there is a lack of female coaches (Fasting & Pfister, 2000)

The institution of sport and it’s many sub-cultures clearly implying a male domination in sport.

Sports council shows evidence that demonstrates a general trend toward fewer women coaches, as the level of coaching awards increase.

PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN COACHES BY LEVEL OF COACHING AWARD

Level of award

Gymnastics

Badminton

Volleyball Tennis

5 24 0 8 21

4 39 19 - 20

3 55 22 13 31

2 70 24 16 24

1 78 36 35 22

Sports Council, 1993

TYPE OF NGB AWARD BY GENDER

Award Male (%) Female (%)

Advanced 13.7 4.2

Senior 41.3 16.7

Intermediate 34.8 62.5

Elementary/Introductory

10.0 16.7

Sports Council, 1993

PERCENTAGES OF FEMALE COACHES IN THE UK SUMMER OLYMPIC SQUADS

Year Male Coach (%)

Female Coach (%)

1976 96 4

1980 91 9

1984 96 4

1988 90 10

1992 92 8

Sports Council, 1993

FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALE COACHES IN SPORT

Low expectations

Limited scale of performance sport

Absence of social support

Patterns of recruitment

Lack of social flexibility

Lyle, 2006

LOW EXPECTATIONS

Absence of expectations

Reinforcement of lack of expectations

Opportunity missed

Lack of motive

Failure of social learning

Lyle, 2006

LIMITED SCALE OF PERFORMANCE SPORT

Recruitment avenue straight from performance

Scale of women participants is much less than males, decreasing the chance for females to carry on coaching their sport

It can be exacerbated by two factors: The age range of popular female sports such as

gymnastics and swimming may negatively influence the transition to becoming a coach

Fewer rewards in females sports have resulted in less professionalisation Lyle, 2006

ABSENCE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT

Due to the domination of males in sport it is evident that there is a lack of social networks and support mechanisms.

The lack in females coaches, influence, power and authority, and the failure to provide formal support structures are likely to affect, recruitment, maintenance and retention.

PATTERNS OF RECRUITMENT

Motives

Experience

Personal Qualities

Education and Training

Ladders of opportunity

Stages in professional development

Reward environment

Achieved status

Perceptions of coaching practice

Pool of Performance coachesX X

Initiation Development Maintenance

Relative status and standing of the sport

LACK OF SOCIAL FLEXIBILITY

Society often make the assumption that females will take responsibility of the children and domestic household.

This restricts a females social freedom and flexibility

Factors such as lack of financial resources and early exit from performance sport may also influence recruitment and progress in coaching

CONCLUSION

Title IX has caused much controversy, receiving a great deal of resistance when it came to promoting sport. Previously men had dominated sports departments and the notion of sharing their equipment with females seemed unreasonable

Hasbrook et al. (1990) indicate that a coach needs to be aggressive, competitive and firm and women are perceived as soft, feminine and yielding.

CONCLUSION

The fact that there is a large number of women participation coaches should not be overlooked.

Females in performance coaches are greatly under-represented.

Coaching is perceived to be more male orientated and early socialisation into coaching roles is not an expectation for women performers

Lyle, 2006

REFERENCES: Ahmed, M (2003)

http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/local/scisoc/sports03/papers/mahmed.html

Cassidy, T., Jones, R & Potrac, P. (2004) Understanding Sports Coaching. (2nd Edition) New York: Routledge.

Coakley, J. (2007) Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (9th Edition) London: McGraw-Hill

Coakley, J.J. (1998) Sport in Society (6th Edition). Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill.

Connell, R., W (1995) Masculinities. Sydney: Allen & Unwin Hasbrook, C., A. Mathes, S., A. & True, S. (1990) Sex Bias and

the Validity of Believed Differences between Male and Female Interscholastic Athletic Coaches. Researcg Quarely for Exercise and Sport. 61:3: 259-267

Kane, M., J & Lenskyj H., J. (1998) Media Treatment of Female Athletes: Issues of Gender and Sexualities. In: Wenner, L., A.(1998) Media Sport. USA: Routledge, Pgs 186-202

REFERENCES: Knoppers, A. (1994) Gender and the Coaching Profession.

Birrel, S. & Cole, C., L (Ed) Women, Sport, and Culture. p. 119-133. USA: Human Kinetics

Lopiano, D., A. (2000) Modern History of Women in Sport: Twenty-five Years of Title IX. Clinics in Sport Medicine. 19:2. Pg 163-173

Nixon, H.L., II, and Frey, J.H. (1996) A Sociology of Sport. USA: Wadsworth. (cited in Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social Class and Sports Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic Capital. International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5

Rowe, D. (2004) Sport, Culture and the Media. (2nd Edition) UK; McGraw-Hill

Theberge, T & Birrell, S. (1994) Structural Constrains Facing Women in Sport. Costa, M & Guthrie, S., R. (Ed) Women and Sport Interdisciplinary Perspectives. P 331-340. United Kingdom: Human Kinetics

Weiss, M., R. & Stevens, C. (1993) Motivation and Attrition of females Choaches: An Application of Social Exchange Theory. The Sports Psychologist. 7, 244-261

Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social Class and Sports Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic Capital. International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5. http://irs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/37/1/5

ANY QUESTIONS?