X-based language X-based language teaching teaching

西北师范大学 武和平西北师范大学 武和平wuhpnet@gmail.comwuhpnet@gmail.com

http://www.engengine.nethttp://www.engengine.net兰化一中 兰化一中 20072007

Key points highlightedKey points highlighted

Pendulum Phenomenon: a historical Pendulum Phenomenon: a historical perspectiveperspective

Focus on what? Focus on what? Based on what? Based on what?

Pendulum Phenomenon: a Pendulum Phenomenon: a historical perspective historical perspective

The need of language teaching arose at tThe need of language teaching arose at the time when there was communication he time when there was communication between two people between two people • The Tower of BabelThe Tower of Babel• Classic languages and modern languages Classic languages and modern languages • The pendulum phenomenon The pendulum phenomenon • Activist vs formalist approachesActivist vs formalist approaches

The Babel Tower The Babel Tower Genesis 11:1 – 9Genesis 11:1 – 9

• the Babylonians wanted to the Babylonians wanted to build a tower "with its top in build a tower "with its top in the heavens." Angry at their the heavens." Angry at their presumption, God disrupted presumption, God disrupted the enterprise by confusing the enterprise by confusing the languages of the workers the languages of the workers so that they could no longer so that they could no longer understand each other. The understand each other. The tower was left unfinished and tower was left unfinished and the people dispersed over the the people dispersed over the face of the earth. face of the earth.

The classic languages and modern The classic languages and modern languageslanguages

Classic languagesClassic languages• Latin & GreekLatin & Greek• Renaissance Renaissance

Movement: revival of Movement: revival of the Classical Worksthe Classical Works

• Part of noble education: Part of noble education: aristocracyaristocracy

• Reading and translation Reading and translation

Modern Modern LanguagesLanguages• English, German English, German

and Frenchand French• Industrial Industrial

revolutionrevolution• Public education Public education • Communicative Communicative

skills skills

The Pendulum MetaphorThe Pendulum Metaphor History of language History of language

teaching shows it swinging teaching shows it swinging like a pendulum between like a pendulum between extremes of method as extremes of method as teachers have searched for teachers have searched for different solutions. different solutions.

We have seen a pendulum We have seen a pendulum swing in grammar swing in grammar teaching, from the well-teaching, from the well-established Grammar-established Grammar-Translation Method and its Translation Method and its many variants, to pure many variants, to pure meaning-based language meaning-based language teaching during the 1980s; teaching during the 1980s; and the pendulum is now and the pendulum is now on its return swing.on its return swing.

FORM MEANING

Activist vs formalist approachesActivist vs formalist approaches

formalism activism

Objectives

Content

Theoretical Principles Methods

Schools

Reading and translating literary works Language forms and structures rationalism Mechanical drills, memorization, translation, recitation, etc. Grammar translation, audiolingualism, cognitive approaches

Developing oral skills Practical linguistic skills Naturalism Task based, direct use of language Reform movement, direct method, communicative approaches

Focus on what? Focus on what?

The greatest difficulty confronting languThe greatest difficulty confronting language teachers is to handle the conflict betage teachers is to handle the conflict between ween formform and and meaningmeaning. . • Focus on meaning? Focus on meaning? • Focus on forms? orFocus on forms? or• Focus on formFocus on form

Focus on form and language Focus on form and language teaching pedagogyteaching pedagogy

Focus on Focus on meaningmeaning

Focus on formFocus on form Focus on Focus on formSformS

Natural Natural ApproachApproach

ImmersionImmersion

Procedural Procedural SyllabusSyllabus

Task-based Task-based lang. teachinglang. teaching

Content-Content-based lang. based lang. teachingteaching

Process Process SyllabusesSyllabuses

Grammar-Grammar-translationtranslation

Silent WaySilent Way

TPRTPR

Structural Structural syllabusessyllabuses

Methodology

BackgroundBackground

Background:Background: After a long time of debate on the After a long time of debate on the

advantages and disadvantages of advantages and disadvantages of form-form-focused instructionfocused instruction and and meaning-focused meaning-focused instructioninstruction, in the late 1980s and early , in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the mainstream view on this issue 1990s, the mainstream view on this issue seemed to agree that seemed to agree that second language second language teaching (acquisition) that is teaching (acquisition) that is primarily meaning-focused can be primarily meaning-focused can be improved if some degree of attention improved if some degree of attention is paid to form.is paid to form.

A few definitions:A few definitions: Focus on form … overtly draws students’ Focus on form … overtly draws students’

attention to linguistic elements as they arise attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communicationon meaning or communication

Focus on form involves an occasional shift in Focus on form involves an occasional shift in attention to linguistic code features — by the attention to linguistic code features — by the teacher and/or one or more students — teacher and/or one or more students — triggered by perceived problems with triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or productioncomprehension or production

This is contrasted with a This is contrasted with a focus on formSfocus on formS, which , which emphasis formal aspects rather than emphasis formal aspects rather than meaningful activitiesmeaningful activities

II. Difference between II. Difference between focus on focus on formform and and focus on formSfocus on formS

Focus on formFocus on form

(FonF instruction)(FonF instruction) Focus on formsFocus on forms

(forms-focused (forms-focused instruction)instruction)

The word The word formform refers to refers to language form in general;language form in general;

FormsForms refers to discrete, refers to discrete, isolated, specific isolated, specific language formslanguage forms

Learners first engage in Learners first engage in meaning; then explore meaning; then explore some linguistic features.some linguistic features.

Primary attention to formPrimary attention to form

Occasional shift of Occasional shift of attention to formattention to form

Most attention to formMost attention to form

Focus on formFocus on form

(FonF instruction)(FonF instruction) Focus on formsFocus on forms

(forms-focused (forms-focused instruction)instruction)

Triggered by perceived Triggered by perceived problems in problems in comprehension or comprehension or productionproduction

Pre-selected in the Pre-selected in the syllabussyllabus

Linguistic features are Linguistic features are explored in contexts.explored in contexts.

Forms are taught in Forms are taught in isolationisolation

Analytical approachAnalytical approach Synthetic approachSynthetic approach

Why focus on form?Why focus on form?

  (1) When classroom second language (1) When classroom second language learning is entirely experiential and learning is entirely experiential and meaning-focused (e.g., the immersion meaning-focused (e.g., the immersion program in Canada), some linguistic program in Canada), some linguistic features do not ultimately develop to target-features do not ultimately develop to target-like levels.like levels.

  (2) Aspects of the L2 input learners need to (2) Aspects of the L2 input learners need to

notice, but do not (for whatever reason), will notice, but do not (for whatever reason), will require some kind of pedagogical require some kind of pedagogical intervention (Doughty, 2002).intervention (Doughty, 2002).

(3) Pedagogical interventions embedded in (3) Pedagogical interventions embedded in communicative activities can be effective communicative activities can be effective in overcoming classroom limitations on in overcoming classroom limitations on SLA.SLA.

(4) Focus on form can push learners beyond (4) Focus on form can push learners beyond communicatively effective language communicatively effective language toward target-like second language ability; toward target-like second language ability; It can speed up natural acquisition It can speed up natural acquisition processesprocesses

Ways of focusing on formWays of focusing on form

Conscious reflectionConscious reflection Noticing the gapNoticing the gap Hypothesis formulation and testingHypothesis formulation and testing Meta-talkMeta-talk recastingrecasting Typographical (visual) input enhancement: Typographical (visual) input enhancement:

manipulation of italics, bolding, manipulation of italics, bolding, enlargement, underlining, colouring,enlargement, underlining, colouring,

Where do we stand NOW?Where do we stand NOW?

FORM MEANING

We are here, NOW!!!

What to base on? What to base on?

• Task-based approachTask-based approach• Project-based approachProject-based approach• Theme-based approachTheme-based approach• Content-based approachContent-based approach

X-based approachX-based approach

Task-based approachTask-based approach

Tasks vs. exercisesTasks vs. exercises What are tasks? What are tasks? What is task-based language teachinWhat is task-based language teachin

gg ExamplesExamples Components of a taskComponents of a task Pedagogical goals of task-based teacPedagogical goals of task-based teac

hinghing

Tasks and ….Tasks and ….

MechanicalMechanicalDetached from lifeDetached from lifenon-interative non-interative less motivatedless motivated

MeaningfulMeaningfulRelated to lifeRelated to life

InteratictiveInteratictiveMore motivated More motivated

Drills-----Exercises----Practice---Activities----TasksDrills-----Exercises----Practice---Activities----Tasks

““Practice makes perfect” does not always apply to learning Practice makes perfect” does not always apply to learning language.language.

The essential difference betweThe essential difference betweenen task and exercisetask and exercise

Task Task Task has a linguistic + nonlinguistic outcoTask has a linguistic + nonlinguistic outcome, promoting communication, encourage learme, promoting communication, encourage learning through doing in a real life-like context. ning through doing in a real life-like context. • Outcome: Linguistic+non-linguistic Outcome: Linguistic+non-linguistic • EncouragingEncouraging• Real-life-like contextReal-life-like context

ExerciseExercise An exercise has a linguistic outcome oAn exercise has a linguistic outcome only nly

What is Task-Based Language What is Task-Based Language Teaching Teaching

Focuses on the construction, Focuses on the construction, sequencing, and evaluation of sequencing, and evaluation of particular particular goal-related action goal-related action complexes that learners carry out complexes that learners carry out either by themselveseither by themselves or jointlyor jointly

Tasks in language classroomTasks in language classroom

A task is an activity or action which is carA task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or unried out as the result of processing or understanding language ( i.e.as a responsderstanding language ( i.e.as a response).e).

任务任务== 人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所开展的活动。开展的活动。

Success in the task is evaluated in Success in the task is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally and tasks generally bear some bear some resemblance to real-life language useresemblance to real-life language use. .

A task-based approach sees the A task-based approach sees the language process as one of language process as one of learning learning through doingthrough doing--- it is primarily --- it is primarily engaging in meaning that the learner’s engaging in meaning that the learner’s system is encouraged to develop. system is encouraged to develop.

Examples of task-based Examples of task-based language teachinglanguage teaching

Example 1Example 1 ：：名片名片

Example 2Example 2

example 3example 3

Example 4Example 4

Example 5Example 5

Example 6Example 6

Example 7Example 7

Example 8Example 8

Example 9 Example 9

The components of a taskThe components of a task

GoalsGoals Input DataInput Data Verbal dataVerbal dataa dialogue, reading passage, etc.a dialogue, reading passage, etc. Non-verbal dataNon-verbal data e.ge.g ：： picture, etc.picture, etc. ActivitiesActivities OutcomeOutcome

TASK

COMMUNICATIVE

SETTING PURPOSE

ACTION

EMOTION

OUTCOME

Identify the objectives, input, activities and Identify the objectives, input, activities and outcome of the demonstrative classroom outcome of the demonstrative classroom

teachingteaching

Watch the clips of the following Watch the clips of the following demonstrative task-based teaching, and demonstrative task-based teaching, and answer the following questions. answer the following questions. • What are the objectives of this task?What are the objectives of this task?• What input data are provided, both What input data are provided, both

linguistically and non-linguisticallylinguistically and non-linguistically• What are the activities?What are the activities?• What is (are) the outcome(s( of the task?What is (are) the outcome(s( of the task?• Pre-taskPre-task, , while-task while-task Post-taskPost-task

Final tasks in which the Final tasks in which the students in the classroom students in the classroom

interactinteract There is a tangible end productThere is a tangible end product: : posters, letters to penfriends, pool informatiposters, letters to penfriends, pool informati

on on everybody’s birthdays and produce a on on everybody’s birthdays and produce a poster to be kept in the classroom.poster to be kept in the classroom.

Make a plan for a school outing and carry out Make a plan for a school outing and carry out plans and go on an outing.plans and go on an outing.

Carry out a class survey on ‘who does the hCarry out a class survey on ‘who does the housework at home?’ ousework at home?’

•Content-based instructionContent-based instructionCBI is "...the integration of particular content with language CBI is "...the integration of particular content with language teaching aims...the concurrent teaching of academic teaching aims...the concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and second language skills" CBI approaches subject matter and second language skills" CBI approaches

"...view the target language largely as the vehicle"...view the target language largely as the vehicle through through which subject matter content is learned rather than as the which subject matter content is learned rather than as the immediate object of study" immediate object of study"

CBI is "...an approach to language instruction that CBI is "...an approach to language instruction that integrates the presentation of topics or tasks from subject integrates the presentation of topics or tasks from subject matter classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the matter classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the context of teaching a second or foreign language"context of teaching a second or foreign language"

Helen Keller

She altered our perception of the disabled and remapped the boundaries of sight and sense

Famous people

Helen Keller

Three Days to See

The First Day On the first day, I should want to see the people

whose kindness and gentleness and companionship

have made my life worth living. First I should like

to

gaze long upon the face of my dear teac

her, Mrs.

Anne Sullivan Macy, who came

to me when I was a

child and opened the outer world

to me. I should

want not merely to see the outline of her face, so

that I could cherish it in my memory, but to study that

face and find in it the living evidence of the

sympathetic tenderness and patience with which she

accomplished the difficult task of my education. I

should like to see in her eyes that strength of

character which has enabled her to stand firm in the

face of difficulties, and that compassion for all

humanity which she has revealed

to me so often

语文:

Theme-based instructionTheme-based instruction

Theme-based instruction is organized arTheme-based instruction is organized around the theme while integrating languound the theme while integrating language objectives into the unit. age objectives into the unit.

Using themes to teach English language Using themes to teach English language learners promotes automaticity, meaninlearners promotes automaticity, meaningful learning, intrinsic motivation and cogful learning, intrinsic motivation and communicative competence. mmunicative competence.

Project based learningProject based learning

Project-based learning asks a question or Project-based learning asks a question or poses a problem that each student can poses a problem that each student can answer.answer.

Project-based learning asks students to Project-based learning asks students to investigate issues and topics addressing investigate issues and topics addressing real-world problems while integrating real-world problems while integrating subjects across the curriculum.subjects across the curriculum.

Project-based learning is a method that Project-based learning is a method that fosters abstract, intellectual tasks to fosters abstract, intellectual tasks to explore complex issues.explore complex issues.

What’s the common base?What’s the common base?

Task-based

Project-based

Theme-based

Content-based

X-based ELT: what’s the common X-based ELT: what’s the common base? base?

Priority given to meaning Priority given to meaning Closely related with learners’ life Closely related with learners’ life

experienceexperience Supported by a rich supply of Supported by a rich supply of

accessible resourcesaccessible resources Students greatly motivated Students greatly motivated Just-in-case vs. just-in-need Just-in-case vs. just-in-need