A high-resolution Late Holocene landscape ecological history inferred from an intramontane basin in...

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Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 2201–2218

A high-resolution Late Holocene landscape ecological history inferredfrom an intramontane basin in the Western Taurus Mountains, Turkey

D. Kaniewskia,�, E. Paulissenb, V. De Laetb, K. Dosscheb, M. Waelkensc

aCenter for Archaeological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, 3001 Heverlee, BelgiumbPhysical and Regional Research Group, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium

cArchaeology Unit, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Blijde Inkomststraat 21, 3000 Leuven, Belgium

Received 7 July 2006; received in revised form 16 April 2007; accepted 24 April 2007

Abstract

Late Holocene vegetation and geomorphological history is reconstructed from a 800 cm long high-resolution palynological and

sedimentological record sampled from Bereket, a 6.3 km2 semi-arid to sub-humid intramontane basin in the Western Taurus Mountains

(southwest Turkey). The well-dated Bereket record provides from cal. 360 BC to cal. AD �400 a unique record of biennial-to-decadal

landscape changes caused primarily by intensive human impacts against a background of global climate variations. During this period,

land clearance with multiple fire episodes, intensive agricultural practices and grazing pressure profoundly altered the pre-existing warm

mixed forest. Increasing moisture availability since cal. �280 BC has acted as a trigger to crop cultivation and mountain-adapted

arboriculture starting with Juglans regia during the Beys-ehir Occupation Phase. Pollen from olive groves have been recorded above

1400m a.s.l. only at cal. �23 BC and have disappeared definitively at cal. AD �294. During this phase, the sediment accumulation rate

was extremely high, reflecting landscape instability. From cal. AD 450 to recent times, the area has mainly recorded pasture and minor

cultivation activities reflected in stable soils and thin colluvial depths.

1. Introduction

Multidisciplinary research undertaken by Waelkens andother researchers (Waelkens et al., 1999; Kimpe et al.,2001; Poblome et al., 2001; Arndt et al., 2003; Degryseet al., 2003) has provided much evidence for settlementhistory, economy and subsistence at and near Sagalassos inwestern Turkey during Hellenistic to Byzantine archae-ological periods. Previous palynological investigations onthe Late Holocene vegetation and geomorphic history ofSagalassos territory were conducted from marshes, peatbogs, excavations and colluvial–alluvial deposits situated inGravgaz, C- anaklı Ovası, Aglasun C- ayı, and the cityPotters’ quarter (Six, 2004; Vermoere, 2004). Thesepalaeoenvironmental studies show complex processes dueto progressive/abrupt changes in the landscape economy

ascirev.2007.04.015

ing author. Tel.: +3216 32 64 02; fax: +3216 32 29 80.

ess: david.kaniewski@bio.kuleuven.be (D. Kaniewski).

directly influenced by settlement history and earthquakeswhich occurred during the 6th/7th Centuries AD. In theSagalassos territory, a period of increased anthropogenicactivities (Vermoere et al., 2000) has been identified andcorresponds with a major Late Holocene period of humanimpact known as the Beys-ehir Occupation (BO) Phase(Bottema et al., 1986; Bottema and Woldring, 1990;Eastwood et al., 1998, 1999a). The BO Phase is awidespread full cycle that shows evidences of Pinusndash;-Quercus woodland clearance through farming, abandon-ment (totally or partially) and expansion of Pinus forest(Eastwood et al., 1999a). The onset of woodland clearanceis also a feature of pollen diagrams from other sites inAnatolia such as Beys-ehir Golu (Van Zeist et al., 1975;Bottema and Woldring, 1984), Golhisar Golu (Van Zeistet al., 1975; Eastwood et al., 1998, 1999a) and KoycegizGolu (Van Zeist et al., 1975). The onset of the BO Phase isdated at 3265735 14CBP at Beys-ehir Golu (Van Zeistet al., 1975) and at �3100 14CBP at Golhisar Golu(Eastwood et al., 1998) where the presence of a tephra

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layer originating from the Minoan eruption of theSantorini (3330770 14CBP, Eastwood et al., 1999b)provides an anchor point for the radiocarbon timescale.In a review paper, Bottema and Woldring (1990) concludedthat clear evidence of pollen-types indicative of arboricul-ture appear at �3200BP in most pollen diagrams fromsouthwest Turkey. The delay observed between two well-dated sites, namely Golhisar Golu and Gravgaz (2270750 14CBP) (Vermoere, 2004) suggests a diachronic onset ofthe BO Phase across southwest Anatolia. The terminationof the BO Phase, due to a lack of 14C ages for thezone boundary, is often a linear interpolation between thelast 14C age and the core top assumed to date these days(Eastwood et al., 1998). It is radiocarbon dated at1300760 14CBP–cal. AD 690 in Golhisar Golu (East-wood et al., 1999a) and before 1410755 14CBP–cal. AD620 in Gravgaz (Vermoere, 2004). These studies show thatthere are still several questions regarding the chronologyand occupation history of the BO Phase.

This paper presents a rare pollen record of biennial-to-decadal scale landscape changes from two cores sampledat 1410–1440m a.s.l in Bereket basin and spliced to-gether in a continuous composite section of 800 cm. Thesehigh-resolution pollen and sedimentological data, with achronological framework based on 11 AMS 14C datings ofplant macro-remains, are elaborated to highlight (1)details of the vegetation history at Bereket during afull cycle including widespread deforestation, intensivecultivation and subsequent abandonment (2) regionaldifferentiation in vegetation changes based on comparisonswith published records from lower altitudes (3) theexistence of upland post-BO Phase pasture activities (4)the effect of different vegetation types on soil erosion anddeposition rates and (5) the evaluation of serialrelationships between pollen data from Bereket withclimatic events in the Near and Middle East (Landmannet al., 1996; Roberts et al., 1997, 2001; Bar-Matthews et al.,1999; Luckge et al., 2001; Schilman et al., 2001; Frumkinand Elitzur, 2002; Enzel et al., 2003). The palynologicaland sedimentological database is also important forevaluating grazing pressure, palaeofire impacts andphysical soil degradation on vegetation communities.

2. Modern physical and biological setting

The study area is situated in an intramontane valley ofthe basin of Bereket (37132042.6500N; 30117042.2300E) inthe Western Taurus. It is drained towards Lake Burdur bythe Aykırdak Deresi and the Bugduz Cayı. The basin issurrounded by two mountain ridges: the Kokayanık Tepe(1830m a.s.l.) towards the west and the Bes-parmakDagları (2280m a.s.l.) towards the northeast (Fig. 1).The affluent valley drains a basin of 6.3 km2 of which 13%belongs to the flat valley bottom (1410–1430m a.s.l.)filled with Quaternary sediments. The slopes (87% of thebasin, mean slope inclinations: 25713%) are char-acterized by lithosols developed on different substrates:

9% on old coarse (gravels and granules) fans, 5% ondominantly marls on basal gravels (Pliocene), 46% lime-stone and 27% on ophiolitic melange, containing largeamounts of clays. On the contact limestone-ophioliticmelange, which belong to the Lycian nappe Complex, awater table is formed feeding many springs. The combina-tion of abundant spring discharge and insufficient naturaldrainage due to the obstruction of the valley mouth by fandeposits from a western secondary valley has caused theformation of a marsh, about 35 ha in extent covering thelowest parts of the valley bottom. This marsh acted as adepocenter. It was drained and transformed into arableland during the 1960s. Cores BKT1 and BKT2 wereretrieved from this area. The valley bottom is in fact aconfined alluvial fan (mean slope 1.6%). Its present apex issituated upstream from BKT3 (Fig. 1) at the confluence ofdifferent smaller valleys. The fan deposits show a markedsorting from gravels and granules in BKT3 to dominantlyclayey silts in BKT1 and BKT2.There are no climatic records directly available for the

study area, but the nearest weather stations (Burdur,Isparta, Calbali Tepe) and our own data (Aglasun andSagalassos) have been used (Table 1). The Bereket area,located above 1400m a.s.l., is characterized by long,very cold winters with much snow and short dry summers.The area therefore supports vegetation which is ext-remely resistant to dryness, cold temperatures and hotsummers. Bereket is situated in the upper Oro-Mediterra-nean vegetation belt (1200–2000m a.s.l.) with forest–wood-land patches of Juniperus excelsa, Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra

and Cedrus libani. Rare Abies cilicica were identified onKokayanik Tepe (Fig. 1). A widespread shrub layer isincorporated in degraded J. excelsa woodland (south-east area) or partly degraded J. excelsa–C. libani woodland(northwest area) and includes Quercus coccifera (shrub,dwarf shrub, cushion), Juniperus oxycedrus and Atraphaxis

spp. A mixed P. nigra–J. excelsa–C. libani forest spreadson the western slopes. The extent of degraded woodlandsand thorny shrubs is due to high grazing pressure.Artemisia herba-alba, Caryophyllaceae and Ericaceae arevery common on these degraded hill-slopes. Culti-vated thermophilous species such as Pistacia terebinthus,Pistacia vera and Olea europaea (O. europaea var. sativa) orremains of an older arboriculture (O. europaea var.oleaster) are absent, whereas Vitis vinifera is sporadicallycultivated. Hellenistic–Roman cultivated trees, such asCastanea sativa, Juglans regia and Fraxinus ornus, mixedwith Prunus persica and Prunus avium are still present,but at lower altitudes in the valley of Aglasun Cayı(1105m a.s.l.). Since the artificial drainage in 1960s, cerealcultivation is dominant on the lower slopes and in thevalley bottom. Carex riparia, Scirpus lacustris, Typha

angustifolia, Sparganium spp. and Butomus umbellatus

with limited poplar cultivation (Populus nigra) are growingin the remaining marsh environments. A low proportion ofSalix spp. and Fraxinus angustifolia borders the marshes(Kaniewski et al., in press).

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Fig. 1. Topographical and lithological maps of Bereket area (Senel, 1997).

D. Kaniewski et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 2201–2218 2203

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Table 2

AMS 14C calibrated ages (1s and 2s)

Samples Depth (cm) Laboratory

d13C (%PDB) Conventional14C age

(yrBP71s)

cal. (2s) agerange rounded

(cal. BC–AD)

cal. (1s) agerange rounded

(cal. BC–AD)

Material

SA03EP 08 85.5 b-213848 �26.6 10770.9 pMC Wood

SA03EP 10 103 b-213849 �27.1 104.770.4 pMC Uncharred

plants

SA03DL 17 157 b-223548 �26.1 1390760BP AD 560–740 AD 620–680 Organic

material

SA03DL 22 197.5 b-210929 �27.6 1580740BP AD 400–570 AD 420–540 Wood

SA03DL 1A 203.5 b-210926 �27.8 1710740BP AD 240–420 AD 260–400 Seeds and

SA03DL 2F 286 b-210927 �28.3 1870740BP AD 60–240 AD 90–220 Seeds

SA03DL 6E 470 b-193788 �24.7 1970740P 50 BC–AD 110 10 BC–AD 70 Organic

material

SA03DL 18E 610 b-193789 �30.6 2140740BP 230–50 BC 200–110 BC Wood

SA05DL 472 729 b-210931 �24.2 2370740BP 520–380 BC 420–390 BC Wood

SA05DL 119 783 b-213851 �24.3 2230740BP 390–310 BC 380–310 BC Wood

SA05DL 132 800 b-210930 Nd. 32607190BP 1750–1030 BC 1750–1380 BC Wood

Table 1

Climate variables in southwest Turkey

Stations Altitude (m.a.s.l) Annual precipitation

Mean annual

temperature (1C)

Mean temperature of

the coldest months

Number of days with

frost per year

Calbali tepe 2000 1090 5.6 o�5 240

Sagalassos 1550 990 8.2 �5 210

Agalsun 1150 844 10.8 1.4 200

Isparta 997 574 12.1 1.7 69

Burdur 967 438 13.2 2.5 54

D. Kaniewski et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 2201–22182204

3. Methods of sampling and analysis

3.1. Investigated cores

This paper presents palynological and sedimentologicaldata from two cores: BKT1 (37132032.2800N,30117042.7200E) and BKT2 (37132042.6500N, 30117042.2300E)retrieved from the toe of a confined alluvial fan of a6.3 km2 affluent valley (Fig. 1). The two cores were locatedat the same distance from the apex of the fan, with BKT1close to the south-eastern valley border near a spring andBKT2 (16 cm lower in elevation than BKT1) in the middlepart of the fan. BKT1 and BKT2 were deliberatelyretrieved from their present locations rather than in thelowest part of the fan to avoid sediment contributions fromopposite valleys. Where soft enough, the deposits weresampled with an end-filling Dachnowsky corer (length:43 cm; Ø: 4.3 cm) providing continuous samples: in BKT1:200–521 cm and in BKT2: 112–682 cm. The other depositswere sampled with a 100 cm long end-filling Eykelkamppercussion drill (Ø: 7 cm): in BKT1: 0–200 cm and inBKT2: 0–112 cm and 682–800 cm. Dachnowsky andEykelkamp cores have always been taken from the sameboreholes. A hiatus (�50 cm) in sediment recovery hasprevented the full study of a single core. Therefore the

continuous parts of the two cores were studied and an800 cm long composite profile was established. Identicalpalynological parts have been spliced together at depth of378 cm (BKT1) and 342 cm (BKT2). The correlation of 20analogue pollen spectra in both cores (section 378–519 cmfor BKT1 and 342–479 cm for BKT2) allow the precisecorrelation of the deposits in the two cores. To respect thereal sample depths in the two cores, a 4 cm thick intervalhad to be included in the graphs. The real altitudinaldifference of 16 cm between BKT1 and BKT2 has beentaken into account in the graphs presenting the lithologicaland sedimentological data.

3.2. AMS dating and density corrected deposition rate

The chronology of Bereket BKT1 and BKT2 is based on11 accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) radiocarbon dateson uncharred terrestrial plant remains, such as twigs, leafsand seeds (Table 2). Plant macro-remains were extractedwith Na2HPO4 from untreated soil samples and sorted outunder binocular microscope. All 14C ages were processedafter standard pre-treatment acid/alkaline/acid and quotedin conventional 14C years corrected by normalizing d13Cvalues and calibrated with the INTCAL98 reference curve(Stuiver et al., 1998). Although some AMS dates are

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BETA-193788

BETA-210927

BETA-210926BETA-210929

BETA-213849

BETA-213848

BETA-193789

BETA-210931 (* too old)

BETA-213851 BETA-210930

Intercept data with calibration curve

Calibrated 1σ age

Calibrated 2σ age

AGES (Cal. AD/BC)

BETA-223548

Fig. 2. AMS 14C calibrated ages (1s and 2s) and suggested age–depth curve.

statistically identical on the 95% significance level (2s),most show an orderly relationship with depth and aretherefore considered reliable; however two of the agedeterminations, b-213851 (cal. 360 BC at 783 cm depth)and b-210931 (cal. 400 BC at 729 cm depth), do not.It is decided to omit b-210931 as too old, suggesting thatolder plant remain (one piece of wood) has been re-worked at this level. The probability that the dates areaffected by hard water effect cannot be excluded, but theinternal consistency of the series provides no evidence thatit has played a role. An age-depth model based oninterpolated ages between adjacent pairs of AMS dates isconstructed (Fig. 2).

The present thickness in the depocentre is however alsodetermined by the dry bulk densities of the deposits.Therefore a density corrected deposition rate has beencalculated between adjacent dates (Fig. 3). This correctedrate was assumed constant between each age control pointand the age of each sample was estimated by interpolation.An archaeological/historical time scale for Sagalassosterritory has been added which fits well with the radio-carbon chronology.

3.3. Sedimentology

The Dachnowsky samples were sliced every 4 cm for thedry bulk density analysis (dBD, g cm�3). For the depositsbelow 6.82m in BKT2, the dBD is estimated at 1.2 g cm�3,which is higher that the highest values in the Dachnowsky

samples, but lower that the dBD we measured in some topsoils in the area or elsewhere in Mediterranean grassland,cropland and forests ecosystems (Evrendilek et al., 2004).The sediments have been analysed (Fig. 3) according to aflow chart described in detail by Six (2004). First theorganic matter was chemically removed with 30% H2O2

and the loss of weight was expressed as a weight percentageof the initial sample weight. Because H2O2 treatment hasonly limited action on undecomposed plant remains, theremaining organic material was chemically dispersed withsodium phosphate, stirred magnetically and further dis-persed using ultrasonic waves. The 4500 mm fraction wasexpressed in weight % of the initial sample weight andcontain detritic material plus undecomposed plant remainsand was obtained by wet sieving. Its composition wasstudied under the microscope. The grain size of theremaining o500 mm fraction was determined in volumepercentages using a Malvern Instrument Master sizer, typeS long bench. Texture nomenclature has been adoptedfrom Shepard (1954) with fine clay (o2 mm), coarse clay(2–4 mm), fine silt (4–32 mm), coarse silt (32–63 mm) and fineand medium sand (63–500 mm). After grain size analysesthe carbonate content, also expressed in weight percentage,was determined by acidification with HCl 1N.

3.4. Late Holocene pollen spectra

A total of 227 samples were prepared following thestandard method (Faegri and Iversen, 1989). The prepared

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Fig. 3. Carbonates, oxydables, bulk densities and sedimentation rate and Malvern analyses.

residues were mounted unstained in bi-distilled glycerine.The pollens were counted under 400� and 1250�magnification (for detailed morphological studies by oilimmersion) using a Leitz microscope. A minimum of 300pollen grains, excluding Pinus, aquatic plants, fern spores,indeterminate pollen and spores, and a minimum of 20 taxawere counted at each level. Pinus was excluded from relativecalculations due to its tendency to overrepresentationfollowing each palaeofire so that rare species find a greaterexpression in the resulting pollen spectra. The pollenpercentages for taxa are based on the main pollen sumsvarying from 324 to 649 grains per sample. Pinus

percentages were calculated using the basic sum plus Pinus.Aquatic herb percentages were calculated separately to100% in order to stress the importance of the local openmarsh ecosystem. The palynological data are presented assimplified (Figs. 4 and 5), synthetic (Fig. 6) and concentra-tion (Fig. 7) pollen diagrams. Local zones (LZ) and sub-zones are numbered from the top downwards and prefixedby Ber (site designation). The delimitation of the local zoneboundaries was obtained from an optical division of thesequence using changes in AP/NAP ratio and in relativefrequency of individual species, mainly that of O. europaea,F. ornus-tp, J. regia, Quercus (Q. cerris-tp, Q. coccifera-tp)and A. herba-alba-tp. Charred charcoal particles

(50–200mm) were counted from pollen slides. A micro-charred charcoal concentration curve (Figs. 6 and 7)estimates the frequency and amplitude of local, extra-localand regional fires, due to natural processes, slash-and-burnculture or to war events from Late Bronze Age onwards. Allpollen diagrams (Figs. 4–7) were drawn using the softwareAdobe Illustrator 9.0.Based on the AMS 14C ages (Table 2; Fig. 2), the mean

temporal resolution between two samples from cal. 360 BCto cal. AD 650 is computed at cal. �14yr, with the highestresolution of one sample per cal.�2 yr (cal. AD 40–130) andthe lowest with one sample per cal. �40yr (cal. AD450–650). These data suggest that the Bereket basin pollenprofiles have recorded from cal. 360 BC to cal. AD 650(783–157 cm depth) decadal-to-biennial natural and anthro-pogenic perturbations

4. Results

4.1. Cores

In BKT1, at 520 cm, a coarse gravel layer mainly ofangular limestone fragments was reached (Fig. 3). They areconsidered as colluvial deposits from the nearby limestoneslopes and underlie the cored fan deposits (Fig. 1). The

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Fig. 4. Simplified pollen diagram with Local Zones (LZs) in comparison to lithology including AMS 14C cal. ages. The composite profile results from

BKT1 (10–378 cm depth) and BKT2 (342–800 cm depth).

correlation of 20 analogue fossil pollen spectra (section378–519 cm for BKT1 and 342–479 cm for BKT2) allow theprecise correlation of the deposits in the two cores andstrongly support the idea of nearly horizontal aggradationson the fan toe. This correlation also indicates that theoldest deposits are restricted to a smaller area aroundBKT2, and gradually transgraded laterally to finallyoccupy the entire valley bottom from a depth of 500 cmonwards, dated from the beginning of our era (Fig. 2). Themain conclusion of the microscopic study of the 4500 mmfraction is that over the total sediment sequence in bothcores limestone granules are rare, suggesting that (sub)-recent sediment contribution from the limestone slopes isvery restricted. Also a geomorphic argument favours thehypothesis for minimal colluviation from this substrate: asharp concave break of slope exists between the valleybottom and the limestone slopes. It is suggested that duringthe periods under consideration, the limestone slopes werealmost bare with soil material restricted to joints andfissures. The potential contributing area in the basin istherefore supposed to be limited mainly to areas occupiedby old gravel fans, marls and the ophiolitic melange,totalling about 2.6 km2 or 40% of the basin under study.

4.2. Lithostratigraphy

The oldest deposits Ber-3h and Ber-3g (Fig. 3) arecompacted silty clays with a limited admixture of 4500 mmgrains. A relative concentration of granules marks the limitBer-3h/Ber-3g suggesting the presence of a hiatus ofunknown duration. The silty clay deposits of units Ber-3g–Ber-3d (Cal 360–190 BC) are characterized by agradually decreasing carbonate content, an increasing4500 mm fraction and a high sedimentation rate(10.78mmyr�1). In Ber-3d, the deposits show a pro-nounced horizontal stratification of coarse and finelayers very probably witnessing the most unstable environ-ment. The fine silt fraction clearly increases in LZsBer-3d–Ber-3a.In LZs Ber-3e–Ber-3a, the mean sedimentation rate is

halved (5.07mmyr�1). This is most probably due to short-terms but relative stable phases (Ber-3c, part of Ber-3band Ber-3a), characterized by a marked increase ofcarbonates (through evaporation) and of organics inter-preted as the consequences of soil formation. The top ofeach of these units is considered as incipient soil surfaces.LZs Ber-3c and Ber-3a are well marked in the sediments

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Fig. 5. Border, marsh and aquatic pollen types diagram (percentages).

with a strong decrease of clays in favour of coarse silts andfine sands.

A marked change in the depocentre has occurred fromLZs Ber-3c to Ber-1d, the 4500 mm fraction is reduced totrace values. During LZs Ber-2i–Ber-2b (cal. AD 40–130;sedimentation rates: 20.67mmyr�1), the texture of eachindividual core remains homogeneous with dominantlyclays and silty clays but with a gradual increase of the finesilt fraction at the expense of the fine clay fraction(o 2mm), especially in core BKT1 situated near the valleyborder, most probably suggesting increasing differentiationof transport capacity on the distal end of the confined fan(Fig. 3). This sedimentation process is only interrupted bysporadic high amplitude events with a longitudinal influxof coarser materials originating from the ophiolithicmelange, the marls and the old gravel fans upstream. Inboth cores, the low bulk densities (mean: 0.9 g cm�3) in LZsBer-2i–Ber-2c and further gradually declining in LZ Ber-2bto the lowest densities (0.4–0.5 g cm�3) in Ber-2a, arerelated to increasing wetter soil conditions in the depo-centre (Lara and Pemberton, 1963).

From Ber-2b onwards, the lithological characteristicsaround the two cores become permanently differentiated.Around BKT1, situated in the immediate vicinity of anactual spring, a marsh starts growing until the end ofBer-1d. Around BKT2, no marsh conditions develop butan increase in carbonates due to evaporation is noted. Ahiatus representing a time period of about 1 Centurybetween Cal 350 AD and Cal 450 AD is situated at thetransition between Ber-2a and Ber-1d, both characterizedby very low deposition rates evidencing a stable environ-ment. From LZs Ber-1d onward, there is a clearlithological differentiation around core BKT1 with phasesof influx of coarser fragments. These coarser fractionscontain limestone fragments suggesting lateral inputs fromthe nearby limestone slopes.The main upward evolution in sediment characteristics

in core BKT2, situated in the middle of the confined fan, isa gradual increase of the fine silt fraction at the expense ofmainly fine clay already from Ber-2i onwards over 500 cmuntil the present surface. It is suggested that, from cal. �40BC onward, the longitudinal influx of sediments along the

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Fig. 6. Synthetic pollen diagram and selected pollen records from Bereket basin.

Fig. 7. Human-induced palaeofires in the basin area since cal. 360 BC.

valley axis becomes dominant, causing a gradual buildingup of the alluvial fan, a gradual increase in the fan slopeand a gradual upward coarsening of the deposits on thesame point. In function of time, the transport capacity onthe fan has increased and the fine clays are transportedmore down-slope.

4.3. Palynostratigraphy

Upland palaeovegetation patterns are established bycomparing and integrating the Bereket pollen sequencewith modern pollen analogues (Davies and Fall, 2001;Tonkov et al., 2001; Cordova and Lehman, 2003; Connoret al., 2004) and studies of the current Mediterraneanvegetation (Ozenda, 1975; Noirfalise, 1987; Frey andKurschner, 1989; Quezel, 1999). Because the periodinvolved in this study is one of intense agriculturaltransformations, this paper focuses on the implications ofsynanthropic vegetation, which includes cultivated plants,field-weeds, and other opportunistic plant species asso-ciated with human activities on the landscape. Relativechanges in open marsh ecosystem have been used tocalculate a potential moisture index: M ¼ sqr (moist VT/dry VT) with M: moisture index, VT: vegetation types, dryVT: Ranunculaceae+Cyperaceae, moist VT: reedmace+a-quatic plants (Fig. 6).

4.3.1. Fire activities: cal. 360–�280 BC (Ber-3g)

The oldest sediments (Ber-3h and especially Ber-3g)show significant signs of regional and local fires (Figs. 4, 6and 7). Treeless marsh vegetation, low Quercus cerris-tp(5.8%) and abundant charcoal remains in LZ Ber-3hsuggest that human disturbances have probably startedwell before cal. 1520 BC. The massive local and regionalfires (maximum charcoal value: 21,375 particles cm�3 forfraction 50–200 mm; also coarser charcoal fragments4200 mm are recovered) from cal. 360 to �280 BC relateto the opening up of the landscape. The burned areas havebeen colonized by expansionist mountain pine forest (50%)followed by shrub or dwarf shrub woodlands (Q. coccifera-tp p12.2%, J. excelsa/oxycedrus p21.2%) and mountainconiferous forests (A. cilicica p6.2%, C. libani p4.8%).The local post-fire dynamic shows a colonization of theburned areas by a gradual local succession of Caryophyl-laceae (p8.9%), Ericaceae (p4.3%), Helianthemum

(p2.7%), A. herba-alba-tp (p8.3%) and Asteraceae(p17.2%).

4.3.2. Beys-ehir Occupation Phase (BO Phase) (cal. �280

BC–AD �400; LZs Ber-3f–Ber-2a)

4.3.2.1. BO Phase onset: cal. �280–�20 BC (Ber-3f–Ber-

3a). Most of these LZs are individually marked in thesediments (Fig. 3) suggesting that each change in vegeta-tion characteristics induced changes in the soil erodibilityand/or soil erosivity and/or deposition processes. From cal.�280 to �20 BC, the average temporal resolution is onesample per cal. 3 yr (cal. �280–180 BC) and per cal. 8 yr

(cal. 180–20 BC). The beginning of the oldest well-established human intervention phase at Bereket startedduring Hellenistic times and is characterized by theintroduction of crop cultivation (Poaceae cerealia-tpp6.9%) and mountain-adapted arboriculture (C. sativa

p3.3%, F. ornus-tp p9.1%, J. regia p11.9%, Vitis

p7.6%) (Fig. 3). Thermophilous-cultivated O. europaea

occur only as trace values. Although the onset of thecultivation phase is dated at cal. �280 BC (LZ Ber-3f), thenearly continuous development of fructiculture did notoccur before cal. �250 BC (LZ Ber-3d) (Fig. 4). LZs Ber-3f–Ber-3d exemplify the discontinuous start of ruralpractices and trees cultivation in these mountains above1400m a.s.l. (Fig. 4). The beginning of the arboriculturehas been interrupted over a total period of �60 years bytwo abandonment phases (LZs Ber-3c and Ber-3a),characterized by the fading of cultivated species exceptregional O. europaea pollen. These two �30 years’abandonment phases (cal. �190–160 BC and cal. �70–40BC) give pictures of the natural local upland vegetationduring Hellenistic times. A less open landscape developedwith a dense deciduous oak undergrowth (Q. cerris-tpp24%) mixed with Q. coccifera-tp (p12.7%)—J. excelsa/

oxycedrus (p15%) woodlands. Alluvial forests (Alnus

p3%, Fraxinus p7.5%, Populus p4%, Salix p4.1%,Ulmus p4.7%) have extended in permanent moist areas.These two potential undisturbed phases suggest that in thehigher altitudes around Bereket, all cultivated vegetationtypes were introduced by Hellenistic populations for foodprovisioning. The LZs Ber-3c and Ber-3a also show thatthe mesophyte vegetation (Figs. 6 and 7) was often reducedduring fire episodes, suggesting also burning of thesevegetation types probably to enlarge or to maintain themost fertile areas of the valley bottom for cultivation. Eachfire episode is followed by a strong increase of pine forestsucceeded by a steppe-forest.

4.3.2.2. Continuous arboricultural phase: cal. �40 BC–AD

�400 (from LZ Ber-2i to Ber-2a). From cal. �40 BC toAD 350 (Early and Middle Roman times), the areabecomes intensively cultivated (LZs Ber-2i–Ber-2a), withthe highest human pressure ever noted in the basin. Theaverage temporal resolution fluctuates from one sample percal. 2 yr (cal. AD 40–130) to one sample per cal. 17 yr (cal.AD 130–350). The agricultural production is characterizedby exploitation of O. europaea (highest value: 7.4%) andthe development of Pistacia atlantica-tp (highest value:4.3%). Since cal. �40 BC, other Hellenistic cultivars suchas C. sativa (p3.9%), F. ornus-tp (p8.5%) and J. regia

(p6%) were re-introduced and mixed with new domes-ticated trees such as Corylus (p4.4%). Vitis (V. vinifera/V.

sylvestris) reaches its highest values (11.5%) at cal. �37 BC(with an average of 1.3% for the period cal. 40 BC–AD350) and decreases to trace values at cal. AD �125 beforedisappearing completely at cal. AD 130. Early and MiddleRoman fires are characterized by high charcoal values (upto 13,886 particles cm�3) and have affected both native and

ARTICLE IN PRESSD. Kaniewski et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 2201–2218 2211

domesticated species (Fig. 7). The subsequent period ofprogressive decline of arboriculture (LZ Ber-2a, cal. AD130–350) is characterized by a lack of charred charcoalsand an extension of Q. coccifera-tp (p12.7%)–J. excelsa/

oxycedrus (p4.7%)–P. atlantica-tp (p2.7%) woodlands.This decline started at cal. AD �150, but the subsequentdisappearance of the various arboricultural species fromthese uplands is time dependant. O. europaea pollen-type(6.1% at cal. AD �150) definitely disappeared at cal. AD�300, while pollens from crop cultivations (Poaceaecerealia-tp) and mountain-adapted arboricultural species(C. sativa, Corylus and J. regia) disappeared about 1Century later, before cal. AD 450.

4.3.2.3. Post-BO phase abandonment phase: cal. AD

450–650 (LZ Ber-1d). The end of the BO Phase,estimated in the Bereket area at cal. AD �400 (zoneboundary Ber-2a/Ber-1d, between cal. AD 350 and 450), ischaracterised by a catastrophic event with massive fires(charcoals: 23,143 particles cm�3), partial or total destruc-tion of the cultivated species and strong decreases ofsteppe-forest vegetation. This LZ is characterized by a hugeand abrupt increase of mountain pine forests (Pinus

p38.3%) encroached by dense deciduous oak under-growth (Q. cerris-tp p22.9%). Also Alnus (p4%) andUlmus (p2.6%), nearly absent during LZs Ber-2b andBer-2a, reappear in the basin. These sudden and markedincreases point to a hiatus in the record at the zoneboundary Ber-2a/Ber-1d. The decrease of Q. coccifera-tp–J. excelsa/oxycedrus woodlands suggests a changingmountain environment. This period also corresponds withan increasing number of shallow water species (Ranuncu-laceae, Cyperaceae and T. angustifolia-tp/Sparganium spp.)followed by stagnant open water (Elodea, Lemna minor,Nymphaea, Fig. 5).

4.3.3. Anthropogenic activities post-BO Phase: a shift in

agricultural practices

4.3.3.1. Pasture phase: post-cal. AD 650 (LZ Ber-

1c). Following the calculated 200 yr abandonment epi-sode (cal. AD 450–650), LZ Ber-1c shows the introductionof a new but limited cultivation phase of unknownduration, evidenced by the conversion from fallow topasture land with reduced crop cultivation (Poaceaecerealia-tp p2.9%) and patches of C. sativa (0.8%) andJ. regia (2.7%). Extensive grazing is suggested by a strongexpansion of pollen-types indicative of meadow steppe(Poaceae p46.9%) including typical SAIs (Plantago

p7.1%, Sanguisorba/Sarcopoterium p2.4%) and steppe-like herbs (Caryophyllaceae p2.1%, Ericaceae p2.9%)and by a decrease of Q. cerris-tp (p8.5%). The changes arenot compensated with increases of Q. coccifera-tp(p2.5%). A slight increase of micro-charred charcoals(3065 particles cm�3) suggests the incidence of fire. Expan-sion of Centaurea solstitialis-tp (p10.3%) and decrease ofborder plants (Cyperaceae, Ranunculaceae, Fig. 5) point toa progressive drying-out of the marsh areas which was

marked in the landscape by the disappearance of the marshin the spring area around BKT1 (Fig. 3).

4.3.3.2. Recent times: since cal. AD �1950 (LZs Ber-1b

and Ber-1a). The pasture phase ends with an importantenvironmental change (LZ Ber-1b) dated post 1950. Thelast 50 years are characterized by an expansion ofmountain pine forest (34–45%) and the artificial drainingof the Bereket marshes marked by an increase of exposed-shore plants (Asteraceae p13.6%, Chenopodiaceaep14.6%, C. solstitialis-tp p9.6%) and steppe-like vegeta-tion (A. herba-alba-tp p17.1%, Helianthemum p4.7%).After these perturbations, a very recent wetter phase(LZ Ber-1a) following a huge fire (charcoal:27,000 particles cm�3) and a synchronous decrease ofmountain pine forests (Pinus p28.8%), has graduallyreplaced the human-induced dry conditions. The progres-sive humid phase is indicated by the return of shallowwater (Alismataceae, T. angustifolia-tp/Sparganium spp.,Cyperaceae) colonized by L. minor (Fig. 5). The return ofgoats and sheep in the mountains has generated a pasturelandscape (Poaceae p34.3%, Plantago p6%, Sanguisor-

ba/Sarcopoterium p3%) with scattered C. sativa (p2.6%)and J. regia (p3.3%) farming. Crop cultivation (Poaceaecerealia-tp p4.3%) has re-appeared since the end of theperturbation phase whereas O. europaea pollen (0.4%) hasonly been slightly represented. The modern values ofO. europaea pollen-type in the basin area do not exceed 1%(0.83%) (Kaniewski et al., in press). It is not excluded thatthe top part of these deposits are an artificial fill withsediments from drainage ditches.

5. Discussion

5.1. The significance of changes in soil hydrology

The water balance and soil hydrology in the Bereketbasin have fluctuated since cal. 1520 BC. The sedimentarydynamics (Fig. 3) and the local open-marsh ecosystemsuccession (Fig. 5) have been used as proxies to infer localdepositional environments and fluctuations in the waterlevel during the Late Holocene. As local sedimentarydeposits and open-marsh ecosystem as such cannot providea climatic interpretation of the wet and dry recordedphases, these data have been compared with independentclimatic data from the Near and Middle East.From cal. 1520 to 360 BC (32607190–2240740 14CBP),

the 17 cm silty clay deposits are characterised by a reducedsedimentation rate (0.17mmyr�1, Fig. 3) suggesting arelatively stable environment with low input of inorganicsediments and low transport capacity. This computedsedimentation rate is however only an approximation as ahiatus of unknown duration occurred during this time-span(Fig. 2). During this period, the mouth of the Bereket sub-basin (LZ Ber-3h, Fig. 5) is characterized by open stagnantwater (L. minor) with relatively eutrophic characteristics(Myriophyllum spp.) and by the presence of floating

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3

Ecological data for cultivated tree species (Browicz, 1982–1997; Zohary and Hopf, 1994; Peyron et al., 1998)

Pollen type Altitude preferences (m.a.s.l.) Temperature requirements (1C) Precipitation requirements

(mmyr�1)

Castanea sativa 0–1700 Tcmin: �2, Tcmax: 15 o600

Julgns regia 0–1550 Tcmin: �2, Tcmax: 15 340–1470

Flaxinus ornus 600–2300 Tcmin: �2, Tcmax: 15 n.d.

Vitis vinifera n.d. Tcmin: �2, Tcmax: 15 n.d.

With Tcmin: minimum temperature of the coldest month.

With Tcmax: maximum temperature of the coldest month.

reedmace mat (T. angustifolia/Sparganium spp. and Alis-mataceae). Similar lacustrine environments were men-tioned at Beys-ehir Golu (Van Zeist et al., 1975) and inGravgaz marsh (Vermoere et al., 2000, 2002) during theLate Bronze Age. These local environments are synchro-nous with low Dead Sea levels (maximum �415m b.s.l. atcal. �1400 BC, Enzel et al., 2003) suggesting prolongeddrought. It is suggested that the low water level and thelimited occurrence of aquatic species at Bereket around cal.1520 BC (32607190 14CBP), are climatologically inducedand probably caused by the pronounced aridity during theNear and Middle East Aridification Phase, which onset isestimated at �3500BP (Luckge et al., 2001; Schilman et al.,2001).

At Bereket, the sedimentation rate has changed drasti-cally after cal. 360 BC (2230740 14CBP) from 0.17 to10.78mmyr�1 suggesting increased soil erosion andhigh inputs of allogenic materials in the deposition centre(Fig. 3), but without apparent changes in the mire waterlevel until cal. �250 BC (Fig. 5). The increase ofCyperaceae (cal. �263 BC), followed by Typha/Sparga-

nium (cal. �254 BC) and aquatic (cal. �250 BC) pollen-types suggest a gradual shift from drier to wetter conditionsand fluctuations of the water level. The water level rise andthe increase of water in the basin bottom since cal. �250BC coincide with the nearly continuous agriculturalpractices above 1400m a.s.l. The cultivars introduced atBereket (Table 3) provide some qualitative arguments formoister conditions during that time. This increased wateravailability is corroborated by independent climatic evi-dences in the Near and Middle East. Decreased d18O valuesin GA 110–112 near the Mediterranean coast of Israel(Schilman et al., 2001) and in 39KG-56KA in north easternArabian Sea off Pakistan (Luckge et al., 2001) point to awetter climate since �2200–2000 BP (cal. �250–50 BC).High Dead Sea levels (Frumkin and Elitzur, 2002; Enzelet al., 2003) and slight decreases in d18O at Soreq Cave(calculated rainfall:+50mmyr�1, Bar-Matthews et al.,1999; Lucke et al., 2005) show the same trend towardshumid conditions. Precipitation increases starting at cal.�300 BC have been also mentioned in the westernMediterranean (Ferrio et al., 2006).

From cal. �250 BC to �40 BC, the general waterbalance becomes more humid at Bereket, but is composed

of an alternation of short-term wetter episodes (maximumduration �55 yr) dated at cal. 250–195 BC and cal. 160–110BC with short-term drought phases (maximum duration�30 yr) suggesting cyclic water level changes duringHellenistic times. This wetter period is synchronous withincreased rainfall amounts or changes in annual precipita-tion distribution from cal. �250 BC onwards in theMediterranean (Lamb, 1977, 1982; Reale and Dirmeyer,2000; Reale and Shukla, 2000). A change towards a morehumid climate regime with lower summer temperatures orincreased cloud cover was suggested in southwest Turkeybut for the whole BO Phase (Bottema et al., 1993;Eastwood et al., 1998).From cal. �40 BC to cal. AD 650 (1390760 14CBP), a

gradual increase of the fine silt fraction in BKT2 isnoted suggesting a dominant longitudinal influx ofsediments, a gradual building up of the fan and agradual increase of the transport capacity. We will arguethat the record is significantly influenced by climatechange and more precisely by a regional trend towardsaridification during the so-called Roman Warming Period(RWP) starting during the 1st Century BC and character-ized by a gradual decrease in rainfall (Reale and Dirmeyer,2000) and a progressive increase in temperature (Despratet al., 2003). The high-resolution Bereket data (sedimenta-tion rate of 20.67mmyr�1; deposition time of 0.5 yr cm�1;average temporal resolution of one sample per cal.2 years) shows from cal. AD 40 to 130 (1970740–1870740 14CBP) a regular alternation of dry phases witha progressive longer duration (maximum duration: 15 yr).The driest episode during Roman times recorded atBereket is 14C dated at cal. AD 130–350 (1870740–1710740 14CBP) and had a major impact on soildynamics and on the environment. The sedimentation ratewas reduced by a factor 10 (Fig. 3), while landscapedifferentiation occurred between the boreholes. Soils withhigh carbonate contents due to evaporation were formedaround BKT2 while peat developed in a spring area atBKT1. It is questionable why spring-related depositswere recovered during this more arid phase and not duringthe preceding more humid phase. It is suggested thatduring the humid phase the deposition rate of detriticsediments was so high that continuous peat growth washampered.

A hiatus (maximum duration 100 yr) in the sedimentarydeposits occurred at cal. AD 350–450 (1710740–1580740 14CBP) suggesting that the end of the cultivatedphase was not precisely recorded, but is bracketed within 1century.

From cal. AD 450 to 650 (1580740–1390760 14CBP),sediment deposits and local marsh vegetation both suggestwet conditions and a higher water table. The meansedimentation rate (2.02mmyr�1) is mainly attributed to alow erosivity due to increased vegetation cover and a betterstructuring of the soil. During this period, the water levelreconstructed from the open-marsh ecosystem has mainlyrecorded a wet phase as was already established for thewestern Mediterranean (Lamb, 1977; Reale and Dirmeyer,2000). These local higher water levels are synchronous withthe highest level of the Dead Sea and Lake Van at cal. AD�400 (Lemcke and Sturm, 1996; Luckge et al., 2001; Enzelet al., 2003). It is also correlated with a strong decrease ofd18O in 39KG-56KA at cal. AD �400 (Luckge et al., 2001).In the western Mediterranean, several fluvial aggradations(including torrential floods) during post-Roman times (cal.AD 500–1000) are correlated with colder and wetter phases(Thorndycraft et al., 2005). Variations in global annualtemperatures are strengthened by the atmospheric D14Ccurve, where maxima have been recorded between cal. AD660 and 740 corresponding with the first cold phase duringthe Subatlantic period (Desprat et al., 2003).

A study of d18O in a varved lake sequence from Nar Golu(central Turkey) spanning the last 1700 years (Jones et al.,2006) shows a dry period between cal. AD 300 and 500 and awetter phase between cal. AD 560 and 750. The timedifference observed between Nar Golu and Bereket (cal. AD450–650 for the wetter phase) could be explained by thesignificance level used for the Bereket AMS 14C dates. At95% significance level (Table 2), the two radiocarbon dates(b-210929 and b-223548) have a calibrated 2s age of cal. AD570–740. By taking the 2s ages into account, the wet phaserecorded at Bereket corresponds well with the wet periodidentified in the Nar Golu varved lake sequence.

The period between post-cal. AD 650 and 1950 is onlyrepresented by �0.5m of deposits of which the depositionhistory is unknown, so that a detailed succession of eventsis lacking.

Changes in sedimentary deposits and open-marshecosystem inferred from Bereket basin could be correlatedwith independent eastern Mediterranean climatic datasuggesting that the soil hydrology in the small Bereketbasin was conditioned by regional climatic events. Theassociated chronology is based on radiocarbon dates andthe accuracy of the time-scale is dependant on thesignificance level used.

5.2. Vegetation

5.2.1. Human-induced vegetation

In southwest Turkey, the start of the BO Phase is placedat the onset of the arboriculture phase (Bottema and

Woldring, 1990), and further specified by Roberts et al.(1997) at the introduction of J. regia.The oldest firm date for the onset of the BO Phase is�3100 14CBP–ca �1240 BC from Golhisar Golu (alt.930m a.s.l.; Eastwood et al., 1998, 1999a) where thepresence of a tephra layer from the Minoan eruption of theSantorini (cal. �1600 BC, Eastwood et al., 1999b) providesan anchor point for the radiocarbon timescale. At SogutGolu (1393m a.s.l.) a diversified agriculture is present since2885735 14CBP (Van Zeist et al., 1975). At Gravgaz (alt.1215m a.s.l., Fig. 1), the onset of the cultivation phase isdated later at 2270750 14CBP (cal. �400 BC) and isseparated from the Minoan Santorini tephra by more than200 cm deposits (Vermoere et al., 2002, 2003; Six, 2004).We conclude that the cal. �400 BC and the cal. �280 BCages obtained respectively from Gravgaz and Bereketsuggest a delay of at least �800 yr for the onset of theBO Phase cultivation phase at these two well dated sites inthe surroundings of Sagalassos compared to the oldestwell-dated site Golhisar.The reduced open alluvial and xeromesophyllous wood-

lands in the valley bottom at Bereket during Ber-3h (endingat Cal 360 BC) suggest that anthropogenic disturbances ofthe natural mountainous ecosystem have occurred alreadybefore cal. 1520 BC. Disturbances of the vegetation covercaused soil erosion and related deposition. The importanceof meadow-steppe mixed with Plantago lanceolata andsteppe-like vegetation suggest grazing with low densities ofsheep and goat herds (Behre, 1990; Bjorkman et al., 2003)until cal. 360 BC. A sedimentary hiatus of unknownduration is clearly apparent in the Bereket age-depth curvebetween Cal 1520 BC and Cal 360 BC (Fig. 2) and couldsuggest that the cores may not have recorded the beginningof the local cultivation phase. At cal. 1520 BC and fromcal. 360 to �280 BC, no evidences of arboriculture andcrop cultivation are detectable. The period cal. 360–280 BCis characterized by frequent fires (Fig. 7) which could beintentional for land clearances or natural and caused bydrier conditions and/or lightening (Pederson et al., 2005;Power et al., 2006). The presence of macro-charcoals(4200 mm) and burned soil fragments in LZ Ber-3g(Kaniewski et al., In prep.) supports the hypothesis of alocal origin of some fires affecting the vegetation (Carcail-let et al., 2001; Pederson et al., 2005). At Lake Van (1648ma.s.l., eastern Taurus Mountains, representing the influx ofa megabasin of 3570 km2) peaks of charcoal influxes at3000–2500BP and 2000–1600BP (both varve years) areinterpreted as indicators of drier conditions (reduced springrainfall) during the growing season without humaninterferences (Wick et al., 2003). At Bereket, differentenvironmental variables clearly show human impacts andconsequences in the Bereket sub-basin within a surface of6.3 km2.After cal. 360 BC, increased brushland cover of resilient

and pyrophytic species such as evergreen Quercus

(Q. coccifera), Juniperus spp. (J. excelsa, J. oxycedrus)and Sarcopoterium spinosum suggests a human- and

fire-induced secondary vegetation community, probablyspiny shrubs, dwarf spiny shrubs or cushions. Consideringthe possible evolutionary adaptation of plant species torecurrent fires at Bereket, the idea of vegetation resiliencereflecting multiple factor disturbances rather than just firedisturbances alone is supported by the vegetation patterns,which have evolved since the beginning of significanthuman impact and favoured the selection of disturbance-tolerant species (Lopez-Soria and Castell, 1992; Lloretet al., 1999). This human-induced brushland is mixed with axeric steppe composed of Artemisia spp. (A. herba-alba,A. campestris), Chenopodiaceae, Ephedra (E. fragilis,E. major), Helianthemum spp. and Asteraceae (Fig. 6). Asparse woodland including deciduous shrubby pistachio(P. atlantica) has developed later (at cal. �16 BC, max. atcal. AD �126) and suggests an increased degradation of theforests or woodlands (Behre, 1990) during Early Romantimes. This human-induced shrub-steppe is widespread inthe area during the Hellenistic-Early and Middle Romantimes and has reached a peak at cal. AD 204 (steppe-forest44.6%) suggesting that the drought-tolerant vegetationpatterns have been favoured by an intensive and increasedhuman impact. The low pollen percentages at Bereket froma xeromesophyllous Mediterranean maquis with Carpinus

orientalis, Cistus spp. and Rhamnus spp. (maximum. at cal.�160 BC) are considered allogenic and probably originatefrom lower lying areas (Kaniewski et al., in press). Thepollen sequence also includes very strong signals of humandisturbances and it is tempting to conclude that theseactivities had a major impact on both vegetation andsurface processes. From cal. 360–180 BC and cal. AD40–130, the mean deposition rates at Bereket increased,respectively to 10.78mmyr�1 and 20.67mmyr�1 clearlyindicating the huge and unprecedented environmentalimpact of these agricultural practices on soil degradation.Identical conclusions have been formulated by Huhmannet al. (2004) for the Dnister valley (Ukraine) during the LateHolocene. The eroding and degrading opening up of thelandscape (APo50%) has favoured widespread expansionsof steppe-like vegetation and the palynological overrepre-sentation of coniferous mountain forests (Figs. 6 and 7).According to Edwards and Whittington (2000), Plantago

lanceolata-tp increases traditionally follow fire episodes. AtBereket, Plantago spp. (P. lanceolata/P. major) reactssimilarly and is associated with numerous apophytes(C. solstitialis, Polygonum aviculare, Rumex acetosa,R. acetosella, Sanguisorba minor). These species areindicators of burned areas, cultivated fields, grazed areasor mown meadows (Bottema & Woldring, 1990; Eastwoodet al., 1998). Other forbs grouped in a meadow steppeassemblage (mainly Poaceae, Apiaceae, Urticaceae) havealso benefited from these local deforestations and human-induced open landscape (Kaniewski et al., in press). As eachfire episode corresponds to high AP values mostly due toabrupt increases of pine pollen (Figs. 6 and 7), the AP curveexcluding Pinus spp. (Fig. 7) is calculated to represent thebackground vegetation during these episodes.

5.2.2. Olive orchards (O. europaea var. sativa)

The occurrence and characteristics of modern olive treeshas been studied by Vermoere et al. (2003) in this part ofthe Taurus Mountains. The local modern upper limitof olive trees is established at 1186m a.s.l. in the village ofBakırlı (5 trees) where O. europaea pollen-type accounts for�5% in the modern pollen spectra (Vermoere et al., 2003).At Bereket, the current value of O. europaea pollen-type islower than 1% (Kaniewski et al., in press) despite thepresence of olive trees in nearby villages Kuzkoy (950ma.s.l.) and Tekke (981m a.s.l.). The occurrence of an oldolive orchard (4100 trees) at an altitude of 1091m a.s.l. inGuvenli Koyu (at 15 km from Bereket) shows that thecurrent local climate (Table 1) is favourable enough toallow growing olive orchards (Vermoere et al., 2003).Current physiological studies on olive trees have definedpotential lower temperature limits (�13 1C) below whichthe damage is too severe and definitively affects thecapabilities of these trees to recover from frost (Woodroof,1979; Bartolozzi and Fontanazza, 1999). Morello et al.(2003) have also specified that ten successive days of snowand low temperatures (below �5 1C) caused a 40%decrease of olive oil production and also affected the nextcrop season.During the Late Holocene, the presence of O. europaea

pollen-type (up to �5%) since 2885735 14CBP in thediagram of Sogut Golu (1393m a.s.l.) was originallyinterpreted by Van Zeist et al. (1975) as local olivecultivation at these high altitudes suggesting milder wintersthan at present. This idea has been reconsidered byBottema and Woldring (1990) and Bottema et al. (1993)as the product of long distance transport from Eu-Mediterranean olive orchards. O. europaea pollen-type isindeed transported readily and has a significant atmo-spheric dispersal (Bottema and Woldring, 1990; Davies andFall, 2001). According to Vermoere et al. (2003) andVermoere (2004), local upland cultivation of O. europaea

has occurred in the surroundings of Sagalassos at C- anaklı(1015m a.s.l.), Aglasun C- ayı (1105m a.s.l.) and Gravgaz(1215m a.s.l.) since cal. �400 BC, with the climax phase ofolive cultivation from cal. �90 BC to cal. AD �620. AtGolhisar Golu (930m a.s.l.), O. europaea pollen-type hasbeen recorded since cal. �1240 BC and interpreted as localcultivation (Eastwood et al., 1998, 1999a). In the nearbyancient town of Sagalassos (1600m a.s.l., Waelkens et al.,1999), numerous O. europaea endocarps and charcoalshave been found, although the origin (nearby cultivation orregional trade) is unknown (Schoch, 1995; Van Thuyne,pers. commun.).At Bereket, O. europaea pollen-type suddenly appears

during Hellenistic times at cal. �245 BC. Its low values(maximum 1%) during Ber-3d–Ber-3a suggest that, thispollen was extra-local or even regional and blown in byascending air currents from olive orchards and garrigueslocated at lower altitudes where warmer conditionsprevailed (Van Zeist et al., 1975; Bottema and Woldring,1984; Bottema and Woldring, 1990; Eastwood et al.,

1999a). Despite a gradual warming since cal. 250 BC (Realeand Dirmeyer, 2000), the summer drought was probablynot long enough to counterbalance the winter temperatureminima and number and intensity of frost days in the highmountains (Rossignol-Strick, 1995; Pons and Quezel,1998). At Bereket, the low O. europaea pollen-type valuesuntil cal. �23 BC suggest no olive orchards in thesurroundings during the Hellenistic period.

The sudden rise of O. europaea pollen-type in Bereketdeposits at cal. �23 BC corresponds archaeologically withthe beginning of the Imperial period (cal. 27 BC) and the‘‘pax augusta’’ (27 BC–AD 180) established by Augustus.Locally, the heydays of arboricultural practices in theBereket basin were reflected in the wealth of the nearbyHellenistic–Roman settlement Kirselik (near present Bere-ket, Fig. 1) where the remains of a major Julio-Claudianstructure are located (Waelkens et al., 2000) and dated tothe reign of Tiberius or his immediate successors (AD14–68). Several counterweights used for olive oil produc-tion have been discovered around this site (Waelkens et al.,2000). The climax phase of drought-tolerant O. europaea

cultivation (minimum temperature coldest month: 5 1C)(Peyron et al., 1998) recorded at Bereket is bracketedbetween cal. �23 BC and cal. AD �294. During this time-span of �300 years, three olive pollen-type maxima havebeen recorded: at cal. AD �100–110, at cal. AD �120–130and at cal. AD �150–250 (Fig. 7). These maxima arecorrelated with minima in the atmospheric D14C curve(Stuiver et al., 1998), which are related to maxima in solaractivity (Desprat et al., 2003). The greatest peak ofO. europaea has been reached at cal. AD 121 (frequency:7.4%, concentration: 6188 grains cm�3, depth: 316 cm)when atmospheric D14C decrease to �17.5%. An intensi-fication of annual drought seems to have occurred fromcal. AD 130 to �294 when mesic cultivated speciesgradually disappeared (C. sativa, Vitis) or stronglydecreased (J. regia, F. ornus, Poaceae cerealia) whileO. europaea remained relatively constant and only dimin-ished much later when significant values of olive pollen-type definitely disappear from these highlands at cal. AD�294. A more favourable climate during Hellenistic–Roman times has already been suggested (Roberts, 1990;Eastwood et al., 1998) and corresponds to the RWP (Realeand Dirmeyer, 2000; Desprat et al., 2003). According toRoberts (1990) winter and spring temperatures must havebeen 2–3 1C higher than today.

Even if local cultivation of O. europaea above 1400ma.s.l. or in the close vicinity cannot be proven with pollendata alone and no macro-remains from olive trees havebeen found in the cores, the pollen data suggest thatRoman olive stands were not extensive monospecific standsand that O. europaea were included in lush (and moist)orchards with J. regia, F. ornus, C. sativa and Vitis

probably to protect isolated thermophilous trees fromfrost. If the presence of O. europaea pollen-type duringEarly and Middle Roman times at Bereket should be onlyascribed to wind transport, is it questionable why despite a

widespread cultivation of olive trees during more than amillennium, from cal. �1800 BC to cal. AD �670 (VanZeist et al., 1975; Bottema and Woldring, 1990; Eastwoodet al., 1998, 1999a; Vermoere et al., 2000, 2002), thesignificant presence of olive pollen in the Bereket diagramcovers only �320 years (cal. �23 BC–AD �294) andcorresponds very well with the warmest climate episodeand with archaeological evidences of a local flourishingvillage (Waelkens et al., 2000).The Bereket data strongly suggest that from cal. �23 BC

to cal. AD �294 local olive orchards were present andrelated to temperature increases with winter minima notbelow �13 1C and no prolonged frost period in thehighlands around 1400m a.s.l.. Upland basins such asBereket could have benefited from warmMediterranean airmasses which could have compensated for colder winters.

5.2.3. Pinus spp.—deciduous Quercus forest (cal. AD

450–650)

The end of the BO Phase in the Bereket area has beenestimated at cal. AD �400 (between 1710740 and1580740 14CBP). As indicated, a hiatus (maximum dura-tion 100 yr) occurs in Ber-2a/Ber-1d zone boundary so thatthe end of the cultivation phase at Bereket is not preciselyrecorded. This ending occurs earlier than in the other siteslocated at lower altitudes in southwest Turkey whereanthropogenic activities disappeared between cal. AD�600 at Beys-ehir (Van Zeist et al., 1975) and cal. AD�870 at Pınarbas-ı (Bottema and Woldring, 1984). The endof the BO Phase at Bereket seems to be linked to climaticchanges inferred from the coincidence of local marshecosystems and sedimentary deposits with independentclimatic data from the Eastern Mediterranean.From cal. AD 450 to 650 (1580740–1390760 14CBP),

the Bereket deposits show that, without anthropogenicdisturbances, the natural vegetation altitudinal belt wasable to regenerate in the direction of its pre-anthropogenicstate defined before cal. �5500 14CBP in numerous sites(Van Zeist et al., 1975; Bottema and Woldring, 1990;Eastwood et al., 1999a, Vermoere, 2004) with a hydro-logical gradient as major factor for species distribution.Similar trends towards potential natural vegetation alsohave been recorded during the abandonment phases (cal.�190–160 BC and cal. �70–40 BC) and probablycorrespond to a strong recolonization of the watershedby deciduous oaks and fen trees. These data suggest thatduring phases of deliberate human modification of thebasin, anthropogenic pressures (deforestation, fires) wereprobably concentrated on the alluvial and xeromesophyl-lous forests to transform the well-watered parts of thevalley bottom to cultivation land.The local presence of fen trees (Alnus spp., Populus spp.,

Ulmus spp.) after cal. AD 450 is strengthened by thediscovery of a piece of Populus wood in the sedimentarydeposits (length 5 cm, width 2 cm, depth: 202 cm) suggest-ing that this tree was situated nearby BKT1. The alluvialecosystems have regenerated with Pinus forest and a dense

undergrowth of deciduous Quercus (Q. cerris). Pinus spp. isa pioneer tree of fallow land, taking advantage of theprevious forest destruction (Quezel, 1999). At Bereket, theecological significance of Pinus (probably the commonP. nigra or P. brutia) is not clear since pine stronglyincreased during each fire episode or is palynologicallyoverrepresented in the open landscape (Fig. 6). The lack ofcontemporaneous increases of A. cilicica or C. libani oreven Betula spp. at cal. AD 450 (Fig. 4) suggests indeed nosignificant climatic changes towards colder phases. Follow-ing the BO Phase, a similar high representation of Pinus ispresent in all sequences from southwest Turkey (Van Zeistet al., 1975; Bottema and Woldring, 1990; Eastwood et al.,1998, 1999a; Vermoere et al., 2000, 2002, 2003), but micro-charcoal concentrations curves are lacking to evaluate thelocal or extra-local fire signal. This analogue but diachro-nic increase of Pinus over large areas suggests that this treehas been the first pioneer to recolonize the degradedlandscapes without direct links to eventual moisture oftemperature constraints. Pine forest preservation since theend of the BO Phase could be due to limited deforestationfor arable land or to sylvicultural practices.

The period between post-cal. AD 650 and 1950 is onlyrepresented by �0.5m of deposits. The main eventrecorded is an increase in pollen-types indicative ofmeadow steppe with increases of Plantago spp. andSanguisorba/Sarcopoterium suggesting an important ex-pansion of sheep and goat herding, at the expense of theformer BO agricultural economy. It has to be stressed thatduring this period, minor arboriculture and crop cultiva-tion activities occurred at Bereket.

After AD 1950, two palynological phases have beenrecorded. The first phase (LZ Ber-1b) corresponds with theartificial drainage of the major part of the marsh during thesixties. The final phase (LZ Ber-1a), still continuing, showsthe local development of arable fields and populiculture.

6. Conclusion

Chronological, palynological and sedimentological datafrom the upper 800 cm of the depocentre in the toe of analluvial fan of a 6.3 km2 basin at Bereket detail the LateHolocene evolution of the upland vegetation with humanimpact as a dominant trigger and allow the reconstructionof the corresponding geomorphic dynamics in a small basinwith different substrates. Anthropogenic activities havestrongly modulated the vegetation communities in andaround the basin since the Late Bronze Age by widespreadclearance, intensive grazing and severe fire episodes. Thegeomorphic responses to the vegetation changes betweencal. 360 BC and cal. AD 40 are complex with phases of soilstability corresponding with land abandonment and a drierbasin alternating with phases of deposition correspondingwith phases of agriculture and a humid basin. The humanimpacts in a changing environment have favoured theextension of drought-adapted evergreen species and theincrease of steppe-like vegetation in a degraded landscape.

Human-induced vegetation dynamics were particularlypronounced during Roman time when human activitiesstrongly altered the natural upland communities. Humanimpact is also reflected in the herbaceous vegetation withincreases of typical secondary anthropogenic indicatorsand meadow steppe communities.In this paper, we aim to stress that vegetation episodes

recorded in the Bereket basin are undoubtedly human-induced but we have intended to demonstrate the interac-tions between Late Holocene climate changes and anthro-pogenic activities. The major events detected in Bereketpollen sequence such as the delay in the cultivation phaseonset, the estimated beginning and end of the BO Phase,the record of O. europaea pollen-type at these highaltitudes, the dry episodes in the basin, are correlated withregional climate variations recorded in the western andeastern Mediterranean. Roberts et al. (1997) have showedin Golhisar Golu (930m a.s.l.) that a peak in agriculturalactivities occurred between cal. 200 BC and cal. AD 450.At Bereket this period nearly corresponds to the whole BOPhase, suggesting similar inputs in two sites about 100 kmapart and separated by high mountain ridges of theWestern Taurus. It is suggested that since the 3rd CenturyBC, climatic variations had a strong impact on cultivationactivities and hence settlement history in the uplands of theWestern Taurus. In Bereket area, vegetation dynamicsfollow the trends towards wetter or drier conditionspreviously defined for the eastern Mediterranean but withlocal particularities due to human pressures modulated bymountain constraints.

Acknowledgements

The research was supported by the Belgian Programmeon Interuniversity Poles of Attraction (IUAP V and VI)initiated by the Belgian State, Prime Minister’s Office,Science Policy Programming. The text also presents theresults of a Concerted Action of the Flemish Government(GOA02 and GOA07) and a project of the Fund forScientific Research-Flanders (Belgium) (FWO). We wish tothank the Editor, Prof. N. Roberts, and the twoanonymous reviewers for their critical remarks and usefulrecommendations.

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