A cross-country comparison of the building energy consumptions and their trends

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 230–241

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

jo u r n al homep age: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / resconrec

ull length article

cross-country comparison of the building energy consumptions andheir trends

mberto Berardiaculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, 350 Victoria st., Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 16 September 2015eceived in revised form 3 March 2016ccepted 10 March 2016vailable online 6 April 2016

eywords:nergy consumptionuildingsnergy savinguilding energy efficiencyuilding stockRIC countries

a b s t r a c t

Although it is often stated that the energy consumption in buildings accounts for more than 30% oftotal global final energy use, only a few studies analyze updated data about the current building energyconsumptions or focus on comparing different countries. Similarly, models that predict future trends inbuilding energy demand often use contrasting algorithms which result in diverse forecasts. Scope of thispaper is to present and discuss data taken from several studies about the building energy consumptionsin US, EU, and BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) countries and to provide an updated inventoryof useful figures. Comparisons among countries are used to show historical, actual, and future energyconsumption trends. Data presented by the World Bank, the United Nations Environment Program, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the International Energy Agency are compared withnational reports as well as with research studies. The variety of the approaches used in each of the previoussources was considered fundamental to allow a complete review. The paper shows that the total buildingenergy consumptions in BRIC countries have already overcome those in developed countries, and thecontinuous increase in the building stock of the BRIC countries creates an urgency for promoting building

. Introduction

The awareness of the worldwide increased population togetherith the large environmental impacts of current resource depreda-

ion, such as energy shortage, climate change effects, and increasingHG emissions, have raised concerns about the current trends innergy consumption (Wan et al., 2012; Santamouris, 2016). Britishetroleum has indicated that the global demand for oil is expectedo grow by 30% from 2007 to 2035, while coal and natural gasonsumption will increase by 50% (BP, 2010). Meanwhile, the Inter-ational Energy Agency predicts that unless radical changes in theurrent patterns are taken, the energy-related emissions of CO2ill double by 2050 (IEA, 2014). This scenario follows similar fore-

asts that other third-party models have predicted since mid ‘1990s

In the context of energy saving, the building sector has attractedncreasingly attention worldwide, as buildings are responsible for

E-mail address: uberardi@ryerson.ca

consuming up to 40% of the total energy in some developed coun-tries, with a related emission of 40% of total GHG emissions (IEA,2013a,b). According to the latest IPCC AR5 WGIII report, in 2010,buildings accounted for 32% of total global final energy use (equalto 117 ExaJoules), 19% of energy-related GHG emissions, 51% ofglobal electricity consumption, 33% of black carbon emissions, andan eighth to a third of F-gases emission (large differences in F-gasesdata are due to differing accounting conventions) (IPCC, 2014). TheIPCC stated that GHG emissions from the building sector morethan doubled between 1970 and 2010, reaching a value around10GtCO2eq/y nowadays (Fig. 1).

A closer look at Fig. 1 shows that most of GHG emissions (6.02GtCO2eq/y in 2010) are indirect emissions, and these are increasingat a much higher rate when compared to direct emissions. Due tothe high contribution of indirect GHG emissions from the buildingsector, the environmental impacts of buildings vary according to

U. Berardi / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 230–241 231

Fig. 1. Direct and indirect (from electricity and heat production) GHG emissions in commercial and residential buildings (source: IPCC, 2014).

1990 2000 2010

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ig. 2. CO2 equivalent emissions per primary energy supply through the years inonne of oil equivalent (data elaborated from EIA, 2014; IPCC, 2014).

nvironmental implications in each country. Fig. 2 shows the CO2eqmission in tonne of oil equivalent through the years, and it helpselating the energy consumption with the corresponding environ-ental impact. It emerges that the environmental consequences

or a unit of energy is lower in countries with a high rate of renew-ble energy production (for example, the hydroelectric in Brazil),nd higher in countries with extensive use of fossil sources (mainlyarbon in China). Moreover, this figure shows that the countrieshere a higher increase in the energy consumption is occurring are

hose that adopt technologies with larger environmental impacts.Considering the complexity of energy networks and grids, and

he high variability of the real emission factors (Fig. 2), this paperill focus more on the final energy demands than on their environ-ental implications.The increasing building energy demand (Fig. 1) requires imme-

iate actions to promote radical changes in current trendsGhaffarianHoseini et al., 2013); in fact, the IPPC recently statedhat in contrast to the expected doubling or tripling in final energyompared to today’s levels use in 2050, the global demand couldtay constant if cost-effective best practices and technologies willroadly diffuse immediately (IPCC, 2014).

Given distinct national conditions, such as economic grow, pop-lation trends, and climate characteristics, different policies for

ave started looking at this topic more recently (Berardi, 2013,

Fig. 3. Percentage of world energy consumption in 1990 and 2010 for differentcountries (data elaborated from EIA, 2014).

2015). To have a better understanding of the international trendsin energy consumption and saving policies in buildings, this papercompares data in selected countries: the United States (US), theEuropean Union (EU), and the BRIC (Brazil, Russia. India, China)countries. The reason for selecting these countries is their overallshare of the energy consumption; in fact, in 2010, these countriesaccounted for more than 60% of global energy consumption (Fig. 3).China is the country with the largest energy consumption world-wide, with a rate of 18% in 2010; the US and EU followed behind,taking up 17% and 13% respectively in the same year; India, Rus-sia, and Brazil are third, fourth and eighth largest energy consumercountries in the world, with a consumption of 6%, 5%, and 2% respec-tively (EIA, 2014). Fig. 3 also shows the significant relative increasein energy consumption recorded in BRIC countries in the last twodecades. In particular, the total world energy use is expected torise from 13.2 Gtoe in 2010–15.9 Gtoe in 2020 and to 20.7 Gtoein 2040 (Gigaton of oil equivalent, 1 Gtoe = 11.63 GWh), followingan energy consumption growth of 56% between 2010 and 2040;as a result, an increase in energy consumption above 90% can beobserved in the non-OECD countries, and around 17% in the OECDcountries (Allouhi et al., 2015).

While Fig. 3 refers to the total energy consumption, by break-ing down this total demand by sectors, it is possible to depictwhere energy is mainly consumed (Fig. 4). Although this optionshould be easy, usually, the building sector does not exist as aunique sector in energy statistics, as many agencies divide the final

232 U. Berardi / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 123 (2017) 230–241

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onsumption in the category ‘other’, but the fuzziness in the cat-gorization creates more uncertainty about the data referred touildings.

Fig. 4 shows that the increase in energy consumption in build-ngs in the last twenty years has been modest in US and EU countriesEU, 2013; EIA, 2014). In fact, since 1990, there has been a reduc-ion of the energy consumption in the industrial sector of theseountries, as a consequence of the shift of their economy from theanufacturing to services. The situation is largely different in BRIC

ountries, which have experienced a significant energy consump-ion increase in every sector, included the building one (Fig. 4). Forxample, in China the building energy consumption increased bylmost 45% in two decades, from 30 × 1018 J in 1990 − 43 × 1018 J in010.

This paper aims to report historical, actual, and forecast databout the energy consumption in the building sector. Most ofhe historic data that will be presented have been taken fromeports published by the World Bank, the United Nations Environ-ent Program, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the

nternational Energy Agency, and by the different national reportsr research studies. The forecasts have often been taken from theS Energy Information Agency, while the description of the policiesurrently in place related to energy efficiency in the building sectorn different countries is based on research reports.

This study aims to provide useful information about globaluilding energy consumptions and energy efficiency trends, and toupport cross-country comparisons. The paper is organized in theollowing way: next section focuses on the energy consumptionn buildings by looking at aggregated data; Section 3 investigatesach country separately, and describes current policies related tohe building energy savings. Finally, concluding remarks for ways toevelop more useful information about building energy consump-ions are reported in Section 4.

. Energy consumption in buildings

.1. Aggregate data about energy consumptions

The possible approach to energy saving in buildings may beivided into new high-performance buildings and retrofit actionsn existing ones. Based on the demographic trends and new con-truction rates, different scenarios exist in different countries.or example, the US and EU with their replacement rate of newonstructions between 2% and 3% respectively have few possi-

US EU RUSS IA BRAZIL INDIA CHIN A

2010 (data elaborated from EU, 2013 and EIA, 2014).

oping countries is strongly related to their continuous populationand urbanization increase, as well as to the growing living stan-dards that are following the increasing urbanization rates (UNHSP,2010; Sharma, 2010; EIA, 2014). Nowadays, in India and China, only30% and 45% of the population live in cities respectively, but for boththese countries a percentage above 50% and 70% is expected in thenext 25 years respectively (Fig. 5). This trend is clearly importantto be considered together with the continuous population growth;in fact, while the Chinese population is expected to reach a satura-tion level by 2030, the Indian population should grow all the wayuntil 2050 (UN, United Nations 2014). The population of Russia andBrazil is not expected to change significantly, although the urban-ization processes are resulting in high rates of new constructions inthese countries too. The International Energy Agency pointed thatthe half of world’s population in cities is already consuming two-third of world’s energy, and by 2030, cities will be consuming 73%of world energy, accounting for 70% of CO2 emissions (IEA, 2013a).As a result, an attention for reducing the energy consumption innew buildings in every BRIC country is fundamental.

According to many sources, the global building energy demandis supposed at least to double by 2050 due to several key trends:an estimated 0.8 billion people lack access to adequate housing, 1.3billion people lack access to electricity, and about 3 billion peopleworldwide rely on traditional solid fuels for household cooking andheating (UN-Habitat, 2010). In this context, the migration to citieswith the related lifestyle changes, including an increase in personalliving space, contribute to rise the building energy demand sig-nificantly (Woetzel et al., 2009). According to the World BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development, the rapid economic devel-opment accompanied by the urbanization process and the shiftfrom informal to formal housing modes are propelling the buildingenergy demand in developing countries (WBCSD, 2009).

In 2010, buildings accounted for 32% of total global final energyuse (32.4 PWh), divided in 24% for residential buildings (equal to24.2 PWh) and 8% for commercial ones (equal to 8.2 PWh) (IEA,2013a,b). In residential buildings, space heating dominated theconsumption with a quote of 32% of the global consumption, fol-lowed by 29% for cooking, 24% for water heating, 9% for appliances,4% for lighting, and 2% for cooling. Also in commercial buildings,space heating dominated the consumption with a quote of 33% ofthe total consumption, followed by 16% for lighting, 12% for waterheating, 7% for cooling, and 32% for other equipment (IEA, 2013a).

Data about building energy use in developing countries showa large increase over the years, with an average annual increaseby 2.2% in the last decade (Fig. 6). In particular, the building energy

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ig. 6. Building energy consumption through the years and projections within theurrent policy scenario (data elaborated from IEA, 2009; World Bank, 2014).

uilding sector was responsible for one fifth of China’s total primarynergy consumption and 18% of the overall Chinese GHG emissionsHong, 2009). The annual energy demand growth rates in Russiand Brazil has been below 2% in the last two decades (EIA, 2014),hile in EU and US, the building energy consumption increase has

een even lower.The large increase in energy consumption in China is evident

onsidering that in 2050, it will be 15 times higher than thatn 1970; Brazil and India also stand out, respectively consuminglmost four and five times more energy in 2010 than in 1970, androjected to reach 11 and 12 times respectively in 2050 (IEA, 2009;orld Bank, 2014). EU, US, and Russia have a different path in

heir building energy consumption with an estimated ratio in 2040qual to 1.2, 0.7, and 1.5 times respectively higher than their 1970evel. This data indicates that there are stable energy consumptionountries and rapidly growing energy consumption ones. Finally,ig. 6 indicates that the building energy consumption is supposedo increase everywhere, showing that the policies in place are notufficient to generate a significant reduction of the overall energyemand.

.2. Future trends

Looking at the global trends of the energy consumption, the IPCCas reported that significant heating and cooling energy demand

ncreases are expected globally until 2050, with increase of 179%nd 183% higher than the 2010 levels for the residential and com-ercial buildings respectively (Fig. 7). Globally, the residential

ector is expected to more than double the number of households,

n energy use for heating and cooling per surface area. Similarly,n commercial buildings the heating and cooling demand for sur-

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

een 1970 and 2050 (data elaborated from EIA, 2014; EU, 2013).

face area will reduce in the current scenario by almost 10% persquare meter, while almost doubling considering the increase inthe overall surface area.

Looking at the possibilities for energy saving in buildings, ini-tiatives have often been divided in device efficiencies, systemefficiencies, and behavior changes (IEA, 2013a,b). In particular,some developing countries (such as Brazil, India, and China) haverecently required better efficiency standards for appliances andequipment, as well as stricter building codes. A study about theefficiency of appliances in China showed that at least 21% of resi-dential energy could be saved by using higher efficiency appliances,with as much as 50% possible in some regions (Murata et al., 2008);this study made a conservative estimation of 12% reduction in theoverall building energy request through the use of high efficiencyappliances. Similarly, efficient appliances could reduce the residen-tial energy use by 30% in India (Boegle et al., 2010) and by 27% inBrazil (Morishita and Ghisi, 2010).

Another important element for energy saving is the envelopedesign. An IEA report (IEA, 2013a) indicated high performanceenvelopes as a priority in the cold areas of the US, EU, and Russia,where an overall reduction of 33% in the building energy requestcould be obtained. Russia is the country where, given the uniquesituation of cold climate and poor energy efficiency envelopes, therecord reduction by 42% in the energy demand could be obtainedby stricter building codes and better district heating distributions(Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2012). More stringent building codes are alsoimportant in other BRIC countries. Yu et al. (2014) found a possible22% energy saving in the Chinese building sector by improving thebuilding code in cities (13% reduction) and rural areas (9% reduc-tion). A study about an enforced energy saving building code inIndia found that the energy savings could be between 17% and40% within urban centers (Tulsyan et al., 2013), while for similaractions, Brazil could experience a 15% reduction in the buildingenergy consumption (Geller et al., 2004).

Behavioral changes are also an important factor but the possibleenergy savings through them are difficult to quantify. It is generallyassumed that behavioral changes could save between 10% and 30%in heating, up to 50% in heating and up to 70% in lighting (IPCC,2014). Moreover, the energy demand of some appliances, such asthe clothes washers and dryers and dishwashers, could be reducedby a factor of two through behavior changes.

Fig. 8 shows the trends in energy consumption assuming energyefficient standards based on device efficiency, system efficiencies,and behavior changes, are fully implemented by 2020 worldwide.China shows the most drastic savings followed by India, whereasBrazil and Russia would experience more modest savings. Obvi-

Fig. 7. Trends related to global heating and cooling energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings (source: IPCC, 2014).

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ig. 8. Global building heating and cooling energy use scenarios divided in 12 zonPCC, 2014). The green bars, indicated by the arrows and numbers, represent the

lack numbers show the size of the lock-in risk. (For interpretation of the reference

ffect. Reversely, the deep retrofitting of the EU and US buildingtocks could achieve a 33% energy saving (Balaras et al., 2007) and0% (Harvey, 2009) by 2050 respectively. Overall, Fig. 8 shows thaty 2050 the potential energy saving in developed countries woulde insufficient to compensate the increase in energy needs of devel-ping countries (Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2012).

Recently developed models for predicting the future build-ng energy consumption include engineering methods, statistical

ethods, and artificial intelligence methods, as reviewed in manyther papers (Zhao and Magoulès, 2012; Allard et al., 2013; Li,016). In particular, Fig. 9 shows the prediction for future energyonsumption according to different models. This figure confirmshat while the median of integrated model scenarios forecasts anpproximate 75% increase in the building energy consumption by050 as compared to 2010, several modelled scenarios predict a

arger growth. In particular international models such as AIM, MES-AGE, and the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM), foreseen increase of the energy consumption of more than 150% with

2005 to 2050 according to Global Energy Assessment (Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2012;tunities through the state-of-the-art technology scenario, while the red bars withlour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

over 50% (from 700 TWh to almost 1100 TWh) in the non-OECDcountries between 2010 and 2030. Top-down models often showless pessimistic scenarios, with lower energy demand increases.However, it is beyond the intention of this paper to compare dif-ferent models and their different forecasts as reported in Fig. 9.

3. Strategies for energy saving in the different countries

This section reports historical data, current situations, andfuture trends of building energy consumptions in each countryanalysed in this paper. Together with energy consumption data,energy saving targets and policies are also discussed.

3.1. United States

After the energy crisis in the 1973, the US slowly started mak-ing efforts towards energy saving in buildings by promoting more

Fig. 9. Building energy demand for several baseline and mitigation scenarios, H

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(Mazzarella, 2015). Half of the existing residential buildings in EU

ig. 10. US energy consumption in homes in percentage over the total, 1.05 × 1019 Jn 1993 and 1.07 × 1019 J in 2009 (data elaborated from EIA, 2014).

ngineers (ASHRAE) or the International Code Council, which isesponsible for the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC).s the implementation of building energy codes is among theesponsibility of individual states, codes such as that proposed bySHRAE are usually adopted for large buildings while the IECC oftenrescribed for small residential buildings. Looking at the energyelated prescriptions in the standard ASHRAE 90.1 over the years,t is evident that a significant energy demand cut was obtained inhe version promoted in 1989, followed by slightly stricter require-

ents in 1999. However, with the new releases of the ASHRAE0.1 in 2004, 2007, 2010, and 2013, the building energy savingas found a more substantial reference code, while a similar atten-ion is still missing in small buildings. In particular, ASHRAE 90.1ASHRAE, 2013) provides two compliance methods, a prescriptiveath, which states that all components of the buildings should meethe minimum standards, and a performance path, which allows toemonstrate that the proposed building design uses less energyhan a baseline building. Requirements of the code include build-ng envelope aspects, HVAC, domestic hot water, power, lighting,nd other equipment (the ASHRAE 90.1 dedicates a specific sectiono each of these aspects).

The overall energy consumption in the US buildings has beenlightly increasing in the last years (Fig. 6). This mainly because, asuggested in Fig. 10, the appliances, electronics, and lighting energyse has increased its relative importance, from 24% of the total in993–34.6% in 2009. In the US, most of the residential energy use is

CW: heating/cooling/hot water, and A: appliances (source: IPCC, 2014).

43% between 1990 and 2010, whereas the percentage of gas dou-bled during the same period. This trend justifies why the attentiontowards energy saving has been recently directed towards energyefficient appliances.

Looking at the currently available data about the energy con-sumption in US buildings, it emerges that updated data arecontinuously published by the US Energy Information Adminis-tration for monthly energy consumptions for both the residentialsector and the commercial one (EIA, 2015, 2016). It is interesting tonotice that the energy consumption by the commercial sector alsoincludes energy consumption for street and other outdoor lighting,and for water and sewage treatments. However, these energy usesare relatively small contributors to the overall energy consumptionof the commercial sector.

EIA also publishes projections which focus on the factors thatshape the US energy system over the short (two-years) as well aslong (up to 2050) periods. In particular, the next two-year forecastallows to analyze and focus on rapidly changing energy markets,while the long-term projections focus on the factors expected toshape the US energy markets in the following decades, and repre-sent the basis of current energy policies, rules, and regulations (EIA,2015). Given the available information, it emerges that a significantnumber of aggregate and updated data about the energy consump-tion in US buildings exist, although there is a limited availability ofdata related to the different states or at least data divided accordingto the climate conditions of the different US regions.

3.2. European Union

The three quarters of dwellings in EU-27 are concentrated insix countries: Germany (18.0%), Italy (12.3%), UK (11.9%), France(13.7%), Spain (9.7%), and Poland (5.5%) (Koukkari and Branganc a,2011). Total floor area of buildings represents around 25 billion m2

in EU, of which about 3/4 of total floor area belongs to the residentialsector, divided in 2/3 of single family houses and 1/3 of apartments.Currently the EU counts 160 million buildings. In Europe, more than40% of the residential buildings has been built before the 1960s, andthe buildings stock built before 1910s represents 14% of the total

was built before 1970, with the 25% built between 1970 and 1990;in France and the Netherlands more than 35% of total building werecompleted after 1970 (Meijer et al., 2012). Moreover, in the last

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ears, the number of building permits has lowered, being in 2013,8% lower than in 2010.

Buildings represent about 40% of EU final consumption and 60%f electricity consumption. Total energy consumption of the build-ng sector in Europe has increased by around 1%/year since 1990,

ainly in non-residential buildings (1.5%/year for non-residentialuildings compared to 0.6%/year for households). Electricity con-umption has increased more rapidly, by 2.4%/year since 1990+60%). Data from the European Energy Agency show that in theast 20 years, the household energy consumption reduced in manyountries (above 2%/year in Romania, Poland, and Estonia), but itncreased in others (Finland, Hungary, Greece, Croatia, and Cyprus).roin et al. (2015) found that in the European context regulatoryolicies have had a greater success than financial or informativenes. Fig. 11 reports the breakdown data of the energy consumptionn residential dwellings in different European countries in 2010,nd clarifies how diverse the energy demand in buildings acrossurope is.

At the EU level, the average total energy consumption in build-ngs was around 210 kWh/m2 in 2012, with a large gap betweenesidential (185 kWh/m2) and non-residential (286 kWh/m2)uildings (Fig. 12). In particular, the electricity consumption per m2

aries significantly by type of buildings and countries, being signif-cantly higher in Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, and Finland)

ainly due their use of electricity for space heating (Allard et al.,013).

In terms of building energy saving, the EU has set the ambitiousoal to reduce the level of CO2 by 90% in 2050 compared to that in990, and within the wider strategy to reach the “20-20-20 climateoals” has required that any new building should be nearly zeronergy since 2020 (Koukkari and Branganc a, 2011; Santamouris,016). A significant number of directives and laws related to energyfficiency have emerged after Energy Performance of Buildingsirective, implemented in 2002 (EPBD, 2002/91/EC) and updated in010 (EPBD recast, 2010/31/EU) with more ambitious provisions.he main two identified mechanisms are energy regulations (e.g.uilding codes) and energy certifications. Although the large varietyf existing buildings does not allow a unique retrofitting approachEconomidou, 2011), the recast of the EPBD (2010/31/EU) alsoncluded the demand of actions for the renovation of existing build-

r dwelling in EU countries in 2010 (source: EAA, 2015).

much higher than the economic recession in the same period(−0.3%/year for GDP).

Most of the EU member countries have promoted progressivebuilding codes to gradually reduce the energy consumption ofbuildings towards nearly net zero levels (Broin et al., 2013). More-over, many actions to promote energy saving measures have beenimplemented directly by local jurisdictions especially under theframework of the Covenant of Mayors (Berardi, 2012). For exam-ple, Salvalai et al. (2015) recently reviewed how before the NationalGuidelines approval in 2009, during a period of a national legisla-tive vacuum while the European Directive 2002/91/EC was alreadyvalid, many Italian cities promoted strict building energy regula-tion codes. This policy situation, common among EU countries, isdue to the fact that the implementation of the EPBD is a sharedtask among the states, the regions, the provinces, and the cities(Casals, 2006; Concerted Action EPBD, 2016). For example, the EPBDin Italy is applied at national level through monitoring of the energypolicy, at regional level through technical guidelines, and at locallevel (provinces and municipalities) through building codes andinspections (ONRE 2013; Salvalai et al., 2015).

Although the energy-efficiency in households has improved sig-nificantly since 1990, the progress toward the ambitious target infinal energy consumption reduction is still delayed. In particular,the final energy consumption in the EU member states decreasedover the period 2004–2007, but the electricity end-use continued togrow in the same period (Koukkari and Branganc a, 2011). In 2007,the final energy consumption of EU was 7.1% lower in the residen-tial and 0.9% lower in the tertiary sector than in 2004. However,over the same period of time, the final electricity consumption grew2.1% in the residential and 10.4% in the tertiary sector (Koukkari andBranganc a, 2011).

Finally, since the turnover of the EU building stock is partic-ularly low, the main opportunities in the years to come seem toraise thanks to the retrofitting of the existing stock (Enerdata,2010; Johnsson, 2011; Mata et al., 2013). In this sense, a shift fromoptimizing the efficiency of new buildings to efficiency measuresthat are applicable during the refurbishment processes is emergedacross policy makers as well as the other building stakeholders.

3.3. Brazil

The Brazilian energy supply has a large proportion of cleanenergy thanks to extensive hydro generation, which is the dom-inant energy source for electricity production in the country, being

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Fig. 12. Total energy (above) and electricity (below) consumption

3% in 1990 and 81% in 2011 according to the EIA (2014). Moreover,fter the oil crisis in 1970s, Brazil has implemented large programsor the biofuel production, which guaranteed an even lower envi-onmental impact of the energy production too (Fig. 2). Fig. 13hows that the primary energy consumed in residential and com-ercial buildings in Brazil (as well as in other countries) togetherith the breakdown for used fuel. The figure reveals that the Brazilrimary energy consumption is particularly small if compared withhat in other countries, and it is mainly due to the electricity con-umption.

In terms of promoting energy saving buildings, Brazil has aoluntary labeling program for commercial buildings which hasesulted in several thousands of large green partnership projectsCEBDS, 2012), but limited attention to residential ones, mainlyecause poverty is a leading factor limiting energy saving prac-ices in Brazilian dwellings (Berardi, 2013). Meanwhile, mandatoryountry programs for electric appliances, such as “PROCEL”, haveromoted high efficient equipment in the last years (IPEEC, 2012;Y, 2013).

A major barrier to energy efficiency improvements in the build-ng sector in Brazil is related to the building sector structure, whichs dominated by single family homes, often built outside the controlf local authorities. Building codes or standards are not applicableo the homes that are part of the “informal” sector, and in Brazil,5% of the residential sector is considered to fall under the “infor-al” category (Lenzen et al., 2006). This situation together with

he low environmental implications of the energy consumptionave prevented significant cuts in the building energy consump-ion. Overall, the data reported in Fig. 6 showed that the absolute

ildings per m2 in European Union countries in 2012 (EAA, 2015).

energy consumption is supposed to increase minimally in the yearsto come.

3.4. Russia

Due to the long cold season and inefficient heating equipment,the energy consumption for heating represents the most impor-tant component of building energy consumption in Russia (Fig. 14),especially because buildings older than 25 years represent over halfof total Russian building stock (DOE, 2012). About three-quartersof the building energy demand is consumed by residential build-ings, and most of it is in the form of space heating (59%). Russiahas started promoting centralized initiatives to improve the effi-ciency of district heating systems. In fact, 78% of heat for buildingsis actually supported by district heating systems. Russia has theworld’s largest district heating system, which unfortunately has areally low efficiency, being about 73% versus efficiencies above 90%in North-European countries (DOE, 2012).

A recent International Energy Agency study comparing energyuse in buildings across countries found that Russian residentialbuildings use more than twice as much energy to heat a squaremeter of space as those in Canada, a country with similar climaticconditions (IEA, 2011). However, incentivizing a large energy sav-ing shift has generally been slowed by the reduced energy pricein Russia. The World Bank estimated that energy efficiency invest-

Fig. 13. Building final and primary energy use in selected countries in 2003; AEC = annual energy consumption (Re-adapted from WBCSD, 2008).

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ig. 14. Russian residential consumption breakdown in 2008 (World Bank, 2014).

hat the building sector of Russia possesses the largest potentialavings in this country among all the other sectors.

.5. India

Nearly 70% of the Indian energy production comes from fossiluels, but if we limit the analysis to the building sector, it emergeshat the energy mainly comes from traditional biomass, as firewoods largely used for both for cooking and heating in both rural andrban areas.

In spite of the rapid urbanization of recent years, most of Indianopulation still lives in rural areas. As reviewed in Section 2, sig-ificant difference in rural and urban energy consumption profilesxist, and in fact, while urban buildings also rely on LPG or are con-ected to gas and to the electricity grid, rural buildings only useraditional biomasses.

In terms of the consumption breakdown in Indian buildings, aS Department of Energy study found that in rural area, the 93.8%f the energy consumption is for cooking, with a 4.2% for lightingnd 1.8% for appliances. Practically a minimal energy consumptions recorded for air conditioning in rural buildings. Reversely, urban

Fig. 15. Indian urban residential energy consumption in 2009 (DOE, 2010).

from efficient cooling systems, as repetitively stressed in the lasttwo five-year Indian plans (DOE, 2010).

India is facing a rapid increase in floor space, especially in urbanareas. While 659 million m2 existed in 2010, the surface in 2020should reach 1102 million m2, with an annual increase at a rate of6%. This means that India is yet to build nearly two-third of its 2030building stock (Fig. 5). The rapid urbanization is creating a highgrowth in cooling and appliance services, as the Indian buildingenergy is following a typical developed countries’ pattern (Shuklaand Chaturvedi, 2011). As a consequence of this trend, the Inter-national Energy Outlook predicts that India’s residential energyconsumption trend resembles that of China at 3.7%/per year, andIndia’s commercial sector energy consumption growth is increasingat an average rate of 5.4%/per year (IEA, 2014). Similarly to what itis common in developed countries, the commercial sector will takeup to 50% share in buildings final energy consumption by the endof this century, with the cooling, appliances, and lighting energydemands as main factors. This trend seems to be highly related tothe rapidly changing life styles and in particular to new comfortrequirements of the population (Krey et al., 2012).

Even though the development of energy saving buildings is still

te zon

iBsSmiscld(

wTia(h(Ut2t

Meimdo

Fig. 16. The division of China clima

onstruction rate of this country, shows that the opportunities fornergy saving in the building sector are still largely unexplored.

Recent initiatives taken in India on building energy efficiencynclude a new National Building Code (NBC), Energy Conservationuilding Code (ECBC), Indian Standard SP:41 modified Leader-hip in Energy and Environmental design (LEED) homes, andmall Versatile Affordable Green Rating Integrated Habitat Assess-ent (GRIHA) for residential buildings. A recent study about the

mplementation of these policies found that energy efficiency mea-ures are not followed strictly at local level although nationalodes or state regulations exist because of inappropriate regu-ation structure, ineffective enforcement and non-availability ofetailed technical methodologies to realize energy saving buildingsChandel et al., 2016).

.6. China

Coal is the major fuel resource for buildings in urban areas,hereas biomass is predominately used in rural ones (Li, 2016).

he growth of urbanization and GDP together with the increasen floor areas per capita and the higher demand for electric appli-nces are pushing the energy demand in buildings through ChinaCai et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2011). The total building floor spaceas increased from 10 billion m2 in 1980 −52 billion m2 in 2007nearly twice the total of existing buildings areas in the Europeannion); moreover, the Chinese Ministry of Construction estimated

hat 30 billion m2 of new buildings will be built between 2005 and020, accounting for half of the world’s new construction duringhis period (Huang et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015).

China has been the largest producer and consumer of cement inhe world for the last thirty years and of steel since 2000. As a matterf fact, the energy consumption of materials industries representsbout 50% of the industry Chinese energy demand, while the steelnd cement industries accounted for 20% and 10% of the overallnergy request respectively (Huang et al., 2013).

In China, the residential building sector consumed about 135toe in 2007, representing 11% of national energy end-use (Chen

t al., 2008). Meanwhile, the commercial building stock is alsoncreasing at a remarkable rate, jumping from 0.53 to 7.05 billion

2 in the period 1978–2008. However, given the lack of officialata, the commercial energy consumption in Chinese buildings isften believed to be largely underestimated (Zhou and Lin, 2008).

The civil building energy saving design standard went into place

es (re-adapted from Hong, 2009).

and then, in 2003, the first residential building energy saving designstandards for hot summer and warm winter zone (JGJ75-2003) wasreleased (Lang, 2004). With the “Energy conservation ordinance oncivil building” issued in 2008, a stricter regulation for energy savingin buildings was promoted (Li and Shui, 2015). In terms of build-ing energy saving policies, it is important to remark that the recentChinese building code has finally included prescription in each ofthe different climatic regions and for residential as well as com-mercial buildings. However, the recently established nation-widebuilding energy performance monitoring system is only regulatingthe urban contexts, while buildings in rural areas still lag far behindthe urban ones.

A complete evaluation of the effects of the “eleventh five-yearplan” over the building energy efficiency in China, has been pub-lished by Kong et al. (2012). A recent review of residential buildingenergy codes in China showed that although short-term mandatesof the five-year plans are often promising, the long interval betweencode revisions reflects how China has not yet institutionalized thedevelopment of building energy codes on a regular basis (Li andShui, 2015).

Together with the regulatory mandatory approach followedover the years, China has gradually introduced several volun-tary green buildings initiatives. This approach was also supportedsince 2007 through demonstration projects of green buildings andlow-energy consumption buildings promoted by the Ministry ofHousing and Urban Rural Development (MOHURD). However theabsolute number of these projects has been minimal if comparedto the current construction rates in the country.

The MOHURD is nowadays organized in construction manage-ment departments of provincial and local governments which areresponsible for developing, supervising, and managing buildingenergy efficiency policies and projects within their administra-tive regions. The dysfunctional structure of this Ministry has beenpointed as responsible for the fragmented energy saving trendsin different zones of the country (Li and Shui, 2015). In fact,although this paper has reported data about the building energyconsumption in China considering it as a homogeneous country,it is important to stress the enormous differences within this vastcountry, which have been reflected in different building codes in thelast 20 years (MOC, 1993). Awareness of the different climate con-ditions (Fig. 16) is particular important as in the northern heatingzone space heating for urban buildings is mandatory and providedas a public service during the winter season with limited atten-tion towards building energy saving (Chen et al., 2013), while the

240 U. Berardi / Resources, Conservation an

Fig. 17. China’s building energy use density by service and fuel in 2005 (source:Eom et al., 2012).

nes2epeedw

ig. 18. China’s total building energy consumption in different scenarios dividedccording to the energy source (source: Eom et al., 2012).

Similarly to what stated for India, a really different energyemand pattern exist in urban and rural residential buildings inhina too. Fig. 17 shows the building energy use density by ser-ice and fuel for urban residential, rural residential and commercialuildings.

Although the Chinese building energy demand increase is sig-ificant (Fig. 6), and the new constructions will boost the overallnergy demand, Fig. 8 pointed that an overall reduction is still pos-ible in China. Fig. 18 shows the building energy consumptions in005 as well as projected until 2095 in different scenarios (Eomt al., 2012). In particular, while a continuous reduction of the com-onent of traditional biomass will occur in the coming decades, thelectricity will become the main energy source for buildings by thend of this century. The figure also shows that a trend of increasingemand of gas is expected in the coming years, although this trendill then stabilize.

. Conclusions

The development of building energy saving targets represents aain concern if global energy short cuts want to be avoided in the

oming decades, especially considering the challenges of climatehanges. Developed countries have been devoted to energy saving

d Recycling 123 (2017) 230–241

buildings for many years but often unsuccessfully; in fact, althoughvaluable experiences in energy efficiency in buildings are common,these examples have been so far unable to scale up to the level ofnew construction standards. As evident, stricter regulations espe-cially in existing buildings need to be further stressed by focusingon both the development of new technologies and more educa-tional approaches to energy saving. Meanwhile, as the economy,urbanization, and population of developing countries continue togrow, a significant increase in building energy consumption inthese countries is expected too. Given the current global demandtrends, building energy saving is highly critical as any forecast isshowing that energy demand increases are expected.

The paper reviewed available data about building energy con-sumption as reported by different sources of documents. It emergesa variegated set of figures that helps to clarify and condense the cur-rent available data. However, meanwhile collecting the data andfigures for this paper, a few needs emerged:

• Given the considerable share of the energy consumption by thebuilding sector, this sector deserves to be considered alone, with-out being mixed with other subsectors within a “third sector”besides transportation and industry;

• A unique international definition of the building subsectors isnecessary. In particular, if a generally accepted distinction inresidential and commercial buildings is common, no agreementexists about the building typologies which belong to the com-mercial subsector. Similarly, most of the statistics about publicbuildings avoid to define the function of these buildings generat-ing confusion between social housing, educational buildings, andpublic offices;

• Large countries should account the energy consumptions inbuildings also dividing it in regions or provinces with the sameclimatic conditions. In particular, there is a lack of accountabilityof the building energy consumption by states or regions in largecountries such as the US or China;

• A more accurate accountability methodology of the buildingenergy consumptions remains an important element in order totarget better energy saving strategies and policies worldwide, andto facilitate their comparisons.

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