© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology,...

© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update

C H A P T E RC H A P T E R 44

Individual VariationsIndividual Variations

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Learning Goals

1. Discuss the concept of intelligence, how it is measured, and some controversies about its use by educators.

2. Describe and evaluate learning and thinking styles.

3. Define personality, identify the “big five” factors in personality, and discuss person-situation interaction. Also, define temperament, identify three types of children’s temperament, and evaluate teaching strategies linked to children’s temperament.

4.3

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Individual Variations

Intelligence

Controversies and Issues in

Intelligence

Individual TestsVersus

Group Tests

Theories of Multiple

Intelligences

IndividualIntelligence Tests

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Intelligence

Intelligence: Problem-solving skills and the ability to adapt to and learn from life’s

everyday experiences

Buros

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Binet Intelligence Tests

Mental Age

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Normal Distribution

• An individual’s level of mental development relative to others

• A symmetrical distribution• Majority of the scores falling in

the middle • Few scores in the extremes

MentalAgeIQ = 100

Chronological Age

4.6

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The Normal Curve

4.7

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Bell Curve

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Theories and Tests of Intelligence

• The Stanford-Binet test– The Stanford-Binet test– The mean or average IQ score for all

age groups is designated as 100 ± 15.– Given individually– Ages 2 – 80s

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Individual Intelligence TestsThe Wechsler Scales

Age-related versions provide an overall IQ and also yield both verbal and performance IQs.

(WPPSI-III) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised. Ages 2.5 to 7.3

(WISC-IV) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised. Ages 6 to 16 years, 11 months

(WAIS-III) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised

Ages 16-89

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WPPSI

WPPSI-III

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4.14

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Wechsler Subscales

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4.16

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WISC-IV• Word Reasoning—measures reasoning with verbal material; child

identifies underlying concept given successive clues. • Matrix Reasoning—measures fluid reasoning a (highly reliable

subtest on WAIS® –III and WPPSI™–III); child is presented with a partially filled grid and asked to select the item that properly completes the matrix.

• Picture Concepts—measures fluid reasoning, perceptual organization, and categorization (requires categorical reasoning without a verbal response); from each of two or three rows of objects, child selects objects that go together based on an underlying concept.

• Letter-Number Sequencing—measures working memory (adapted from WAIS–III); child is presented a mixed series of numbers and letters and repeats them numbers first (in numerical order), then letters (in alphabetical order).

• Cancellation—measures processing speed using random and structured animal target forms (foils are common non-animal objects).

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Theories and Tests of Intelligence• Raven’s Progressive Matrices

– Psychologists created “culture-reduced” tests without language. It tests abstract reasoning ability (non-verbal intelligence or performance IQ).

Figure 9.2 Items similar to those in Raven’s Progressive Matrices test. The instructions are: “Each pattern has a piece missing. From the eight choices provided, select the one that completes the pattern, both going across and going down.”

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Group Intelligence Tests

Advantage– More convenient and economical

Disadvantages– Examiner cannot:

• establish rapport• determine student’s level of anxiety

– Student:• might not understand instructions• might be distracted by other students

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Early Theories of Multiple Intelligence

• Spearman (1927): People have both general intelligence (g) and specific types of intelligence (s).

• Thurston (1938): People have seven specific intellectual abilities (verbal comprehension, associative memory, word fluency, reasoning, number ability, spatial visualization, and perceptual speed).

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Figure 9.3 According to Spearman (1904), all intelligent abilities have an area of overlap, which he called (for “general”). Each ability also depends partly on an s (for “specific”) factor.

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Figure 9.4a Measurements of sprinting, high jumping, and long jumping correlate with one another because they all depend on the same leg muscles. Similarly, the g factor that emerges in IQ testing could reflect a single ability that all tests tap.

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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Analytical: analyze, judge, evaluate, compare/contrast

Creative: create, design, invent, originate, and imagine

Practical: use, apply, implement, put into practice

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Cindy always does very well on both standardized and classroom tests and gets good grades in school. However, she does not write original stories well, nor would anyone say that she has much common sense.

Sternberg’s Triarchic TheoryTheory into Practice

Q: In what form of intelligence is Cindy high? Explain.

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Trent does not do well on standardized tests. His grades are not very high. However, Trent is very imaginative and a wonderful story-teller. Trent’s classmates beg him to read his stories to the class. Trent hopes to be a novelist one day. However, he often turns in work that does not conform to teacher expectations or directions.

Sternberg’s Triarchic TheoryTheory into Practice

Q: In what form of intelligence is Trent high? Explain.

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Ken doesn’t do very well in school. However, he is very popular with his peers and has excellent leadership skills.

Sternberg’s Triarchic TheoryTheory into Practice

Q: In what form of intelligence is Ken high? Explain.

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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

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Carrie loves to read and to write stories.

Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindTheory into Practice

Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is she displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

4.30

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Jane is an excellent athlete, excelling at soccer, basketball, and baseball.

Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindTheory into Practice

Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Jane displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

4.31

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Steve loves to play the piano, trumpet, and drums and is quite good at all of them.

Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindTheory into Practice

Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Steve displaying when he engages in these activities? Explain.

4.32

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Tanesha is a good friend. People often open up to her and tell her things they would not share with other people. She never betrays a trust.

Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindTheory into Practice

Q: Which of Gardner's’ 8 Frames of Mind is Tanesha displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

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Emotional IntelligenceAccording to Salovey and Mayer (1990)

emotional intelligence is the ability to:

• monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,

• to discriminate among them, and

• to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.

Salovey

Mayer

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Emotional Skills

• Developing emotional awareness

• Managing emotions

• Reading emotions

• Handling relationships

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Reflection & Observation

Reflection:• How are you intelligent?• How did teachers accommodate

instruction to address your intellectual abilities?

Observation:• What were the children in these

classrooms learning? Why is it important for children to develop these abilities?

• What new teaching ideas did you glean from this video?

4.36

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Enter the DebateShould schools use intelligence tests for

placement purposes?

YES NO

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The various theories have stimulated us to think more broadly about what makes up people’s intelligence and competence.

Contribution of Multiple Intelligence Approaches

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Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence

Genetic components provide a propensity for a particular developmental trajectory.

Enriching environments can improve school achievement and the acquisition of skills.

4.39

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Ethnicity and IQ Testing

The consensus is that due to environmental factors, on average in the U.S., children from African American and Latino families score lower than white children on IQ tests.

4.40

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Culture and IQ Tests

Culturally biased tests favor:– Urban over rural children– Middle-income over low-income children– White children over minority children

Culture-fair tests, free of cultural bias: Type 1: Include items familiar to all

socioeconomic (SES) and ethnic backgrounds Type 2: Remove verbal items from tests

4.41

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Between-Class Ability Grouping and Tracking

Advantages• Narrows class skill

range• Prevents “less able”

students from holding back more talented students

Disadvantages• Stigmatizes students

in lower track• Segregates students

by SES and ethnicity

…groups students based on their ability or achievement.

4.42

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Within-Class Ability Grouping

Within-class ability grouping involves placing students in two or three groups within a class according to their ability or achievement.

4.43

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Learning and Thinking Styles

Learning andThinking Styles

Dichotomies ofLearning and

Thinking Styles

Evaluating Learning and

Thinking Styles

4.44

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Reflective vs. Impulsive Thinking Styles

Reflective students surpass impulsive

students at– Reading comprehension – Remembering structured information– Problem solving and decision making– Goal setting– Setting high standards for performance

4.45

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Deep vs. Surface Learning Styles

• Actively construct knowledge

• Give meaning to material

• Focus on internal rewards

• Are self-motivated

• Are passive learners

• Fail to tie information to a larger framework

• Focus on external rewards

Deep Learners Surface Learners

4.46

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Personality and Temperament

Personality and Temperament

Personality Temperament

4.47

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Personality: The distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

Personality vs. Temperament

Temperament: A person’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding

4.48

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The “Big Five” Personality Factors

4.49

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Person-Situation Interaction Theory

The best way to characterize an individual’s personality is not only in terms of personal traits or characteristics, but also in terms of the situation involved.

4.50

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Children’s Temperament

Easy

• Positive mood

• Establishes regular routines

• Adapts to new experiences

Difficult

• Reacts negatively

• Aggressive tendencies

• Lacks self-control

Slow-to-Warm-Up

• Low activity level

• Negative

• Slow adaptability

• Low intensity of mood

4.51

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Crack the CaseThe Workshops

1. What are the issues in this case?

2. To what extent should teachers adapt their instruction to the strengths, learning styles, and personalities of their students? Why?

3. What will you do in your classroom to accommodate individual differences such as students’ intellectual strengths, learning styles, and personalities?

4. What other individual differences do you think you might have to accommodate? How will you do this?