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Common Sense Management Group Decisions and Collaborative Problem Solving, Nick Krym

Team Management II - Decisions And Problem Solving

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Team Management II - Decisions And Problem Solving, full day class (~8 hrs)

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Page 1: Team Management II - Decisions And Problem Solving

Common Sense ManagementGroup Decisions and Collaborative Problem Solving, Nick Krym

Page 2: Team Management II - Decisions And Problem Solving

Nick Krym 05-25-07 2

Agenda• Team – a brief reminder

• Group Decision Making– Definitions– Techniques and Methods– Exercise

• Collaborative Problem Solving– Technique and Methods– Personality Impact– Tips and Messages

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Teams – a few questions• What is a team?

– A group of people organized to work together with an overall common purpose and a shared accountability for the outcomes.

• What are benefits gained from using teams?

– Increased productivity– Reduced costs– Increased flexibility– Greater speed and efficiency– Higher quality– Increased customer satisfaction– More innovation and work

improvement– Higher personal commitment and

development– Enhanced communication

• What differentiates a team from just a group?

• What are the common characteristics of high performance teams?

– A shared elevating vision or goal– Challenging work– A sense of team identity– A results-driven structure– Competent team members– Commitment to the team– Mutual trust– Interdependence among team

members– Effective communication– A sense of autonomy (independence)– A sense of empowerment (authority)– Optimal team size– A high level of enjoyment

• What could be the reasons for a team to flounder or fail?

• What institutes a team player?

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Team Cornerstones• Nick’s formula for success

– S = ∏oi*P – success is a product of organizational factors times team’s productivity

– P = (∑e)T – team’s productivity is employees’ contribution in a power of team

– e = ∑fi*aC – employee contribution is sum of environmental factors times employee ability in power of commitment

• T – Team– Common Purpose – bringing together efforts of the team members towards common goal,

result or an outcome.– Team Composition – appropriate for the purpose knowledge, skills, experiences,

background and personalities of the team members. – Synergy – cumulative effect of capitalizing on members strengths, cross-pollination, cross-

training, multiple perspectives.– Leadership – abilities of the team leader to inspire team members to perform at their best

and achieve beyond of what is expected– Shared Accountability – the reinforcement of high standards and the shared responsibility

for the results the team needs to produce.– Organization – an appropriate structure of the team that corresponds to the team purpose,

enables the synergy, and mitigates the risks – Atmosphere – environment allowing each member to perform at their best.

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Decision Making Defined• The process through which managers

identify and resolve problems and capitalize on opportunities.

• Step 1: Identifying Opportunities and Diagnosing Problems

– The first step in the decision making process is the clear identification of opportunities or the diagnosis of problems that require a decision.

– An assessment of opportunities and problems will only be as accurate as the information on which it is based.

• Step 2: Identifying Objectives– Objectives reflect the results the organization

wants to attain.– Both the quantity and quality of the desired

results should be specified, for these aspects of the objectives will ultimately guide the decision maker in selecting the appropriate course of action.

• Step 3: Generating Alternatives– Once an opportunity has been identified or a

problem diagnosed correctly, a manager develops various ways to solve the problem and achieve objectives.

– The alternatives can be standard and obvious as well as innovative and unique.

Identifying opportunities and diagnosing problems Identifying opportunities and diagnosing problems Identifying opportunities and diagnosing problems

Identifying objectives Identifying objectives Identifying objectives

Generating alternatives Generating alternatives Generating alternatives

Evaluating alternativesEvaluating alternativesEvaluating alternatives

Reaching decisions Reaching decisions Reaching decisions

Choosing implementation strategies Choosing implementation strategies Choosing implementation strategies

Monitoring and evaluating Monitoring and evaluating Monitoring and evaluating

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Decision Making Defined, cont.• Step 4: Evaluating Alternatives

– The fourth step in the decision-making process involves determining the value or adequacy of the alternatives generated.

– Predetermined decision criteria such as the quality desired, anticipated costs, benefits, uncertainties, and risks of each alternative may be used in the evaluation process.

• Step 5: Reaching Decisions– Decision making is commonly associated with making a final choice. – Although choosing an alternative would seem to be a straightforward proposition, in reality

the choice is rarely clear-cut.

• Step 6: Choosing Implementation Strategies– The bridge between reaching a decision and evaluating the results is the implementation

phase of the decision-making process.– The keys to effective implementation are:

• Sensitivity to those who will be affected by the decision.• Proper planning and consideration of the resources necessary to carry out the

decision.

• Step 7: Monitoring and Evaluating– No decision-making process is complete until the impact of the decision has been

evaluated.– Managers must observe the impact of the decision as objectively as possible and take

further corrective action if it becomes necessary.

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Decision Making ModelsRational-Economic Model • A prescriptive framework of how a decision should

be made that assumes managers have completely accurate information.

• Concentrates on how decisions should be made, not on how they actually are made

• The model is based on the following assumptions:– Managers have “perfect information.”– Managers attempt to accomplish objectives that are

known and agreed upon and have an extensive list of alternatives from which to choose.

– Managers are rational, systematic, and logical in assessing alternatives and their associated probabilities.

– Managers work in the best interests of their organizations.

– Ethical decisions do not arise in the decision-making process.

• Conclusion– As these assumptions suggest, the rational-economic

model does not address the influences that affect decision environments or describe how managers actually make decisions.

– As a consequence, in practice the model may not always be a realistic depiction of managerial behavior.

Behavioral Decision Model• Unlike the rational-economic model, the behavioral

decision-making model acknowledges human limitations that make rational decisions difficult to achieve.

• The behavioral decision model suggests that a person’s cognitive ability to process information is limited.

• Main concepts behind Behavioral Decision Model– Bounded Rationality – Recognizes that people are

limited by organizational constraints such as time, information, resources, and their own mental capabilities.

– Intuition – An unconscious analysis based on past experience.

– Satisficing – The search and acceptance of something that is satisfactory rather than perfect or optimal.

– Escalation of Commitment – The tendency to increase commitment to a previously selected course of action beyond the level that would be expected if the manager followed an effective decision-making process.

• Vigilance can make a good decision more likely. Vigilance means being concerned for and attentive to the correct decision-making procedures.

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Group Decision Making• Group decision making is offering more

than just decision making process, it works as an important team building tool.

• In deciding whether a manager must consider the size of the group. In general, as group size increases, the following changes are likely:

– Communication complexity grows exponentially with the size of the group.

– The leader becomes more psychologically distant from the other members.

– The group’s tolerance of direction from the leader is greater, and the team’s decision making becomes more centralized.

– The atmosphere is less friendly.– Rules and procedures become more

formalized.

• Advantages of Group Decision Making– Experience and expertise of several

individuals available.– More information, data, and facts

accumulated.– Problems viewed from several perspectives.– Higher member satisfaction.– Greater acceptance and commitment to

decisions.

• Disadvantages of Group Decision Making– Greater time requirement– Minority domination– Compromise– Concern for individual rather than group

goals– Social pressure to conform– “Groupthink” - An agreement-at-any-cost

mentality that results in ineffective group decision making.

• Illusions of invulnerability• Collective rationalization• Belief in the morality of group decisions• Self-censorship• Illusion of unanimity in decision making• Pressure on members who express arguments

• Most frequent reasons for defective decisions

– Poor information search (GIGO)– Incomplete survey of alternatives– Incomplete survey of goals– Failure to examine risks of decisions– Failure to reappraise alternatives– Failure to develop contingency plans– Failure in stakeholder analysis

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Guidelines for Decision Making • Work on the problem or an opportunity before the solution.• Seek and use high-quality information. Garbage in Garbage Out.• Be committed to the decision-making process; use it, and let data, not emotions,

drive decisions.• Do not try to wing it, use decision making techniques - any method is better than no

method• Avoid “top-down” power-oriented decision making wherever possible.• Seek employees’ input before you make key decisions.• Believe in, foster, and support group decision making in the organization.• Believe that the best way to improve the quality of decisions is to ask and listen to

employees who are doing the work.• Encourage decision-making creativity through risk taking, and be tolerant of honest

mistakes.• Develop an open atmosphere that encourages organizational members to offer and

accept feedback.• Constructive conflict is appropriate and sometimes necessary.

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Group Decision Making Techniques• Nominal Group Technique - A structured process designed to stimulate creative group decision

making where the members have incomplete knowledge concerning the nature of the problem, unable to gather at one time, or pressed for time and cannot adequately discuss and evaluate options.

• Delphi Technique - Uses experts to prioritize complex lists with conflicting goals and priorities. The panel of experts builds criteria, evaluates items, re-rank items based on results of previous ranking, defines constraints, re-ranks items based on constraints, etc. till the list is stabilized.

• Devil’s Advocacy Approach - An individual or subgroup appointed to critique a proposed course of action and identify problems to consider before the decision is final.

• Dialectical Inquiry - Approaches a decision from two opposite points and structures a debate between conflicting views.

• Weighed Priority List - Used to prioritize a list of many items which could be categorized in a number of dimensions.

• Multi-voting - To prioritize items from a large list with many items in a very short period of time.

• Consultative Decision Making - A technique in which group helps the primary decider make best possible decision.

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Nominal Group Technique• NGT Basics

– When using this procedure, the participants assemble in groups, but are told not to speak to each other.

– A clear goal and decision criteria must be established.– Small groups could be considered as “individual participants” in a very large setting.

• Stage 1 – Idea Generation– Statement describing an established goal or problem is posted and made clear to all

participants. Group focus is established.– Each participant, working individually, proceeds to list as many ideas as they can in

response to the statement.– The ideas are then transposed to the flipchart or similar media for common discussion. This

can be done in a couple ways, e.g.:• The ideas can be shared, one by one in round-robin fashion, by each person in the team. A recorder

writes each idea on a flipchart ( a quick justification could be considered). There’s no discussion about the pros, cons, or intent of any idea. The round robin continues until all ideas have been recorded.

• If confidentiality is an issue, the written ideas can be passed on to a recorder – who would then write them on the flipchart.

• Stage 2 – Ranking– Multiple priority setting techniques. Most popular for NGT is simple ranking of selected

items by each individual, follow on sum across items that results in team ranking.

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Consultative Decision Making Technique• In consultative decision making, the idea is to seek input and work to have group

members understand the final decision – not to necessarily gain a total agreement.• CDM technique basics:

– Primary decider presents the approach and procedure to the participants, it is important that the group understands the process.

– For each of the items at hand the primary decider announces starting position and rationale for it. Note: If decider does not have a starting position, then begin by asking for group input on the issue to decide.

– Group members provide their views of decider's position and give any input that should be taken into consideration.

– Primary decider and group discuss various inputs seeking to gain understanding of the main position(s).

– After discussion is completed, primary decider states final position and explains rationale for it.

• To work, the process requires the decider to listen to the group's input. Attentive / active listening is a required component of the model to work.

• Some of the brainstorming elements could be considered.• The decision has to be announced during the meeting, especially if it is different from

what the groups seem to lean towards.

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Group Decision Making - Tips• In determining if to involve your team to help share in making a decision with you,

prepare first:– Define the issue and the decision that needs to be made.– Provide background the team needs to know to understand the issue.– Define the parameters the team has to work within for making the decision.– Decide the decision making mode to use that best fits for the issue and the situation.– Be clear with the team when you want their involvement with making a decision as opposed

to exploring or discussing an issue with them.

• Getting to Consensus– Get all options or views identified.– Build on commonalities.– Discuss differences to gain understanding of the views; listen attentively.– Propose alternatives or compromises to settle the differences as needed.– Differences of opinion are natural and expected. Seek them out and involve everyone in

exploring alternatives to settle them.– Do not change your mind or just go along to avoid conflict and reach agreement. Discuss

people's reasons and yield to positions that are logical and reasonable.– Test consensus with each individual at times to make sure everyone agrees.– AVOID

• Methods such as majority vote or coin flips.• Bargaining or rewarding someone's way later because the person went along earlier.• Thinking someone must win or lose when stalemates occur.

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Collaborative Problem Solving• S - T - P Model

– S = Situation / Current conditions – facts, feelings, perceptions, etc.– T = Target / Desired conditions we want to have; future state.– P = Proposals / Ideas and plans to take us from current situation to desired target.

• Six Step Model– Identify the problem– Analyze the problem

• How long has the problem been happening?• What is the difference since the problem started?• What are the causes?• What is the frequency of the problem occurring?

– Explore alternatives for a solution• Brainstorm• Evaluate

– Project results of main alternatives and how they would be implemented.– Select and agree on solution. Present recommendations as needed.– Develop and implement the plan.

• Force Field Analysis– List all forces for change in one column, and all forces against change in another column. – Assign a score to each force, from 1 (weak) to 5 (strong). – Draw a diagram showing the forces for and against, and the size of the forces.– Sum of the forces provides a guidance towards solution (weighed pro’s and con’s).– List of forces identifies the road map – increase pro forces and reduce con forces.

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Collaborative Problem Solving, cont.• SWOT Analysis is an effective method of identifying your Strengths and Weaknesses, and to examine the

Opportunities and Threats you face. Often carrying out an analysis using the SWOT framework will be enough to reveal changes which can be usefully made. To carry out a SWOT Analysis write down answers to the following questions:

• Strengths: – What are your advantages? – What do you do well? – Consider this from your own point of view and from the point of view of the people you deal with. Don't be modest, be realistic. If

you are having any difficulty with this, try writing down a list of your characteristics. Some of these will hopefully be strengths!

• Weaknesses: – What could be improved? – What is done badly? – What should be avoided? – Again this should be considered from an internal and external basis - do other people perceive weaknesses that you don't see?

Do your competitors do any better? It is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible.

• Opportunities – Where are the good chances facing you? – What are the interesting trends? – Useful opportunities can come from such things as: – Changes in technology and markets on both a broad and narrow scale – Changes in government policy related to your field – Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, etc. – Local Events

• Threats – What obstacles do you face? – What is your competition doing? – Are the required specifications for your job, products or services changing? – Is changing technology threatening your position? – Do you have bad debt or cash-flow problems?

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Collaborative Problem Solving, cont.• PMI Technique (Plus / Minus / Interesting ) – extensions to Pro’s and Con’s technique or Ben

Franklin method.• Brainstorming

– A technique used to enhance creativity that encourages group members to generate as many novel ideas as possible on a given topic without evaluating them.

– Guidelines For Brainstorming• Goal is to generate as many ideas as possible.• Everyone contributes; group determines if it will go in turn or free-for-all. Freewheeling is encouraged.• Sometimes helpful to have people individually write down ideas before starting.• As ideas come out, hold comments or judgments until discussion time. Only discussion is for

clarification of idea but brief. Do not criticize ideas as they are being generated.• Have person record all ideas for group to see.• Encourage to piggyback onto existing ideas.• Stop when run out of ideas or set time limit is up.

• The Discussion After the Brainstorming– Discussion is not to take place during the brainstorming but rather after it is done. The goal in the

discussion phase is to turn the multiple ideas into the workable few alternatives.

• Here are steps to follow to help do so:– Ask questions and discuss the ideas that need more explanation and clarity.– Look to see what ideas people agree won’t really work and eliminate them.– Look at what ideas are similar and consolidate them together.– Look at what ideas can be organized around common themes and categorize them.– Discuss the ideas to evaluate what will work best against a set criteria, a target you’re seeking to reach, or

around the pros and cons of each main idea.

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Problem solving: Personality Tips• Extraverts: Stop, look, and listen!

Extraverts need to make an effort to listen. They should avoid the temptation to jump in every time there is a pause in the discussion.

• Introverts: Don't think, speak!Introverts need to avoid their natural tendency to filter everything they say. Sometimes problem solving requires brainstorming and spontaneity.

• Sensors: Push for claritySensors have the natural ability to express the problem to be solved in tangible, simple terms. They also have a tendency to supply facts and figures that can be extremely helpful in problem solving.

• Intuitives: Make lemonadeWhen everyone else in the group sees only gloom and doom, Intuitives have the ability to find creative solutions to turn something bad into something good. Intuitives should point out the alternatives and make sure each is thoroughly examined.

• Thinkers: Help keep things in perspectiveThinkers can help the group see if it has become too attached to a problem. They can help keep things in perspective, including the cold, hard consequences of each alternative.

• Feelers: Keep it personalFeelers can ensure that the personal consequences of every alternative are clearly defined. They also can go a long way in ensuring group harmony during the problem solving process, by ensuring everyone has a chance to express their ideas.

• Judgers: Keep the group focusedJudgers can help keep the group oriented on the ultimate goal: solving the problem. Js can also ensure that whatever solution is reached can be implemented in a timely and efficient manner.

• Perceivers: Keep the group's options openProblem solving offers Perceivers the opportunity to be the devil's advocate. A few pointed questions can lead to better solutions.

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Problem Solving Tips and Messages• Often, to understand the problem is to solve

it. • How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a

time. • The questions you ask determine the

answers you receive. • Generate a lot option in solving the

problem. A choice of one is not a choice. • The initial statement of a problem often

reflects a preconceived solution. • A solution that is technologically brilliant but

sociologically stupid is not a good solution. • When the goal state is clear but the present

state is ambiguous, try working backwards. • Solve the problem that really exists, not just

the symptoms of a problem, not the problem you already have a solution for, not the problem you wish existed, and not the problem someone else thinks exists.

• Every hopeless situation has at least two solutions.

• Procrastinators finish last. • You can’t aim a duck to death [Gael

Boardman]• Denying a problem perpetuates it. • Choose well, your choice is brief, and yet

endless. [Goethe]• Obstacles are those frightful things you see

when you take your eyes off your goal. [Henry Ford]

• Anything I've ever done that ultimately was worthwhile... initially scared me to death [Betty Bender]

• If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to treat everything as if it were a nail. [A. Maslow]

• Man’s mind, once stretched by a new idea, never regains its original dimension. [Oliver Wendell Holmes]

• The secret of getting ahead is getting started. [Sally Berger]