View
0
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
i
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON
LANGUAGE AND POWER IN ELT CLASSROOM
(An Ethnography Study at STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura)
A THESIS
By
ANDRI DONAL
(S891302001)
Submitted to the Graduate School Sebelas Maret University as a Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for Master of English Education
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE PROGRAM
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2014
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
ii
LEGITIMATION OF THE EXAMINERS
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON
LANGUAGE AND POWER IN ELT CLASSROOM
(An Ethnography Study at STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura)
by:
Andri Donal
S891302001
This thesis has been examined by the Board of Thesis Examiners of English Education Department of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University
On August, 2014
Board of ExaminersSignatures
Chairman Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd(........................................)19520307 198903 1005
Secretary Dra. Dewi Rochsantiningsih, M.Ed, Ph.D(........................................)19600918 198702 2001
Examiners 1. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd(........................................)19610124 198702 1001
2. Dr. Sumardi, M.Hum(........................................)19740608 199903 1002
Legalized by
The Dean of Teachers Training and Education Faculty
Prof. Dr. M. Furqon Hidayatullah, M.Pd.NIP. 196007271987021001
The Head of English Department of Graduate Program
Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd.NIP. 195203071980031005
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
iii
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
iv
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
v
ABSTRACT
Andri Donal. S891302001. 2014. Critical Discourse Analysis on Language and Power in ELT Classroom (An Ethnograpy Study at STKIP Bangkalan, Madura). First Consultant: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd. Second Consultant: Dr. Sumardi, M.Hum. A thesis. Surakarta: English Education Department. Graduate Program of Teacher training and education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta.
The objectives of the research are: (1) To describe the power in language represented in the speech acts, (2) To explore the effects of power in language done by teachers toward students’ learning attitude. The research was carried out at STKIP Bangkalan Madura. It was conducted from January to August 2014. The subject of the research is the English teachers’ of STKIP Bangkalan, Madura. It is an ethnograpy study research. The ethnography study data are collected through document analysis, observation, interview, and questionnaire. The data are analyzed using qualitative data analysis technique proposed by James Spradley which covers domain analysis, taxonomy analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis and this data also analyzed by using critical discourse analysis approach proposed byNorman Fairclough which covers description, interpretation and explanation.
The research findings show that; (1) In the classroom, a teacher representspower in language into some speech acts forms, including: directive, assertive and expressive speech acts forms. The directive speech acts have students do something;the assertive speech act are the teacher’s argument to make students agree or believe with teacher’s idea. The last is the expressive speech acts, they are the teacher’s psychological states about the students such as pleasure and displeasure expressions, (2) The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence students’ learning attitude, as follows: a). The teacher’s status influences the students’ perspective in responding teacher’s command; b). Students are enjoyful in doing teacher’s request; c). Teacher assumed that teacher’s prohibition acts are the forms of training for students to be more discipline; d). Students consider that the teacher’s permission acts have less negative effect to them; e). The teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards positive side because it can increase their motivation and add their knowledge, information and experience; f). Students tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions; g). The teacher’s intervention is a must when there are different arguments among students; h). The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments; i). The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in the classroom. It also can increase students’ motivation because the students assume it is as the form of teacher’s appreciation to them; j). The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary power because it can decrease students’ learning motivation.
Therefore, in teaching learning process, a teacher should create the humanistic teaching where a teacher should consider the negative effects from implementing the powers in language in ELT classroom.
Keywords: power and language, speech acts, critical discourse analysis, learning attitude, ethnography study
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
vi
MOTTO
“And if you should count the favors of Allah , you could not enumerate them.
Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.”
(An Nahl: 18)
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
vii
DEDICATION
With deep profound love, this research is devoted to:
My beloved parents; BapakYuskar and Mama Andriani,
Without your love, prayers, and support I would not be the person I am today.
My beloved wife Andriana, SST and My beloved son Alkhalifi Andriando,
Thanks for your prayers, support, patient and sacrifice and being great motivators
and inspirators in accomplishing this thesis.
My beloved big family: My sister Afrida Santi and her husband, my brothers:
Doni Asmon, Ade Romi Irawan and Anton Hilman and their wife, and my
nephew and niece.
Thanks for your prayers and supports.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. Praise to ALLAH SWT who has given His
blessing to the writer so that he can accomplish this thesis. In addition, his thesis can
never be accomplished without the help of others during the process of writing.
Therefore, he would like to express his deepest gratitude and appreciation to:
1. The Dean of Teachers Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret
University.
2. The Head of the English Education Department of Graduate Program.
3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd., the first consultant, for all his guidance, advice,
and encouragement during completion of this thesis.
4. Dr. Sumardi, M. Hum., the second consultant, for his guidance, advice, and
encouragement during the writing process of this thesis.
5. The Head of English Department of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura who has
allowed him to carry out the research in his institution.
6. All English teachers of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan Madura, especially who have
become informants of this thesis.
7. Students of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura.
8. All friends, especially Doni Alfaruqy, Chairuddin, Arif Choirul Bashir, Farouk
Sumarli and everyone who helped the writer in accomplishing the thesis.
The writer hopes and accepts gratefully every comment and suggestion.
Hopefully, this thesis will be useful for the readers.
Surakarta, August 2014
Andri Donal
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE..............................................................................................APPROVAL PAGE……………………………………………………....
iii
LEGITIMATION.......................................................................................PRONOUNCEMENT................................................................................ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………........
iiiivv
MOTTO.......................................................................................................DEDICATION............................................................................................ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………...……..
viviiviiiix
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………… xiLIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………... xiiLIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………….………. xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………………………………………A. Background of the Study………………...……............…….B. Problem Statements…………………....................................C. Objectives of the Study …………………........………….…D. Significance of the Study…………………..............…………...
11777
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW………………………….…A. Theoretical Review...............................................................
1. Critical Discourse Analysis..............................................a. The Nature of Critical Discourse Analysis…….......…b. The Approaches of Critical Discourse Analysis...…...
2. The Nature of Language ………….....…..……….....a. Definition of Language...............................................b. The Functions of Language...............…….......………
3. The Nature of Power.......................................................... a. Definition of Power………………………......……….b. Analyzing of Power through CDA...............................
4. The Nature of Speech Acts................................................a. Definition of Speech Acts………………......……….b. The Classifications of Speech Acts...............................
5. The Nature of English Language Teaching.............................a. Theories of English Language Teaching……......……….b. The Power manifestation in ELT Classroom...................
6. The Nature of Attitude............................................................a. Definitions of Attitude........................ ……......……….b. Students’ Attitude.......................................................
B. Review of Related Research..………………….........………..
999911141415181819232324282832404041
43
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
x
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD.................…………………A. Research setting .........…….................…………………….
1. Time......................... ………………….…..............…..2. Place............................ …………………...........……...
B. Research Method…………………………..........………...C. Source of the Data........................ ………............………..D. Techniques of Collecting Data………….……..........……..E. Trustworthiness...................................................................F. Techniques of Analysing Data…………….........…………
525252525354555659
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………A. Research Findings........................ ……………................…..
1. Power Forms in Language Represented in The Speech Acts in STKIP Bangkalan Madura.....................................
2. The Implication of Power in Language Manifestation by Teachers Toward Students’ Learning Attitude………….
B. Discussion........……………………...............……………….
6565
67
94117
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION.A. Conclusion…………………………………............................B. Implication ................................................................................C. Suggestion…………...………….......................................……
129129132132
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………... 134APPENDICES……………………………………………………………. 139
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Time Setting of the study................…………………………………….
Research Findings....................................................................................
52
65
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Technique of analyzing the data adapted from Bradley …………………… 61
Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………………..................................…………………………………… 62
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Transcript of interview with teacher................................ 140
Transcript of interview with student............................... 146
Field Note....................................................................... 149
Kontrak Perkuliahan....................................................... 156
Silabus Mata Kuliah...................................................... 158
Surat Keterangan Penelitian.......................................... 160
Photograph Documentation........................................... 161
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Humans use language to communicate with others. Generally, the use of
spoken language in communication is more often performed than written
language. It is similar to what happenes in the classroom when interactions
between teachers and students occur. This type of learning activity in the
classroom that involves the interaction of teachers and students is one form of
language uses for social roles. In the context of classroom learning, language has
role as interactional function. Brown and Yule (1996: 14) describe the function of
language becomes transactional function and interactional functions.
Transactional function is a function to reveal the contents, while the interactional
function is a function of language in social relations and personal attitudes.
Related to the use of language in certain professions and institutions,
Maher and Rokos (in Santoso, 2002: 4) presents three main characteristics of the
use of language. First, there is an imbalance in power relations or mutual power
between the participants involved, ie between speaker and listener. The imbalance
allows participants utilizing language that has the power to dominate the speaking.
Second, there is a fixed set of language patterns. Third, there is the exchange of
conversations that tend to reinforce a professional identity that is determined by
the context.
1
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
2
Learning interaction is one form of oral discourse interactional function.
Learning discourse is characterized by its existing mutual interaction between
teachers and students. Interactional discourse is characterized by a reciprocal
response from the speaker and listener (Yowono, 2005: 94). This opinion is in line
with Hawthorn (in Mills, 1997: 5) who states that discourse is a linguistic
communication between the transaction of speakers and addressees, an
interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its social purpose.
In the context of classroom activities, the relationship of teachers and
students affects the learning effectiveness. Teacher-student relationship is
reflected in the use of language in the learning interaction. Essentially, the way of
teachers’ interaction to students reflects the teacher’s view to their students’
position. Teachers can look at the student based on the concept of a superior-
subordinate relation, the concept as a students’ motivator and facilitator or the
concept of as a students’ partner. It is the realization of a system of thought and
belief of a teacher. In other words, the use of language by teacher can influence
the students’ view both to teacher and to the subject.
In the classroom, a teacher has role not only as the knowledge source, but
also as the controller of teaching learning process. Teacher controls all the
activities in the classroom in order to reach the goal of learning. Teacher also
evaluates the teaching learning process to know how far students’ understanding
to the lesson. Teacher can be as an assesor to state right or not the students’
arguments. In other words, teacher can influence and control the students’ action
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
3
in the classroom. From the explanation above, it can be inferred that teacher has
more power and authority than that of students in the classroom.
Right now, most schools in Indonesia apply the communicative approach
in teaching English. Students are expected have the ablility to develop their
communicative competence in real situation. According to Shastri (2010: 4)
communicative competence refers to the knowledge of how to use the language
and the capacity to produce infinite number of sentences. In addition,
communicative competence also refers to the capacity of using language
according to the purpose. The purpose can be in the forms of making request,
complaint, order, apology etc. This leads to the knowledge of the functions of the
language. It means that students are expected not only master the English
grammar, but also communicate by using English correctly in a particular context.
Because of that, the students should be given more time to be active in the
classroom than that of teacher. The teacher should be able as a facilitator and
motivator for students. However, in application, most of the classrooms in
Indonesia are still teacher-centered orientation. Teacher still dominates the
teaching learning process. It means that the application of communicative
approach in Indonesia still does not run well.
This is the example of the application of power in language by a teacher in
the classroom.
(Utterance context in the class when a teacher gives chance to the students
to answer the question)
(1) Teacher : Sandi, try to answer the question no. 9!
(2) Sandi : {Students look afraid} (context)
(3) Teacher : Don’t be afraid to make mistakes.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
4
(4) Teacher : That’s ok if you make mistake.
(5) Sandi : gerund is ....verb sir. (the voice becomes slow and weak)
(6) Other students laugh hearing the student’s answer, because the answer
is wrong and the voice becomes slow and weak (context).
(7) Teacher : Ok, no problem with your answer. The most important
thing is that you can answer.
(8) Teacher : Now, the man who laughs loudly. Answer the next
question.
From the conversation above, it can be seen that teacher dominates the class and
the teacher shows his power by using the imperative sentence.
The concept of power according to Fairclough (1995: 1) is conceptualized
both in terms of asymmetries between participants in discourse events, and in
terms of unequal capacity to control how texts are produced, distributed, and
consumed (and hence the shapes of texts) in particular sociocultural contexts. A
range of properties of texts is regarded as potentially ideological, including
features of vocabulary and metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures,
politeness conventions, speech-exchange (turn-taking) systems, generic structure,
and style. Van Dijk (2001: 300) says that power involves control from member of
a people group to others in form of action, so the power group can limit the
freedom of other group that will influence their mind. It implies that the people
who have power can control the behaviour of people who under control.
Moreover, Brown and Gilman (1960: 255) say that the power can be in the
forms of physics, prosperity, age, sex, or institutional role. Similarly, according to
Thomas (1995: 127), there are three kinds of power; legitimate power (the power
which comes from role, age, or status), referent power (the power which is gained
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
5
by someone because he or she is admired and many people wants to be like him or
her), and the expert power (the power which is gotten by someone because of his
or her knowledge or skills). In the context of teacher in the classroom, a teacher
has legitimate power and expert power because the teacher has the higher social
status than that of students and the teacher is assumed as the source of knowledge.
If the teacher is admired by students, it means that a teacher also has referent
power.
The form of teacher’s power in the classroom can be seen from the
teacher’s expression both explicitely and implicitely. It can be in the forms of
warning, instruction, question, argumentation and etc. In other words, some of
teachers’ expressions are known containing the power manifestation after
analyzed deeply, for example when a teacher says “listen to me”. This sentence is
not only a common argument from a teacher that students must give attention to
teacher. However, according to Fairclough (1989: 125) if the sentence above is
analyzed based on the context and linguistics elements such as the relationship
between speaker and listener, transivity, modus, modality and active-passive, that
sentence is probably the form of power owned by teacher to students.
Linguistic elements can be used to know how a sentence has power
manifestation the speaker’s speech acts. One of approaches which uses linguistic
elements to know the power manifestation is critical discourse analysis (CDA).
Critical discourse analysis approach is not only to describe the use of language in
a discourse, but also to correlate between the use of language and the power
applied by a group of people who has its power. In critical discourse analysis,
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
6
language is an important factor to see the power imbalance in a society.
According to Fairclough (1989: 109-111) critical discourse analysis has three
dimensions that have to be analized. They are text, discourse practice and
sociocultural practice. Analysis in text dimension is a descriptive analysis to know
how power is manifested in text through vocabulary, grammar, and textual-
structure. The result of analysis in this dimension will be interpreted in the
discourse practice dimension. Then, the analysis is continued by finding the
explanation in the sociocultural practice dimension.
Suharyo and Irianto (2009: 26) in their research argue that the
manifestation of power in classroom has some functions: (1). Teacher can manage
or control the classroom. (2). It will force students to pay attention, trust, and obey
toward the teacher’s instruction. (3). In order to make students believe with
teacher’s talk. (4). Students respects to teacher. and (5). It is to differentiate
between the teacher’s and students’ status.
Right now, the research about the use of power in language in the English
teaching classroom especially in Indonesia is still rare. While according to
Fairclough, the expert of critical discourse analysis, that in classroom, there is a
form of power that can be revealed by using critical discourse analysis. Because
of that, the researcher is interested in conducting a reseach about the use of power
and langauge in the English language Teaching (ELT) classroom and knowing
which kind of language of power mostly used during ELT classroom.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
7
B. Problem Statements
This study seeks to explore two main issues:
1. How is power in language represented in the speech acts forms?
2. To what extents are the effects of power in language on students’ learning
attitude?
C. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
1. To describe the power in language represented in the speech acts.
2. To explore the effects of power in language done by teachers on students’
learning attitude.
D. The Significance of the Study
Right now, the study or research about the language and power in
organization, social and politic aspect has been popular. However, the study about
the relationship between language and power in education view is rare especially
in English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom. In fact, the phenomena of using
power in classroom cannot be avoided as long as there are interactions between
teacher and students. The perception of power in classroom perspective is how
the influence of teacher’s acts or expressions toward the students’ learning
attitude. The researcher expects by conducting this research, it can give
contribution:
1. To Teacher
The result of this research is expected to give input to teachers on how to
design the humanistic teaching learning activities. In this context, teachers can
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
8
use power to develop students’ potential maximally. Teachers can involve
students actively in deciding teaching material and learning model. In the
learning process, teachers must be able to create enjoyable learning
atmosphere by increasing the quality of communication between teachers and
students in the classroom. The good communication between teachers and
students can create the good atmosphere for students in learning English. So, it
is expected that the objective of language learning can be achieved. About
how deep teachers’ acts to their students, so it will make them become aware
on their students.
2. To Students
This research is expected to give information to students about the positive
effects of power manifestation by teachers in the classroom. In addition, it is
expected students’ consciousness about the application of students center
learning will be emerged. Students must actively involve in teaching learning
process.
3. To Other Researchers
The research about the manifestation of power in language in ELT classroom
is still rare, so the researcher expects the result of this research will be the
underpinning of the research in this field.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
9
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Concept of Research
The concept of this research is to analyze the implementation of power in
using language by a teacher in the classroom. It is to show that the perspective of
language is not only in the form of language, but also it can be seen from the
fuction of language. In this context, the language is as the form of power
manifestation. The form of power can be known from the teacher’s utterances in
the classroom. The utterances are the form of speaker’s speech acts. To identify
the power manisfestation from the teacher’s speech acts, it needs to be analyzed.
To analyze it, reseracher uses the critical discourse analysis. The researcher uses
the teory of critical discourse analysis from Norman fairclough.
1. Critical Discourse Analysis
a. The Nature of Critical Discourse Analysis
In daily activities, humans cannot be separated from language because
language is used as a tool of communication. In a communication, there is an
interaction between speakers and hearers. In this interaction, there is a tendency of
unequal power relationship between speakers and hearers. It can be seen from
how someone dominates in a conversation or someone can controll the other’s
talk. One way to study this uneqality in language use is critical discourse analysis.
According to Van Dijk (2001: 352) critical discourse analysis is a type of
discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse,
9
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
10
dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in
the social and political context. Bukhari and Xiaoyang (2013: 9) define Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a field that is used to analyze the written and spoken
texts to explore the discursive sources of power, dominance inequality and bias.
With such dissident research, critical discourse analysts take explicit position, and
thus want to understand, expose, and ultimately resist social inequality.
Kristina (2013: 24) mentions the term critical refers to an attempt to
reveal, identify and explain implicit and explicit relation and association between
language, power and ideology. According to Van Dijk (1998a) Critical Discourse
Analysis is a field that is concerned with studying and analyzing written and
spoken texts to reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and
bias. It examines how these discursive sources are maintained and reproduced
within specific social, political and historical contexts. In a similar vein,
Fairclough (1993: 135) defines Critical Discourse Analysis as discourse analysis
which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and
determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider
social and cultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such
practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of
power and struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of these
relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and
hegemony.
Critical Discourse Analysis can effectively be applied for exploring the
educational issues in the contexts of conflict between power and social realities. It
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
11
is supported by Huckin et al., (2012) who say that Critical Discourse Analysis is
useful to investigate the relationships between the teaching, learning and
curriculum, and school and community role as well as ideologies and power (basic
factor for educational policies) and their impacts on the classroom process and
teaching – learning activity. Kristina (2013: 23) says Critical Discourse Analysis
explores the unequal or hierarchical power among participants in a spoken and
written interaction. Likewise, Critical Discourse Analysis focuses on revealing
explicit and implicit socio-political domination, which includes social change,
power abuse, ideological imposition, and social injustice by critically analyzing
language as social action. From the definitions above, it can be concluded that
critical discourse analysis is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily
studies about the the way of social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are
enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the educational, social and
political context.
b. The Approaches of Critical Discourse Analysis
There are several approaches to critical discourse analysis with different
components and framework. Van Dijk (1998) puts a stronger emphasis on the
study of relationship between discourse, power, dominance and social inequality.
The second approcah is deliverd by Ruth Wodak. Wodak (1996) focuses her study
on the issues of racism, sexims, and anti-semitism by explicating critically at the
historical dimension of discourse. Wodak and Meyer (2001) cover three steps in
critical discourse analysis, namely:
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
12
1. Describing the content or specific topic of a discourse.
2. Investigating discursive and argumentative strategies used.
3. Analyzing the realizations of particular written linguistics meanings in a
specific context.
Next approach is explained by Norman Fairclough. Fairclough (1989: 20)
views language as a form of social practice and proposes a multi-dimensional
framework for exploring discourse by employing three separates form of analysis,
namely analysis of discourse (description phase), analysis of discourse practice
(process of text production, distribution and consumption) which is commonly
referred to as interpretation phase and analysis of discursive events as instance of
socio-cultural practice (explanation phase). Fairclough (1995: 11) adds that
analysis of discourse practice includes analysis of social structure will of course
do badly on Schegloffs criteria for analytical relevance, including social class,
power (in a social structural rather than a situational sense) and ideology.
In this research, the researcher will focus on the critical discourse analysis
from the Norman fairclough. Fairclough (1998) argues that Critical Discourse
Analysis has offered educational researchers ways of investigating language use
within social contexts. By questioning the taken-for-grantedness of language and
enabling explorations of how texts represent the world in particular ways
according to particular interests, Critical Discourse Analysis provides
opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and society, between
text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough, 2001).
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
13
As mentioned above, Fairclough developed the approach of critical
discourse analysis as the the development of critical language study in Langauge
and Power in 1989. Fairclough says that as the goal of critical analysis, discourse
can be seen from three dimensions of discourse. They are: (1) Text in the form of
oral and written. (2) discourse practice; the process of producing and interpreting
the text. (3) Sociocultural practice; the context of society, institution and culture
that determine the meaning and form of a discourse. Briefly, those three
dimensions can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 1. The Picture of CDA Dimension (page 98)
From the figure above it can be seen that the first dimension is the description
analysis step to identify how power is manifested in text. The second dimension is
the link to correlate the text and sociocultural practice. Interpretation is done to
the text in discourse practice. Next, the explanation about the reason how power is
implemented by linking the analysis with sociocultural practice. Sociocultural
practice can be seen from environtment, institution, and society.
TextDiscourse Practice
Sociocultural Practice
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
14
2. The Nature of Langauge
a. Definition of Language
Humans need language to utter their expressions, needs, desires, and etc.
Language is very important for human being to communicate with others.
Definition of language is very various. Brown (2000: 5) defines language as a
system of arbitrary conventionalized vocal, written, gesture symbols that enables
members of a given community to communicate intelligibly with one another.
According to Thomas and Wareing (2005: 5) language is as a systematic way of
combining smaller units into larger units for the purpose of communication. For
example, when a speaker combines the sounds of language (phonemes) to form
words (lexical items) according to the ‘rules’ of the speaker’s language. Those
lexical items can be combined to make grammatical structures, again according to
the syntactic ‘rules’ of speaker’s language. Todd (1995: 6) defines language as a
set of signals by which human beings communicate. Moreover, Schiffrin (2005:
2) defines language as the ‘verbalization of thought’ and is neither straight
forward to process nor to break down into manageable pieces. It means that
language is an integral part of cognitive development in form of verbalisation of
thought or a finite set of elements. Language is one of the greatest graces owned
by humans that acquired since childhood. Besides acquiring language, humans
can also produce and develop their language. By having language, humans can
interact with other.
Todd (1995: 6) points out about language. First, human language is not
only a vocal system of communication. It can be expressed in writing, with the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
15
result that it is not limited in time and space. Secondly, each language is both
arbitrary and systematic. It means that none of languages behave in exactly the
same way yet each language has its own set of rules. The last is that there are no
primitive or inferior languages. It means that, although people live in the most
primitive conditions but all languages appear to be equally complex and all are
absolutely adequate to the needs of their users.
In addition Fairclough (1989: 22) says that language as a form of social
practice. There are three implication from this definition. First, It can be implied
that language is a part of society. Second, language is a social process. The last is
that language is a socially conditioned process. It is different with Coultas (2003:
5) who says that language can reflects the speaker’s personality, beliefs, attitudes
and values. According to Harmer (1991: 4) language is an intesely political issues
since it is bound up with identity and power. It can be concluded that language has
relationship with society and it can be used as the reflection of speaker’s
personality, beliefs, attitudes, identity and power.
b. Functions of Langauge
Language is an integral part of human’s existence. Human needs language
for a variety of purposes of administration, commerce, education and
communication. It is natural and beneficial to use mother language for the
purposes of education and communication. Many experts have diffrent
argumentation about the function of language. Brown and Yule (1996: 14)
propose the function of language becomes transactional function and interactional
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
16
functions. Transactional function is a function to reveal the contents, while the
interactional function is a function of language in social relations and personal
attitudes. Besides as a communication tool, language is also used as power tool.
Moreover Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) assume that individuals and groups
use language to achieve a variety of social purposes and considers the relationship
between everyday social practices (social events) and society (social structures).
Thomas and Wareing (2005: 8) describe the functions of language into
two; referential function and affective impact. These two functions are the ones
most clearly associated with power. The referential function is the one associated
with what objects and ideas are called and how events are described (i.e. how we
represent the world around us and the effects of those representations on the way
we think. The affective function of language is concerned with who is ‘allowed’
to say what to whom, which is deeply tied up with power and social status. By
selecting one as appropriate and not another, someone will exploite the affective
aspect of language and show the sensitiveness to the power or social relationship
between speaker and the person who is addressed. For example, saying ‘I think
it’s time you wash your hair’ will be an acceptable comment from a parent to a
young child, but it will not usually be acceptable from employees to their boss.
Here are more examples:
(a) Put that bunch of flowers on the table.
(b) Please put that bunch of flowers on the table.
(c) I wonder if you’d mind putting that bunch of flowers on the table.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
17
(d) If you wouldn’t mind awfully, do you think you might put that bunch
flowers on the table.
Halliday in Brown and Yule (1996: 251) outlines seven functions of
language. They are:
a. The instrumental function. Language is to manipulate the environtment, to
cause certain events to happen. For examples: “This court finds you
guilty” and “Don’t touch the stove”. Those sentences are communicative
acts that have a specific perlocutionary force; they bring about a particular
condition.
b. The regulatory function. Language is as the control of events. For
example: “Upon good behaviour, you will be eligible for parole in ten
months”. The regulations of encounters among people- appropval,
disapproval, behaviour control, setting laws and rules- are all regulatory
features of language.
c. The representational function. Language is to make statements, convey
facts and knowledge, explain, or report that is to represent reality as one
sees it. For example: “The sun is hot” and “ the president gave a speech
last night”.
d. The interactional function. Language is to ensure social maintenance.
e. The personal function. The language is to express feelings, emotions, and
personality.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
18
f. The heuristics function. Language is to acquire knowledge, to learn about
the environtment. Heuristics functions are coveyed in the form of
questions that will lead to answer.
g. The imaginative function. Language is to create imaginary systemsor
ideas. Through the imaginative dimensions of language, someone is free to
go beyond the real world to soar the heights of the beauty of language
itself.
3. The Nature of Power
a. The Definition of Power
The main topic of critical discourse analysis is about the power
manifestation by someone or institution to another one. Talking about power, it
cannot be separated from the way of someone to dominate or to controll the
others, and the other ones struggle to maintain their position. The practice of
power manifestation can be seen in the dialogue between a doctor and patient,
teacher and students, boss and workers, government and citizens, the mass media
and audiences, and so forth.
According to Fairclough (1995: 1), power is conceptualized both in terms
of asymmetries between participants in discourse events, and in terms of unequal
capacity to control how texts are produced, distributed and consumed (and hence
the shapes of texts) in particular sociocultural contexts. A range of properties of
texts is regarded as potentially ideological, including features of vocabulary and
metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures, politeness conventions,
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
19
speech-exchange (tum-taking) systems, generic structure, and style. Van Dijk
(2001: 300) says that power involves control from member of a people group to
others in form of action, so the power group can limit the freedom of other group
that will influence their mind. It means that the people who have power can
control the behaviour of people who under control.
Moreover, Brown and Gilman (1960) say that the power can be in form of
physics, prosperity, age, sex, or institutional role. According to Thomas (1995:
127), there are three kinds of power; legitimate power (the power which comes
from role, age, or status), referent power (the power which is gained by someone
because he or she is admired and many people wants to be like him or her), and
the expert power (the power which is got by someone because of his or her
knowledge or skills). In the context of teacher in the classroom, a teacher has
legitimate power and expert power because he or she has social status higher than
students and he or she is as the source of knowledge. If he or she is admired by his
or her students, it can be said that a teacher also has referent power.
b. Analyzing of Power Through Critical Discourse Analysis
The understanding of language necessarily entails some understanding not
only of the world, but also of the conversational ‘context’ of an utterance.
Fairclough (1989) says that the power and ideology can be revealed from the
language used. Theory and practice used to see the relationship between language
and society is started from description analysis and continued to interpretation
analysis and the last is the explanation.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
20
1). Description
In the stage of description, all data in the form of utterance is analyzed
based on vocabulary, grammar, and textual structure. In addition Fairclough
(1989) describes the vocabulary analysis involves experimential value, relational
values, and expressive values. Experimential value is related to classification
schemes, idealogical words, rewording and overwording, meaning relations
(synonymy, hyponymy, and antonymy), and metaphors. Relational values is
related to euphemistics expression and formal and informal words. The last is
expressive values which is related to positive and negative evaluation.
In grammatical analysis, the concept involves three aspects; experimential
value, relational values, and expressive value. First, the experimential value is
related to the type of process and participant predominate, normalizations, active
or passive sentences, and positive or negative sentences. Fairclough (1989) argues
that this concept is used to express the form of power. While the form of active
and passive sentences is related to the stress of voice in expressing. The passive
sentence is used because the speaker does not know the subject or does not want
to describe the subject. Someone who has power tends to use active sentence by
placing him or her as the subject, for example by saying “I want you to work in
pairs”. To guise the power expression, someone can use passive sentence, for
example by saying “Working in pairs is a must”.
The second value of grammar is relational values. This value is related to
how grammar codes the both sides relation between social relationship. The
aspects of relationals values includes modes sentences (declarative, grammatical
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
21
question, and imperative). This values are used to identify the relationship
between members, for example where someone who has power can freely use
imperative modes. In the context of in the classroom a teacher can say “Do the
exercise!” to the students. Another example is the using of declarative modes in
modality relational value by a teacher to students in the classroom by saying “You
have to do the exercise”. The last is expressive value. It can be seen from the use
of expressive modality. For example is if a teacher as a source of knowledge can
say “I don’t think cheating is good”. Students may assumes that it is a kind of
teacher’s ideology about the prohibitation of cheating.
The last step of description stage is textual structure analysis which
involves interactional conventions and larger-scale structure. Interactional
conventions involve the way of participants controls the turns of others. There are
four devices used for this; interruption, enforcing explicitness, controlling topic,
and formulation.
2). Interpretation
The next stage used in finding the relationship between language and
society is the interpretation stage. It is related to how text is linked by the
discourse process (discourse practice dimension). Fairclough (1989: 141) says that
interpretation are generated through a combination of what is in the text and what
is ‘in’ the interpreter. The focus of context interpretation is the relationship
between situational context and discourse type. Text interpretaion will be
analyzed based on four levels of interpretation domains. They are surface of
utterance, meaning of utterance, local coherence, and text structure and point.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
22
Surface of utterance is related to the process by which interpreters convert strings
of sounds or marks on paper into recognizable words, phrases, and sentences.
Meaning of utterance is related to how utterance represents the semantics and
pragmatics aspects. Local coherence is used to see the coherence relation which
tie together the parts of a whole text. The text structure and point is to see the
structure and point of a text.
3). Explanation
The last stage is the explanation of the relationship between interaction
and social context. The objective of the stage of explanation is to portray a
discourse as part of a social process, as a social practice, showing how it is
determined by social structure, and what reproductive effects discourses can
cumulatively have on those structures, sustaining them or changing them. It
means that explanation is a matter of seeing a discourse as a part of process of
social struggle, within a matrix of relation of power. In this stage, the result of
interpratation will be matched with the result of respondents’ interview about
teacher profile to know their ideology.
4. The Nature of Speech Act
a. Definition of Speech Acts
According to Searle, to understand language one must understand the
speaker’s intention. Since language is intentional behavior, it should be treated
like a form of action. Thus, Searle refers to statements as speech acts. The speech
act is based unit of language used to express meaning, an utterance that expresses
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
23
an intention (Searle 1969). Speech acts are the underlying actions performed when
someone speaks. Some examples are: inform command, promise, refuse, etc.
Recognizing the speech act that is being performed in the production of an
utterance is important because it is the speech act that to some extent tells what
the speaker intends someone to do with the propositional content of what he says.
It is suitable with the definition of speech acts given by Yule (2006: 118) who
defines speech acts as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance.
Normally when a speaker produces an utterance, he expects that his
communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. For example in the
situation of a work where a boss has a great deal of power, says “you’re fired” to
his employee. The boss’s utterance of the expression is more than just a statement.
The utterance can be used to perform the act of ending the employment.
Yule (1996: 48) says that the action performed by producing an utterance
will consist of three related acts. They are a locutionary act, illocutionary act, and
perlucotionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a
meaningful linguistic expression. Illocutionary act is performed via the
communicative force of an utterance. Perlucotionary act is an utterance with a
function without intending it to have an effect. Another expert, Leech (1983: 199)
briefly defines them as:
locutionary act: performing an act of saying something
illocutionary act: performing an act in saying something
perlocutionary act: performing an act by saying something
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
24
Moreover he explains that locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or
producing meaningful linguistic expression. The locutionary act can be viewed as
a mere uttering of some words in certain language, while the illocutionary and
perlocutionary acts convey a more complicated message for the hearer. An
illocutionary act communicates the speaker’s intentions behind the locution and a
perlocutionary act reveals the effect the speaker wants to exercise over the hearer.
b. The Classification of Speech Acts
Yule (1996: 53) classifies speech acts into five types: declarations,
representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives.
1. Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their
utterance.
a. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
b. Referee: You’re out!
2. Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker
believes to be the case or not. It involves statements of fact, assersations,
conclusions, and descriptions. For examples:
a. The earth is flat.
b. It was a warm sunny day.
3. Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what speaker feels. They
express the psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes,
dislikes, joy or sorrow.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
25
For examples:
a. I’m really sorry!
b. Congratulations!
4. Directives are those kinds of speech acts that the speakers use to get someone
else to do something. They express what the speakers want. They can be in
form of commands, orders, requests, and suggestions. For examples:
a. Could you lend me a pencil, please?
b. Don’t touch that!
5. Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit
themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends.
They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges. For examples:
a. I’ll be back.
b. I’m going to get it right next time.
Schiffrin (2005: 2) infers the speech act from three properties; the
content of utterence, the force or mood of the utterence and the position of the
utterance within a conversation.
1. The content of the utterance means the proposition expressed by the utterance.
Defining what that is is not always easy. For example when a speaker says
“Shut the door”. It means the speaker wants someone “Bring it about that, by
some (future) action, the proposition ‘The door is shut’ becomes true in the
context of the physical world”. Of course it also uses background knowledge
and knowledge of the speaker to deduce the content of an utterance. It can be
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
26
assumed for simplicity’s sake that this is possible to do – although not
necessarily unambiguously so.
2.The force or mood of the utterance: This is achieved by what it is called as
descriptive, prescriptive and requestive markers, which roughly correspond to
the traditional mood types declarative, imperative and interrogative.
3. The position of the utterance within a conversation. The placing of an utterance
in a conversation is important because the same content can be interpreted as
different speech acts depending upon its position relative to other utterances in
the same context. This inevitably affects the understanding of the function of
the utterance.
For example, take the following hypothetical conversation:
(1) A: The door is shut. (assert)
(2) B: The door is not shut. (disagree)
(3a) A: The door is not shut. (concede)
(3b) A: The door is shut. (insist)
This is a very crude example of how exactly the same utterance, even uttered
in the space of a couple of turns, must be interpreted as performing quite different
functions in the conversation. Obviously no-one actually ever speaks with the
content fully specified in this way, this is just intended to be representative; if this
conversation were to take place, it would be realized in a much more natural
manner. However, it is clear that the only way one can attribute different speech
act meanings to the same utterance (or the same propositional content of an
utterance) is by reference to the conversational context and to the order in which it
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
27
comes in the dialogue. For example if on the performance of (3a) we only
consider the preceding utterance, then the act would be deemed one of agreement
rather than concession. Without some method of retaining where we are in the
dialogue, we would be unable to interpret the current speech act satisfactorily.
Sinclair and Coulthard (1992) develop utterance into 14 acts; marker,
statement, elicitation, check, directive, informative. Moreover they say that the
structure of speech in the classroom mostly is started by the teacher. Teacher
initiation can be divided into two; dependence speech and independence speech.
Independence speech can be in form of teacher elicit, teacher inform, teacher
direct, and teacher check. Teacher elicit is speech delivered by a teacher to direct
students to one topic to know whether students remember or know about the topic
or not. Elicit can be done not only in pre-teaching but also during the teaching.
Teacher explanation is an utterance which is used by a teacher to give the fact,
opinion or information to the students. Directive is an utterance to make students
do something. Check is the utterance used by a teacher to check whether students
understand, do, or finish the work given by a teacher. Dependence speech happen
in the form of reinitiation, listing, repeat, and reinforcement. They happen depend
on teacher elicit, direct. While the students’ initiative can be divided into two;
pupil elicit and pupil inform. The example of students’ elicit is when studets have
difficulty and they make questions. And the example of students’ inform is when
students give information related to the topic.
Verschueren (1999: 24) argues that all speech acts in any language
anywhere in the world fall into five categories:
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
28
1. Assertives: expressing a belief, making words fit the world, and
commiting the speaker to the truth of what is asserted.
2. Directives: expressing a wish, making the world fit the words, and
counting as an attempt to get the hearer to do something.
3. Commissives: expressing an intention, making the world fit the words and
counting as a commitment for speaker to engage in a future course of
action.
4. Expressives: Expressing a variety of psychological states, and simply
counting as expressions of a psychological state.
5. Declarations: Not expressing any psychological state, making both the
words fit the world and the world fit the words, and the point of which is
to bring about a change in (institutional) reality.
In this study, the researcher uses only three categories of speech acts to
know teacher’s power manifestation in language classroom. It is suitable with
Jumadi (2005: 9) who says that the speech acts that can represent the power
manifestation of the teacher in the classroom are directives, assertives, and
expressives.
5. The Nature of English Language Teaching
a. Theories of English Language Teaching
The position of English in Indonesia is as foreign language means that
English is not used as a means of communication by Indonesian people but it is
taught in the classroom. In other words, Indonesian people uses English just as a
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
29
subject in school especially in the English lesson class. To make students have
English ability, improving the role of English language teaching is very important.
Widdowson (1991: 3) defines language teaching as a research activity whereby
experimental techniques of instruction are designed to correspond with
hypothetical principles of pedagogy. Richards and Rodgers (2002: 18) view the
general principles and theories of language teaching are how languages are
learned, how knowledge of language is presented and organized in memory, or
how language itself is structured. While Brown (1987) argues that teaching cannot
be defined on its own, it must be include learning. Language teaching is activities
which are intended to bring about language learning (Stern, 1996: 21). It means
that English language teaching is a set of activities generated from the principles
and theories of language teaching involving how English is learned which is
intended to improve students’ English skills and enriching their knowledge about
English language
Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (2002: 20) say that at least there are
three different theoritical views of language teaching. They are the structural
view, the fuctional view, and the interactional view. The structural view states that
language is the system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning.
The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of linguistic
system such as phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations,
and lexical items.
The second view is the functional view where this view claims that
language is a vehicle of expressiong functional meanings. This view argues that
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
30
the focus of language teaching should be on the semantic and communicative
aspects rather than grammatical aspect and leads to a specification and
organization of language content by categories of meaning and function rather
than by elements of structure and grammar. The focus of teaching language
according to functional view is on the communicative process involving
negotiating meaning, sending and receiving messages and expressing values. It is
suitable with the main function of language as the communication tool. In other
words, we can say that the great idea from the functional view is that the goal of
learning language essentially is how to make the learners have the communicative
competences.
Richards (2006: 3) sees communicative competences as understanding
how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions,
understanding how to adjust language depending on the setting (socio-linguistics),
knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts such as
interviews and conversations for instance, as well as having the ability to continue
communication in spite of one’s limitations in the language through the use of
different strategies. It can be concluded that after learning a language, the learners
are assumed that they are able to communicate well with others, know the content
of reading text, handle the job interviews, and etc rather than how to answer the
grammar test.
The third view is the interactional view. This view sees language as a
vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performances of
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
31
social interaction between individuals. Areas of language teaching of this view
include interactional analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology.
In the teaching learning process, designing of teaching goal is important.
Meanwhile, the goal of language teaching should be planned. Cook (2002) makes
an open-ended list of the goals of language teaching that includes:
1. Self-development. The student becomes in some way a 'better' person through
learning another language. This goal is unrelated to the fact that some people
actually use the second language, as in the group-related dynamics of
Community Language Learning.
2. A method of training new cognitive processes. By learning another language,
students acquire methods of learning or new perspectives on themselves and
their societies.
3. A way-in to the mother-tongue.The students' awareness of their first language
is enhanced by learning a second language.
4. An entrée to another culture. Students can come to understand other groups in
the world and to appreciate the music and art of other cultures.
5. A form of religious observance. For many people a second language is part of
their religion, whether Hebrew for the Jewish religion, Arabic for Muslims, or
indeed English for Christians in some parts of the world.
6. A means of communicating with those who speak another language. We all
need to cope with people from other parts of the world, whether for business
or pleasure.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
32
7. The promotion of intercultural understanding and peace. For some the highest
goals of language teaching are to foster negotiation rather than war or
changes in the society outside the classroom.
Richards (2006: 2) proposes the goals of language teaching as
communicative language teaching. The purpose of communicative language
teaching is teaching of language competence including the following aspects of
language knowledge:
1). Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and
functions.
2). Knowing how to vary the use of language according to the setting and the
participants. For example, knowing when to use formal and informal
speech.
3). Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts. for
examples, narratives, reports, interviews, and conversations)
4). Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in
one’s language knowledge. For example through using different kinds of
communication strategies.
Indeed, the goals of communicative approach can be reached if the
students have much more opportunity to produce utterances in the classroom.
Teacher should be able to facilitate students to increase their English ability.
Teacher is also expected able to motivate students in order to increase their self-
confidence to speak English. However, in the reality teacher still has power to
dominate the classroom.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
33
b. Power manifestation in ELT Classroom
Humans learn other languages for their existance. However, learning a
second language i.e. English is definitely more difficult than acquiring the mother
tongue. The setting of learning between first and second language learning is also
different. In acquiring first language, learners usually acquire their language
spontaneously and naturally. It is different from the learning of second language
where the setting is in the classroom with formal situation. The learner does not
get individual attention. The atmosphere is not child friendly like their home. The
exposure to the language is for a limited period of time 30 to 45 minutes or an
hour a day in comparison to 24 hours of language filled atmosphere at home. The
learner does not have any opportunity to use the language outside the class. Even
in the class there is a very little opportunity to use the language. It is more of a
passive reception of the language in the classroom than the actual production of it.
Another factor that can influence the success of learning of second language is the
teacher. Sometimes the teacher is not proficient in language and the learner has a
poor role model to imitate. In addition, learning is very much seen as under the
control of the teacher. Teacher still dominates the classroom. In other words,
teacher has shown his or her power to the classroom. Meanwhile, Harmer (1990:
52) says that a teacher is a major factor in the continuance of a student’s
motivation.
Teacher has the important role in the success of teaching learning process.
The duty of teacher is not only to share the knowledge, but also how to motivate
students to learn. Harmer (1991: 53) proposes three areas where teacher’s
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
34
behaviour can directly influence students’ continuing participation in the
classroom.
(1). Goals and goal setting. Motivation is closely bound up with a person’s desire
to achieve a goal. Crookes and Lehner (1998) specify that should be carefully
considered as goals in the teaching of ESL and EFL. As such, three goals
must be considered: (a) Simultaneous development of English communicative
abilities (b) Application of knowledge to develop a critical awareness of the
world (c) Ability to act on knowledge and awareness to improve matters.
(2). Learning environtment. Although teacher may not be able to choose the actual
classroom, a teacher still can do a lot about the classroom physical
appearance and the emotional atmosphere of lesson. Both of these can have a
powerful effect on the initial and continuing motivation of students.
(3). Interesting classes. Teacher needs to provide students with a variety of
subjects and exercise to keep them engaged.
However, in the reality the participation of students in teaching learning
process is still low. One factor makes students’ participation in the classroom low
is the teacher’s dominance in the classroom. Teacher’s dominance means the
teacher has performanced the power manifestation in the classroom. The forms of
teacher’s power manifestation can be seen from teacher’s speech acts. As has
mentioned earlier that there are five speech acts that can represent teacher’s power
in language in the classroom. Here are speech acts forms which can represent
teacher’s power in the classroom context.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
35
1. The representation of power in directive speech act.
Directive act potentially represent the power in language use. Power
illocutionary speech act requires that someone is doing something in
accordance with the intent of speaker’s utterances. In realization, the use of
speech acts presentes the speaker’s power.
a. Representation of power in command form
As one type of directive speech acts, command has certain
characteristics. In expressing a particular speech, speaker wants the
listener do what the speaker expresses. In the context of classroom, the
form of command can occur when teachers provide guidance on learning
programs, such as the direction of the learning materials that students will
learn in a semester, the evaluation system will be implemented, as well as
textbooks and worksheets to prepare students. In other words, when giving
directions concerning matters that are considered urgent, teachers tend to
use direct commands that present the dominant power.
However, viewed from the context of the classroom discourse, this
phenomenon associated with the dominating culture that is still widely
used in the learning system in Indonesian school. In a culture of learning
that is dominating, school rules, learning materials, evaluation systems,
and textbooks tend to be determined by the school or the teacher.
b. Representation of power in request form
Besides the command, the teachers and students are also using the
directive with a request form). Compared with command, requests have
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
36
lower levels of restriction so that power also tends to be more humanistic
represented. In classroom discourse, besides using order acts, a teacher
also used request acts to his students. Fairclough (1998: 55) says that there
is a close relationship between request and power. In addition Fairclough
(1998:55) devides request acts into two; direct request and indirect request.
Direct requests mark the power relationship explicitly and usually in
imperative form. For example a boss request to his secretary: “Type this
letter for me by 5 o’clock”. On the other hands, indirect requests mark the
power relationship more or less implicit. In addition indirect requests can
be more or less indirect, and they typically expressed grammatically in
questions of various degrees of elaborateness and corresponding
indirectness. For example: (1) Can you type this letter for me by 5
o’clock?, (2) Could I possibly ask you to type this letter for me by 5
o’clock?. There are also other ways of indirectly requesting, for instance in
this sentence: I would like to have the letter in the 5 o’clock post.
However, compared with order acts, request acts have lower levels of
restriction so that power also tends to be more humanistic represented.
c. Representation of power in prohibition form
The form of prohibitation equals to command but in form of negative
command. For example, a teacher prohibits students to not come late. If
there is a students breaks the teacher’s rule, there will be a punishment
from a teacher. Al-Saaidi, Al-Shaibani & Al-Husseini (2013) classify the
prohibition acts into three levels: Prohibition in syntatic level, Prohibition
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
37
in semantic level, and Prohibition in pragmatic level. According to the
syntactic point of view, there are various ways in which prohibition can be
achieved. These ways are as follows:
1. Imperative sentence
The imperative can be used to forbid an action. According to Jawad
quoted by Al-Saaidi, Al-Shaibani & Al-Husseini (2013), the basic
difference between a ‘command’ and a ‘prohibition’ is that the former
indicates instructing the addressee to do something whereas the latter
indicates instructing the addressee NOT [author’s emphasis] to do a
given thing. Thus, it could be claimed that a ‘prohibition’ is a kind of a
negative ‘command’. For examples: keep clean!, Don’t open your
book!
2. Declarative sentence
Allan (1986) confirmed that a declarative sentence can be used in
performing any subcategory of speech act including prohibition to
denote an actualization of the illocutionary act. This is done either
through clauses containing a performative verb, or through the
meaning of the predicates in such sentences as the followings:
Example 1: I forbid you to speak to him. [Clause containing a
performative verb]
Example 2: Adam must not be allowed out on the balcony. [Predicate]
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
38
3. Negative verb be with to + infinitive
Thomson and Martinet (1980) states that prohibition can be
carried out through another common construction which is the negative
verb be with to infinitive.
Example: You are not to come into my room without knocking.
4. Block Language
Prohibition can be expressed by another construction that is of a
block language. Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, (1985) discusses
that block language appears in functions as labels, titles, (some)
newspaper headlines, headings, notices, and advertisements. For
examples: No entry!, No smoking area!, and No camera! (the context in
the fashion boutique).
According to semantic level, the prohibition can be in form of
modality sentences. There are negative modal auxiliaries which can be
used with prohibitive sentences such as (must not, may not, cannot, shall
not, and have not got to). For example: (1) Students must not use
dictionaries in the examination. (2) You cannot go abroad without a
passport.
According to pragmatic level, prohibition act can be classified as
Prohibitive Performative Verbs and Hedges. Allan (1986) argues that the
verb spells out the illocutionary force of the performative clause
effectively because the meaning of the performative verb presents the
essence of the illocution, e.g. I promise, I forbid, and I prohibit. While for
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
39
hedge, Fraser (1980) says that some illocutionary acts can be effectively
performed by a type ofcsentence which is called “hedged performative”.
For example, to utter: “I must forbid you from saying anything” may
count as an act of forbidding, though the literal interpretation of this is
only a report of obligation.
d. Representation of power in permission form
The form of permission usually happen in the classroom, when a teacher
gives permission to students to do or not do something. For example, a
teacher gives permission to a sick students go home earlier.
e. Representation of power in advice form
In the context in the classroom, as one who has more experience, a teacher
usually gives advices to students to do positive thing or not to do negative
thing. For example, when a teacher advices students to not stay up.
Teacher explains the bad effect to stay up to students.
f. Representation of power in asking form
Asking is one form of directive form of power in the classroom. A teacher
can give questions to his or her students, and students have to answer it. It
means that by giving questions, a teacher expects students give
information related to the questions. Questions can be related to the
subject or not. For example, a teacher asks students the definition of
simple sentence. Another example is teacher asks students why they did
not come yesterday.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
40
2. The representation of power in assertive speech acts
Assertive is one of speech acts that can represent the form of power,
whether by teacher or students. According to Searle (1976), speech acts has
function to inform others about something. This function is very important in the
classroom context, because the process in transfering knowledge, skills, and
attitude in the learning process can not be separated from the process of giving
information.
3. The representation of power in expressive speech acts
The expressive speech acts is also the representation of power of teacher
and students. The expressive act is the expression about psychological conditionss
such as the feeling of happiness, unhappiness, like, dislike, sorrow, and etc.
6. The Nature of Attitude
a. Definition of Attitude
The duty of a teacher in the class is not only to share the knowledge or
skills to students but also to form the good character of students. One form of
good characters must be owned by students is learning attitude, because
students’attitudes will influence their learning achievement. Students’ perceptions
of courses and attitudes toward learning play a significant role in retention and
enrollment (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997; Gasiewski et al., 2012). However, it
cannot be avoided that the teacher also performs power manifestation in the
classroom. Consequently, it will influence to students’ learning attitude. The
definitions of attitude are complex and various. Brown (2001: 61) says that
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
41
attitude is characterized by a large proportion of emotional involvement such as
feelings, self, relationships in community. Gardner (1985: 91-93) claims that
attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on
the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent. Moreover,
Gajalakshmi (2013) says that attitude is determined by the individual’s beliefs
about outcomes or attributes of performing the behavior (behavioral beliefs),
weighted by evaluations of those outcomes or attributes. From the definitions
above, it can be concluded that attitude is a set of beliefs developed in a due
course of time as outcomes someone’s perception about something or someone. In
this context, students’ learning attitude is a set of students’ belief towards teaching
learning process as an accumulation from students’ perception about teacher and
learning activities.
Thus, a person who holds strong beliefs that positively valued outcomes
will result from performing the behavior will have a positive attitude toward the
behavior. Conversely, a person who holds strong beliefs that negatively valued
outcomes will result from the behavior will have a negative attitude.” Attitude
concept can be viewed from these three dimensions. These dimensions are based
on the three theoretical approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism and humanism. It
means that people’s attitudes are believed to be the result of cognitive, affective
and behavioral processes that are influence by our past and current experiences
and social interactions. These processes can have an influence in the way people
remember, interpret, judge, and respond to social information. This notion is
based on the idea that people attitudes have a powerful impact on behavior and
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
42
attitude formation. More generally, people thoughts, actions, character and
conduct do not always match our inner convictions.
b. Students’ Attitude
Attitudes toward learning are believed to influence behaviors such as
selecting and reading books, speaking in a foreign language etc. Especially in
education, if the students have positive attitude towards any subject, they can
achieve many things in that specific area. There is an interaction between
language learning and the environmental components in which the students were
grown up. Both negative and positive attitudes have a strong impact on the
success of language learning. Chamber (1999) asserts that learning occurs more
easily, when the learner has a positive attitude towards the language and learning.
However, observing students’ attitude directly is rather difficult because their
beliefs tend to be hidden. It just can be inferred from their behaviour both verbal
and nonverbal.
Discovering students’ attitude about language will help both teacher and
student in the teaching learning process. Therefore, teacher has to consider the
crucial role of affective domain. The characteristics of affective domain are:
interest, values and tendency and most of these shape our attitudes (Saracaloğlu,
2000). Valuing, belief, interest and expectations are refers to affective
characteristics. In the same work, Saracaloğlu (quoted from Bloom 1973) points
out that these affective characteristics have a great impact on learning as well.
Baker (1988) identifies the characteristics of attitude:
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
43
1. Attitudes are cognitive (i.e. are capable of being thought about) and affective
(i.e. have feelings and emotions attached to them).
2. Attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolar-they vary in degree of
favorability/unfavorability.
3. Attitudes predispose a person to act in a certain way, but the relationship
between attitudes is not a strong one.
4. Attitudes are learned, not inherited or genetically endowed.
5. Attitudes tend to persist but they can be modified by experience.
From the characteristics above, it can be seen that actually the stuednts’
attitude towards teacher’s or teacher’s teaching method is not absolute. Gardner
(1972) suggests “of course teaching techniques and teachers’ personalities can
certainly affect the attitudes and motivation of students”. Because of that by
knowing the bad effect of negative attitude in learning English in the classroom, it
should have intents communication between teacher and students in order to gain
the goal of teaching and learning.
B. Review of Related Research
Chairil Anwar Korompot in 1999 did a research with the title Teacher-
Students Power Relationship in Language Classroom: A Comparative Case Study
in ESL and EFL Context. The purpose of this research is to investigate the
representation and realisation of aspects of teacher-students power relationship
(TSPR) by the teacher and students of an Australian ESL study center and those
of its Indonesian EFL counterpart in order to investigate the relevance of the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
44
power and sharing concept in different context of second language learning. The
study is concerned with four research questions. These have been formulated in
terms of (a) the contextual factors of TSPR, (b) Teacher’s and students’
perception of and experiences with the principal acts of TSPR, (c) the students’
learning styles preferences that reflect their power relational representation, and
(d) realisation of TSPR prcatices in classroom interactions in the Australian and
Indonesian context. This study proposes that power sharing issues should be
‘embraced’ comprehensively before taking further steps in applying such modern
approaches as students center (language) learning and communicative language
teaching in ESL and EFL pedagogy. The findings of the study are expected to
contribute more insights into the contextual factors worthy of consideration in
applying modern approaches to ELT in different settings of teaching and learning,
and to support the establishment of student autonomy as the central goal in
learning and communicative competence in L2 pedagogy. This research has
similarity to the researcher’s research where both of them are study about
teacher’s power in ELT classroom. However, there are some differences between
the researcher’s research and this research. First, the kind of this research is about
comparative study between teacher and students power relationship in ESL and
EFL context. The researcher (Chairil Anwar Korompot) compared between the
teacher’s and students from Australia and the power relationship between
teachers’ and students from Indonesia. While this research is only to investigate
teachers’ power in using language in Indonesian classroom context.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
45
The second research which is correlated with the language and power in
classroom is the research done by Karen F. Thomas and Steven D. Rinehart with
the title Instituting Whole Language:Teacher Power and Practice. This paper
describes some of the issues and concerns regarding power and empowerment in
one school district striving to institute whole language. This research is started
with the argumentation about the implemention of whole language classrooms and
how the power in language used by teachers happen in this classroom. First
researcher compared between the role of teachers in the whole language teachers
and traditional reading basal program teachers. On one hand, whole language
teachers are empowered teachers in control of learning in their classrooms, while
on the other hand, teachers in traditional, basal-driven reading programs are held
accountable for program dictates and objectives written outside their power. At
the core of this issue is the role of the empowered teacher that is, one who will be
in charge of the classrooms. Moreover, researcher argued that teachers as agents
in control of power to evaluate others and create concepts that attribute motivation
to others. The areas of research involves 1) teacher perception of administrative
power in implementing certain literacy practices; 2) teacher professional training
and personal literacy pursuits as personal empowerment issues; and 3) current
classroom literacy activities. The similarity of this research with this research is
both of them have the same goal, to describe the teachers’ power in language in
classroom. However, the differences are in the areas of research. The areas of
research involves 1) teacher perception of administrative power in implementing
certain literacy practices; 2) teacher professional training and personal literacy
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
46
pursuits as personal empowerment issues; and 3) current classroom literacy
activities. In another hand, the area of study in this research is to describe the
teachers’ power in language in the form of speech acts. Then, this is to know
which power aspects mostly used by teachers in the classroom. The last is to
explore the effect of power in language done by teachers towards students’
learning interest.
The third reasearch is done by J. Trevor Morley with the title Power and
Ideology in Everyday Discourse: The Relevance of Critical Discourse Analysis in
Pragmatic Linguistics Today. This paper focuses on what is arguably one of the
most compelling and contentious issues in pragmatics today. It explores the
relationship between language and concepts of ideology and power in the
linguistic practices of contemporary society through a critique of a critical
discourse analysis (CDA) approach to linguistic enquiry, as evidenced in a study
and brief review of one of its major practitioners, Norman Fairclough. Essential
differences with other mainstream linguistic approaches are emphasized in
exploring and explaining the social basis of the ideological and power dimensions
that underpin discourse in society. It is maintained that the development of a
critical linguistic awareness, which informs a capacity to resist and change
exploitative and dominating linguistic practices, is an issue which should be of
importance to everyone with a concern and interest in the problems of our
contemporary society. This paper briefly looks at the difference between critical
discourse analysis (hereafter Critical Discourse Analysis) and other mainstream
linguistic approaches. It also describes the centrality of Critical Discourse
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
47
Analysis in modern pragmatic linguistic enquiry. Next, it examines the
collaborative style of Fairclough's writing. It also considers Fairclough's
interpretation of the concepts of inequality, domination and emancipation in
society. It stresses the importance of a practical application of Critical Discourse
Analysis; and the last, it acknowledges some perceived omissions. The researcher
assumes that Fairclough's work, in its attention to language as social practice
dealing with the social conditions of discourse production and its hidden power,
ideology and domination dimensions, was a forerunner of a now-prevalent
linguistic emphasis. It has today clearly found its audience and has changed the
nature of important aspects of pragmatic enquiry. While Fairclough energized a
new approach to the study of pragmatics it would be naive to expect CLA, in
itself, to begin to restore social inequalities or injustices. However, a widespread
understanding of critical language analysis and the power dimensions hidden in
language can be an important first step in contributing to a more informed, critical
awareness of the realities of the social order, contributing to opening opportunities
to dominated groups and individuals in our society in accessing and participating
more fully in various, decision-making power forums. The similarity between this
research with the researcher’s research is in the analysing of data where both of
these researches use critical discourse analysis from Fairclough. However both of
them also has difference especially in practice. This paper is only describe the
power in language in Fairclough theory only. It is opposite with this research
where this research wants to know the power of language from teachers in ELT
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
48
classroom context. To know the teacher’s power, the researcher will do some
obeservations in the ELT classroom and from interviewing the teachers.
The fourth related research is done by Dolores Fernández Martínez in 2012
with the title Critical Learning: Critical Discourse Analysis in EFL Teaching. The
paper was published in Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, No.
2, pp. 283-288, March 2012. Researcher says that discourse analysis, the study of
language use within its social context, has plenty of utilitarian aspects, especially
for language learners. Besides being a means of communication, language is a
practice that not only constructs, but is also constructed by the ways language
learners understand themselves and their social environment. Critical discourse
analysis promotes the application of critical thinking to social situations and the
unveiling of hidden connections between language use, ideology and power. This
paper aims to demonstrate how critical discourse analysis can be implemented in
foreign language teaching in order to help students develop their internal values
and critical thinking skills. The main principles of critical discourse analysis can
be incorporated in order to turn a song, a t-shirt slogan or an email into the
subject of linguistic exploitation and socio-cultural debate. Moreover, he expalins
that Critical Discourse Analysis promotes the application of critical thought to
social situations and the unveiling of strategies in texts. Discourse analysis, and
more specifically, critical approaches offer the learner new skills to interpret
society and culture. Teachers can improve their teaching practices by
investigating actual language use both in and out of the classroom. Likewise,
discourse analysis stimulates students to reflect on the huge amount of analysable
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
49
information they receive every day through different means. The research offered
in the paper combines theory, method and practice, and has been exemplified
through its application on apparently innocuous or entertaining texts, quite
different from traditionally considered socially relevant discourse. Connotations
of power, control or social inequality can also be present in the zodiac or in the
lyrics of a song. Discourse analysis is not restricted to significant texts and
contexts. Journalists, writers of e-mails, composers of songs and creators of
slogans are conscious of the potential of words to have an impact on the reader
and shape his feelings and behaviour. This proposal also persuades students to
employ the insights obtained from their analysis in order to produce their own
brief and effective messages. Every kind of text offers the learner a new platform
to apply his critical skills and reveal hidden meanings or motivations. Critical
learning awakens students’curiosity about their surrounding information and
leads them to think that they can be manipulated while they think they are just
being informed. All in all, the classroom presents tangible and attractive ways of
interpreting contemporary culture; it is an excellent forum for teaching discourse
analysis and for making students aware that there is a rich and complex world
outside to be analysed and criticalized. The similarity of this paper with this
research is in the using of critical discourse analysis in the classroom context.
However, this research is quitely different with this papaer, where this research is
not only to analyze the power fby using critical discourse analysis, but also to
know the effect of power manifestation to the classroom atmosphere that will
impact to students’ learning interest.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
50
The fifth research is done by Parviz Maftoon and Nima Shakouri from
Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. This paper with the title The Concept of
Power in Teacher Talk: A Critical Discourse Analysis was published in World
Applied Sciences Journal, 2012. They assume that teachers do not see themselves
as powerful and in some ways, they are sadly correct in this assessment.
However, the words employed by the people keep their language strong. Thus,
even those who are in power, but unable to employ the appropriate words in
appropriate context will lose their power. The concept of power in a class is not
what a dominant group has on the subordinate group, but is defined in terms of
resistance created on the part of students. As to the writers, power and resistance
run in parallel, even between the teacher and his/her students. In the paper, the
writers, having provided a review of ideas regarding critical discourse analysis
(hereafter Critical Discourse Analysis) investigated the concept of power in
teacher’s talk and examined how power is exercised and resisted in classroom.
From this research, it can be concluded that Critical Discourse Analysis pursue
one common goal that is representing the dialectic relationship between language,
power, ideology and the influential role that language plays in emanation of
power and legitimizing social inequalities. Therefore, critical discourse analysts
are giving a serious effort to clarify and denaturalize the hidden power relations,
ideological processes that exist in linguistic text. They attempt to awaken the
unconscious of those people who contribute to the establishment and
legitimization of ideology through their ignorance. The similarity of this research
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
51
and this paper is both of them are same in investigating teachers’ power in the
ELT classroom. However, both of them are quitely different. This research is
focused on teacher’s power in using language in ELT classroom and to know
how this will impact to the students’ interest in learning English. This paper is
not only about the power of teacher in the classroom, but also to view the
teachers’ ideology.
From the articles above, the researcher sees that right now there is no
research in Indonesia which describes the power in language represented in the
forms of teachers’ speech acts in ELT classroom which is analyzed by using
critical discourse analysis. Besides that, this research also explores the power in
language done by teacher’s toward students’ learning attitude. Therefore, this
research can fill the gap of previous researches.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
52
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD
A. Research Setting
1. Time
This research was started on January 2014. The research was started by
making a research plan including collecting previous data that related to the
teaching learning activities which drawing the situation where the power were
used during teaching learning process. The time setting of this study includes
preparation stage up to the reporting stage as stated in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Time Setting of the Study
No ActivityMonth
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug
1 Planning √ √ √
2 Proposal seminar √
3Collecting and Analyzing the Data √ √ √
4 Submitting the Report √
5 Final Examination √
From the table above, it showed that this research was conducted during eigth
months.
3. Place
This reserach was conducted in STKIP Bangkalan, Madura. STKIP PGRI
Bangkalan is one of colleges located in Madura island. The previous name of
STKIP was IKIP PGRI which was established in 1975 in Bangkalan, Madura. In
52
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
53
1985 this istitute renamed into STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura island. In 2004,
STKIP PGRI Bangkalan added English Education as one of its study programs.
Right now, STKIP PGRI Bangkalan has five study programs.
B. Research Method
This study was conducted under the principles of qualitative study.
Cresswell (2008: 46) defines qualitative study as “ a type of educational research
in which the research relies on the views of participants; ask board, general
questions; collect data consisting largerly of words (or text) from participants;
describes and analysis these words for themes; and conducts the inquiry in
subjective, biased manner”. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
phenomena of using power in language by teachers’ in classroom. Denzin and
Lincoln (2005) in Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2006, 466) states that a
variety of approaches in qualitative research includes case study, ethnography,
critical ethnography, performance ethnography, grounded theory, testimoni, life
history, narrative inquiry, participatory action research, clinical research,
interpretive study, arts-based inquiry, autoethnography, and phenomenology.
In this study, researcher applied etnographic approach. Etnographic
research is one of the qualitative research design which is useful to investigate the
behaviour patterns of teachers and students at school and in the school
community. Latief (2012: 131) says that etnography refers to study of human
cultures. In education, etnographic research is used to describe teachers’ and
students’ behaviour; their needs, their interactions, their language use, etc. In
addition, spradley in Latief (2012: 133) says that etnographic research is used to
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
54
describe educational system, process, and phenomena, to understand teachers’ and
students’ needs, experiences, viewpoints, and goals which is useful as the basis of
designing appropriate educational programs to ultimately improve the quality of
students learning. Moreover, etnographic research is one of the qualitative
research design involving verbal data, collected using human instrument,
presented in a narrative story, and analyzed inductively using verbal analysis and
interpretation to discover salient patterns and theme.
C. Sources of The Data
The data resources used by the researcher here were:
1) Events
Events as the source of the data in this research were in the form of teaching
learning process done in the classroom of English study Program STKIP
Bangkalan, Madura.
2) Informants
The subject of this research was English teachers of STKIP Bangkalan,
Madura. In this research, researcher chose four teachers as the informants.
They were selected based on the criteria such as gender, job position, length
of work. The criteria determined by the researcher were referred to the
research needs. In this research the informants involved two female teachers
and two male teachers. The teachers participated were anonymously in this
study.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
55
3) Documents
Documents were any written sources gotten from the institution such as
lesson plan and learning contract, interview, observation including the
recording transcription and other fieldworks.
D. Techniques of Collecting Data
For the purpose of this study, the data was collected and analysed in form
of observation field notes, researchers’ journals, transcripts from recorded
interview and students’ documents. There were three techniques which were used
in collecting the data in this study, they were:
1. Interview
Cresswell (2008: 225) states that a qualitative interview occurs when
reserchers ask one or more participants open-ended and general questions and
record their answer. The interview that was conducted in this reserach is by using
open questions where the participants are given freely to express their opinion.
The researcher interviewed four teachers. The objective of interview to teachers
was to know the teachers’ perception about the implementation on power in
language done by a teacher in ELT classroom. Besides that, the researcher also
interviewed two students to know their responses toward teachers’ utterances that
containing the power elements in language.
2. Observation
Cresswell (2008: 221) defines observation as the process of gathering
open-ended, first hand information by observing people and places at a research
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
56
site. In this study, the researcher was as a passive participant observer, where the
researcher observed and recorded notes without being involved in the activities of
the participants, acted as a spectator of the scene under study and maintained a
certain distance from it and never intervening. In this research, the researcher did
observation toward the interaction activities done by teachers and students in the
classroom.
3. Document Analysis
Cohen and Crabtree (2008) states that when studying a culture, social
setting or phenomenon collecting and analyzing the texts and artifacts produced
and used by members can foster understanding. When analyzing texts and
artifacts, the researcher focused on how and for whom the artifacts are created,
what was included and not included in the document, and how the document was
used. In this study, the documents used were learning contract, and teachers’
lesson plans.
E. Trustworthiness
According to Guba and Lincoln (in Trochim, 2006: 162), there are four
criteria for judging the soundness or trustworthiness of qualitative research, they
are:
1. Credibility, which involves establishing that the result of qualitative reserach
are credible or believeable from the perspective of the aprticipants in the
reserach.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
57
2. Transferability, which refers to the degree to which the resuls of qualitative
research can be generalized or transfered to other contexts or setting.
3. Dependability, which emphasizes the need for the research to account for the
ever-changing context within which research occurs.
4. Comfirmably, which refers to the degree to which the results could be
comfirmed or collaborated by others.
Furthermore, Merriam (1998: 204-205) proposes six basic strategies to
enhance trustworthiness as follows:
1) Triangulation
In triangulation, researcher can use multiple investigators, multiple sources of
data, or multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings. By using multiple
investigators, the researcher can establish validity through pooled judgment
and validate case study materials by using outside sources. Multiple source
means that the researcher use many source in collecting the same data. For
example, in order to get the comprehensive conclusion about teachers’ power
manifestation, the researcher can use field note, video of teaching learning
process, recording of interview, and documents of teaching learning as the
source of data. Those multiple sources of data can be use to lead the researcher
to the conclusion of the case being investigated. Meanwhile, multiple methods
can be used by the researcher to collect the data by using multiple methods of
data collection such as interview, observation, document analysis, etc.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
58
2) Member checks
Member checking strategy means that the researcher takes data and tentative
interpretations back to the people from whom they were derived and asking
them if the results are plausible. In member checking, the researcher sentt
back the result of interview transcription to the subject of the research. It was
used to clarify whether what the researcher obtains from the interview is
appropriate or not to what the subject of the research means.
3) Long-term observation
Applying long-term observation means that the researcher has to repeat
observations of the same phenomenon. Thus, the researcher gathers the data
over a period of time in order to increase the validity of the findings.
4) Peer examination
In peer examination, the researcher asks colleagues to comment on the
findings as they emerge. If the researcher use peer examination means that the
researcher will involve inter rater in investigating the case. Thus, the inter
rater can examine the findings of the research.
5) Participatory or collaborative modes of research
In this strategy, the researcher involves the participants in all phases of
research from conceptualizing the study to writing up the findings. It means
that the researcher and the subject of the research create together the concept
of the research up to concluding the result of it.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
59
6) Researcher’s biases
This strategy clarifies the researcher’s assumption, worldview, and theoretical
orientation at the outset of the study.
In this study, the researcher checked for the accuracy of the findings by
employing a combination of multiple validity strategies: triangualation, long-term
observation and member checks.
F. Techniques of Analyzing the Data
Data analysis means effort to organize, provide structure and elicit
meaning. It is a process to impose some order in a large body information so that
some general conclusions can be reached or communicated in a research report.
All qualitative analysis involves attempts to comprehend the phenomenon under
study, synthesize information and explain relationships, theorize about how and
why the relationships appear as they do, and reconnect the new knowledge with
what is already known. The task of analyzing qualitative data can appear
overwhelming but becomes manageable when broken down into key stages.
Creswell (2007) describes the data analysis spiral. Once data are collected,
they must be organized and managed. The researcher must become engaged with
the data through reading and reflecting. Then data must be described, classified,
and interpreted. Finally, the researcher represents or visualizes the data for others.
Creswell describes how this spiral fits with various approaches to qualitative
inquiry (narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case
study). In different texts, the approaches to analysis of qualitative data vary
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
60
slightly, but we believe they can be described in three stages: (1) organizing and
familiarizing, (2) coding and reducing, and (3) interpreting and representing.
In this reserach, the research approach is ethnographic research.
Ethnographic research employs a range of data sources: fieldnotes from person,
audio-and –video recordings and transcripts, interviews, and also questionnaire
respons (Hammersley, 1998: 35). Technique of data analysis in this study is the
qualitative data analysis technique Spradley model. According to Spradley (1980,
this analysis involves four steps; domain analysis, taxonomy analysis,
componential analysis, and theme analysis.
1. Domain analysis is a data analysis to decide cultural domain containing
the smaller categories which involve cover term, included term, and
semantic relationship.
2. Taxonomy analysis is a set of categoriesorganized on the basis of a single
semantic relationship. A taxonomy reveals subsets and the way they are
related to the whole.
3. Componential analysis is the systematic search for the attributes
(components of meaning) associated with cultural categories. It discovers
contrasts among the members of a domain, these contrasts are best thought
of as attributes or components of meaning. A "component" is another term
for "unit"; thus, componential analysis is looking for the units of meaning
that people have assigned to their cultural categories.
4. Theme analysis is the data analysis to decide the relationship between
domain and to give a holistic view of a culture or cultural scene..
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
61
In practice, all steps of the data analysis were not carried out in a linear
sequence after all the data was collected. It were carried out simultaneously during
and after the data was collected. Thus there was the interaction between the
processes of data collection and data analysis as well as other elements such as the
recording of data, writing reports (interim), and submission of research questions.
The interaction of these elements forms a cyclical pattern as seen in the following
picture.
Figure: 3.1 Technique of analyzing the data adapted from Bradley
The data of this research involves primary and secondary data. The primary
data was gotten by observation, interview, and record of the activities between
teachers and students in the classroom. Secondary data was gotten from the literatures
supporting the teory. In processing the data from the recording, the researcher needs
to analyze to know the power components in teaching and learning process. Because
of that after recording, the researcher made a transcript of teacher and students’
Analyzing Data
Making a Record
Collecting Data
Asking Questions
Selecting a Project
Writing a Report
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
62
Figure 3.2. Research Procedure
utterance. However, this research is focus on teacher’s utterances in form of power in
using language. To process the data analysis in this research, researcher used critical
discourse analysis from Fairclough. Data was analysed in the form of text dimension,
discourse practice, and sociocultural practice.
According to Fairclough (1989: 109), there are three stages of critical
discourse analysis; description of text, interpretation of the relationship between
text and interaction, and the explanation of the relationship between interaction
and social context. In text dimension, the data was analysed related to vocabulary,
grammatical, and text structure. It can be seen in Figure 3.2.
Teacher’s Speech Acts in the Classroom(Illocution)
Categorization
Assertive ExpressiveDirective
AnalysisText Dimensions Description Analysis- Vocabulary- Grammar- Text Structure
Discourse Practice Dimension Interpretation Analysis
Sociocultural Practice Dimension Explanation Analysis
Conclusion
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
63
From the figure above, the teachers’ utterances were classified to find the
teachers’ speech acts involving directive, assertive and expressive speech acts.
Then, the utterances above were transcribed and analyzed based on vocabulary,
grammar and text structure category.
Vocabulary analysis involves:
1). Experimential value. It was related to classification schemes, idealogical
words, rewording and overwording, meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy,
and antonymy), and metaphors.
2). Relational values. It was related to euphemistics expression and formal and
informal words.
3). Expressive values. It was related to positive and negative evaluation.
Grammar analysis involves:
1). Experimential value. It was related to the type of process and participant
predominate, normalizations, active or passive sentences, and positive or
negative sentences.
2). Relational values. The aspects of relationals values included modes sentences
(declarative, grammatical question, and imperative), relational modality and
pronouns we and you.
3) Expressive value. It could be seen from the use of expressive modality.
Textual structure analysis involves:
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
64
1). Interactional conventions which involved the way of participants controlled the
turns of others. There were four devices used for this; interruption, enforcing
explicitness, controlling topic, and formulation.
2). Larger-scale structure.
The next step was the interpretation step. It was related to how text was
linked by the discourse process (discourse practice dimension). Fairclough
(1989:141) says that interpretation are generated through a combination of
what is in the text and what is ‘in’ the interpreter. The focus of context
interpretation is the relationship between situational context and discourse type.
Text interpretaion was analyzed based on four levels of interpretation domains.
They were: surface of utterance, meaning of utterance, local coherence, and
text structure and point.
The last stage of critical discourse analysis was the explanation of the
relationship between interaction and social context. The objective of the stage
of explanation was to portray a discourse as part of a social process, as a social
practice, showing how it was determined by social structure, and what
reproductive effects discourses could cumulatively have on those structures,
sustaining them or changing them. It means that explanation is a matter of
seeing a discourse as a part of process of social struggle, within a matrix of
relation of power. In this stage, the result of interpratation will be matched with
the result of respondents’ interview about teacher profile to know their
ideology.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
65
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the result of study conducted in English Department
of STKIP PGRI Bangkalan, Madura. The study was purposed (1) to describe the
power in language represented in the speech acts, (2) to explore the effects of
power in language done by teachers toward students’ learning attitude. The result
is described and discussed into two parts: Research Findings and Discussion.
A. Research Findings
Based on the data collected through video of classroom activity,
observation in the classroom, questionnaire and interview to the teachers and
students, the researcher presents the result of research. It is described into two
subheadings, including the description of power form in language represented in
the speech acts and the effects of power in language done by teachers toward
students’ learning attitude.
Table 4.1 Research Findings
A. Power Forms The Effects of Power in LanguageDirective Assertive Expressive Positive Negative
1. Command 1. Assertion 1. Pleasure 1. Students are enjoyful in doing teacher’s request
1. The teacher’s status influences the students’ perspective in responding teacher’s command
2. Request 2. Maintain 2. Displeasure 2.Teacher’s prohibition acts
2. Students tend to be afraid in facing the
65
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
66
are the forms of training for students to be more discipline
fierce teacher’s questions
3. Prohibition 3. Students consider that the teacher’s permission acts have less negative effect to them
3.The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary power because it can decrease students’ learning motivation
4. Permission 4. The teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards positive side.
4. Advice 5. The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments
5. Asking 6. The teacher’s intervention will omit the students’ doubtness
7. The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in the classroom
From the table above, it can be seen that there were three speech acts
forms of power conducted by the teachers in the classroom and there were seven
positive effects and three negative effects of power manifestation in ELT
classroom.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
67
1. Power Forms in Language Represented in The Speech Acts in STKIP
PGRI Bangkalan Madura
The power represented by a teacher can be seen from his/her utterances in
speech acts forms. Here are some kinds of power in teacher speech acts in the
classroom context.
a) The representation of power in directive speech acts.
The directive speech acts can be divided into six forms.
1) Power in Comand form
2) Power in Request form
3) Power in Prohibition form
4) Power in Permission form
5) Power in Advice form
6) Power in Asking form
b) The representation of power in assertive speech act
c) The representation of power in expressive speech act
a). Representation of Power in Directive Speech Acts
Directive utterances potentially produce the power form. The illocutionary
power of these utterances is the attempt to get someone to do something. Bach and
Harnish in Geis (1995: 18) say that directive utterances express the speaker's
attitude toward some prospective action by the hearer and his intention that his
utterance, or the attitude it expresses, be taken as a reason for the hearer's action.
The speaker acts on the belief that he or she has sufficient authority over the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
68
addressee that simply expressing his or her desires should be sufficient to
guarantee compliance. In the classroom discourse, the directive acts commonly
happen and conducted by the teacher especially in managing the class atmosphere.
The directive acts that usually manifested by teacher in the classroom including
command, request, prohibition, permission, advice, and asking forms. In applying
these acts, a teacher represents the power form can be in high restriction, standard,
or low (humanistic) form. Therefore, it will show how a teacher views his or her
status compared to their students’.
1) Power in Command Form
Here are the examples of power in language conducted by a teacher in
command form.
[1] Teacher : Remember that when you answer the questions, when you choose the answer whether A, B, C or D, you have to give the following reason. (1) Kenapa anda menjawab itu, kenapa anda menjawab ini. (2) Ok! (3) It means that support your answer by giving me the sentence, paham? (4)
Students : Yes.(5)Teacher : Good. You know what I hope. (6) Can we start now? (7)Students : Yeah. (8)
Description
The dialogue [1] shows the stituation where a teacher was giving
instruction in answering the questions. The teacher asked students to give the
reason for their answer. Viewed from the form of command it could be
classified into direct command where it could be seen from the using of
modality ‘have to’ in turn (1) , the imperative “OK!” turn (3) and tag question
of “paham?” (4). Besides that, the teacher also used the pronoun “you” to the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
69
students and pronoun “I “and “me” to herself (1), (2), (4) and (6). To make
understandable of the instruction or command, teacher changed the language
into Bahasa Indonesia.
Interpretation
From the dialog [1], it can be interpreted that the teacher used the high
restriction of command. It can be seen from the relational modality ‘have to’.
Fairclough (1989: 126-127) says that the relational modality is the modality
which has to do with speaker’s authority to other participants (in term of
relation). In this context, students were in the position of social subject who
are in the passive and constrained condition (Fairclough, 1989:39). Viewed
from the pronouns used in the dialog [1], the teacher used pronoun “you”, and
“anda” to her students and “I” and “me” to herself, it can be assumed that the
teacher placed her and her students as concept of a superior-subordinate.
While to show that the instruction is essential, the teacher used the imperative
“OK!” and question tag “paham?”. Teacher wanted to insist that students must
provide the reason for their answer.
Explanation
The dialog [1] represents the form of power possessed by a teacher in the
classroom in the form of direct command utterance. As one type of directive
speech acts, direct command has certain characteristics. In expressing a particular
speech, speaker wanted the listener did what the speaker expressed. In the context
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
70
of classroom, when giving directions concerning matters that are considered
urgent, teachers tend to use direct commands that present the dominant power.
However, viewed from the context of the classroom discourse, this
phenomenon associated with the dominating culture that is still widely used in the
learning system in Indonesian school. In a culture of learning that is dominating,
school rules, learning materials, evaluation systems, and textbooks tend to be
determined by the school or the teacher.
[2] Teacher : When you are writing about something, when you make some notes about something, do not only just write and write but try to understand what kinds of words that you use. (1) Sambil dipahami kalimatnya. (2) Membaca begitu juga. (3) Jangan membaca lewat saja harus dikenali apa maknanya, apa maksudnya. (4)
(Then the teacher go around the class to check students’ work and ask to one of students)
Teacher : What about you, finish? (5)Student : Not yet mam. (6)
Description
A teacher tends to use indirect command when he or she discusses the
topic related to personal and sosial (interactional) relationship that has subjective
characteristics. In the dialog [2], it can be seen that the teacher used the indirect
order of directive speech acts in the turn (1), (2), (3), and (4). The teacher
explained to her students that if they wanted to write down a text, they had to
understand the words they used. It was equal to reading a text, students had to
understand the vocabularies in that text material. The expressions show the power
forms in indirect order are “... do not only just write and write but try to
understand..” and “...Jangan membaca lewat saja harus dikenali apa maknanya,
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
71
apa maksudnya..” The teacher implicitly command students to understand what
they write and what they read.
Interpretation
In the dialog [2], the teacher used the indirect command to deliver the
teaching material related to personal and sosial relationship. In this case, the
teacher used indirect command to give idea or advice to students in order to
understand with what they write or read. The advices given by a teacher could be
caused that the students used to write and read material without understanding it.
It can be assumed that after given the advice the students will change their old bad
habit. In this dialog it could be seen that a teacher wanted to share her experience
and her students followed the teacher’s habit.
In the context of teacher in the classroom, the teacher had the legitimate,
the referent and expert power. Thomas (1995: 127) says that legitimate power is
the power which comes from role, age, or status. Referent power is the power
which is gained by someone because he or she is admired and many people wants
to be like him or her, and the expert power is the power which is gotten by
someone because of his or her knowledge or skills. In the context of teacher in the
classroom from the dialog [2], a teacher had legitimate power where in the class
the teacher has higher social status than that of students. Because the teacher
wanted her students follow what she did, the teacher wanted to be admired figure
in her class. It is called as referent power. The last, the teacher had expert power
because she was as the source of knowledge.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
72
Explanation
The illocutionary power of indirect command is lower than direct
command. The speaker utters the indirect command to the hearer to give
suggestion and advice. The speaker does not force the hearer do what the speaker
says. In the classroom discourse, the teacher usually used indirect command to
give a description about something good or possitive for students. Teacher as
someone who has more experience and knowledge than students shares to them
what he or she has know in order to give the right view toward a subject or life. It
is usually in form of suggestion or advice.
2). Representation of Power in Request Form
In classroom discourse, the teacher’s request can be classified as the
power representation owned by a teacher toward students. This dialogue described
the power representation in request form by a teacher.
[3] The teacher gives a question and one of students tries to answer.
Teacher : OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan. (1)Student : Get.... get in touch with some body is contact some body. (2)Teacher : Contact some body. (3) How do you know? (4)
Can you make supporting sentence? (5)Student : The speaker says “give me a call”. (6)Teacher : Give me a call means that kontak saya, hubungi saya. (7)
What about the others, Same? (8)Studets : Same. (9)
Description
The situation of dialogue happened when the teacher gave a question to
students. However, no one was brave to answer the question. Then, the teacher
elicited students to answer it by saying “OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba?
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
73
Silahkan”. Finally one of students was ready to answer although he was nervous
that could be seen in repeation word and vibrating sound (in turn 2). In turn 3 of
the dialogue, the teacher repeated the student’s answer and requested student to
give more detail explaination by giving supporting sentences (turn 6). After
student gave supporting sentence, the teacher repeated what the student said and
translated it into Bahasa Indonesia. To assert the answer, the teacher delivered a
question to ask the other students’ agreement by asking “same?” The students
replid by saying “same”.
Interpretation
In the dialogue [3], the teacher gave an elicitation to students to answer
the question by saying “OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan”. It can
be interpreted that the teacher wants the students be active in the class. Teacher
tried not to dominant in the classroom. However, the students did not give the
responses until the teacher elicited them. It could be caused the students’ anxiety
in answering teacher’s question. The anxiety associates with the learner’s
perception of how other onlookers; instructors, classmates or others; may
negatively view their language ability. The anxiety could be in the form of the
feeling of uneasiness, worry and nervousness. The feeling of anxiety can be seen
in how student answered the questions nervously. In the turn (2), the student
answered repeatedly by saying “get.... get in touch...”.
Moreover, in this dialogue, the teacher twice repeated the student’s
answers in turn (3) and (7). First, the teacher repeated the student’s answer of
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
74
“Contact some body”. The second repetation was in the turn (7) “Give me a call”.
Repetation is a kind of teacher’s positive feedback toward student’s response.
According to Viano and Canejos (1996: 131) one functions of repetation done by
a teacher is to confirm student’s production. In this context, the teacher confirmed
the student’s answer.
In turn (5), the teacher delivered an indirect request by saying “Can you
make supporting sentence?”. In this context the teacher wanted students to give
more explanation toward their answer. To know the relationship between teacher
and students, it can be seen from the using of modality words by the teacher in the
classroom. Modality which the teacher used in this request can be categorized as
relational modality (Fairclough: 1989: 126-127). Viewed from the ideology
appears in this sentence where the teacher use the modality “can” is the
relationship between ordinate and subordinate relationship. However it still shows
the humanistic form of power,
Explanation
The activeness of students in the classroom can be seen in their responds
toward teacher’s elicitation or questions. Although the teacher has given them
chance to be active, the students still feel anxiety. Usually they will answer
teacher’s question nervously. The factors of students’ anxiety in the classroom
can be from the students’ perception about the subject and from the students’
perception toward the teacher. The context of dialogue [3] was the situation where
students studied listening subject. Listening is still assumed as the difficult subject
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
75
for Foreign English Students. So it is normally if the student is the dialogue [3]
felt nervous in answering teacher’s question. Because of that, the role of a teacher
in responding students’ answer is very important to avoid students’ saving face in
order they are not asshamed if they answer wrongly.
In dialogue [3], teacher also repeated what the student’s answer. It is a kind of
possitive feedback. Teacher did not correct the student’s answer. The teacher
repeated the student’s answer just to confirm the student’s answer. The teacher
repeated the student’s utterance usually to make it clearer. In this context, because
the student’s answer nervously so the sound did not clear enough to other students
in the classroom. It is clear that the teacher repeated the student’s answer because
the sound of student was not clear because of his anxiety in answering teacher’s
question.
The form of power represented in the dialogue [3] was the teacher’s utterance
“Can you make supporting sentence?”. It was a kind of power in request form
exactly in indirect request. Request act is almost same with command acts where
the speaker want the listener do what the speaker’s say. The difference is just in
the restriction. Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness
than that direct speech acts. The request act has the lower restriction than order
act. Viewed from the ideology appeared in this sentence was the concept of a
superior-subordinate relationship. However, sometimes the power is manifested
unintentionally by a teacher in the classroom. They consider it is a normal thing
happens in the classroom.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
76
3). Representation of Power in Prohibition Form
The power in language in prohibition act is often expressed by the
negative form of the verb, though it may be expressed by the affirmative form as
well. Allan (1986) states that prohibition is a speech act whereby a speaker forbids
someone from doing something. The dialogue [4] shows the power representation
in prohibition form.
[4] Teacher : What is the meaning of breeze not breezy? [1] Student 2 : Angin sepoi-sepoi. [2] Teacher : Do not tell me. [3] Maksudnya jangan di artikan sekarang,
Sementara saya tidak kepo dulu. [4] You will know about the definition of breeze by listening the passage. [5] Do not open your dictionary and do not ask your friend. Ok. [6] Jangan menggunakan fasilitas. [7]
Description
The dialogue [4] describes the situation happened in the classroom where
the teacher asked the meaning of breeze to students in turn [1]. Then one of the
students answered “angin sepoi-sepoi”. The student answered it after looked at
dictionary. Hearing that answer, the teacher replied by saying “Do not tell me”.
Teacher wanted the student not answer based on the dictionary. It is supported by
the following teacher’s argument “Maksudnya jangan di artikan sekarang,
Sementara saya tidak kepo dulu”. After that the teacher asked students to answer
the question based on the listening passage. Once again the teacher asked students
to not open the dictionary or ask to their frineds. Finally the teacher closed her
argument by saying “Jangan menggunakan fasilitas”. From the dialogue [4], it can
be seen that the teacher used the prohibition acts four times, in turn [3] and [7]
once and in turn [6] twice.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
77
Interpretation
From the dialogue [4], it can be seen that the teacher used the prohibition
expression four times. The teacher prohibited students to open the dictionary
because the teacher expected the answer came from the students’ understanding
toward the listening record. In the turn (2), the students answered the meaning of
freezy as angin sepoi-sepoi after they looked at the dictionary. It was not suitable
with the teacher’s expectation. The teacher’s expectation was the meaning of
“freezy” in connotative meaning not as denotative meaning. That the reason why
the teacher prohibited the students to open English-Bahasa Indonesia dictionary.
Besides that the teacher also prohibited students to discuss with othe friends or
use the other facilities such mobile phone.
Explanation
The prohibition expression tends to have high restriction degree where the
speaker prohibit the hearer to do something. It shows that the speaker tries to
dominate the hearer. There is the consequence if the hearer breakes the speaker’s
prohibition. In the classroom discourse, the teacher often performs this act. It can
be related to the teaching process or to the students’ attitude. For example, the
teacher prohibits students to turn on their mobile phone during study. Another
example, the students may not wear slippers in the classroom. The consequences
from this prohibition can be in form of warning or prohibition of studying.
4). Representation of Power in Permission Form
[5] Teacher : Have you found the answer? [1] Sudah dipahami? [2] Belum? [3]Silahkan di coba. [4] Saya coba yang pertama.[5] Get in touch
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
78
with some body. [6] Get in touch bukan berarti anda menyentuh orang lain. [7] So, dari dua kali mendengar dan anda juga menggunakan your prior knowledge. [8] What do you thing about number one? [9] What do you think about get in touch with some body? [10] Is it contact some body atau menghubungi seseorang or move closer? [11] OK, come on, ada yang mau mencoba? Silahkan. [12]
One of students tries to answer.
Student : Get.... get in touch with some body is contact some body. [13]
Description
In the dialogue [5] the teacher expressed the permission expression twice,
in turn [4] “Silahkan di coba” and [12] “ada yang mau mencoba?, silahkan”. The
first expression appeared after the teacher checked the students’ work and the
students’ understanding to the question by saying “Have you found the answer?
[1] Sudah dipahami? [2] Belum? [3]”. After looking at the students’ response
where nobody answered the question, the teacher initiated to give explanation to
elicit students’ respose. The elicitation was done by giving explanation in
Indonesian language, advice to use the students’ prior knowledge and questions.
Then the teacher let students to answer the question. Finally one of students
answered the teacher’s question.
Interpretation
In dialogue [5], it can be seen that there are two contradictions where the
teacher dominated the classroom that can be known from some questions and
explanation and the teacher tried to not dominated the classroom by giving chance
the students to answer, in turn [4] and [12]. The domination of the teacher in
dialogue [5] happened because the teacher saw that the students’ didi not response
her question. The teacher checked the students’ work by asking “Have you found
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
79
the answer?”. Knowing that the students did not response her, the teacher asked
the students’ understanding to the work, in turn [2] and [3]. Then the teacher let
students to answer the question, turn [4]. Because no body answered the question,
the teacher tried to elicit students to answer the question. She explained that the
meaning of get in touch with somebody has the connotative meaning not touch the
someone’s skin. After that the teacher adviced students to use their prior
knowledge to understand the listening passage and gave some triggering
questions. Assuming that she has given some elicitation, the teacher let students to
answer her question. Finally one of them answered the question.
Explanation
In the dialogue [5], it can be interpreted that the permission expression
delivered by the teacher has the purpose to reduce teacher’s domination in the
classroom. The teacher wanted that the students also involved in the classroom
activity. compared to the other directives acts, the permission act has the lower
restriction. The modality “silahkan” shows that the teacher let the students involve
in the classroom activity. In other words, the students may express their argument,
idea, or opinion. So, it can be said that the permission act is the more humanistic
power compared to other directive acts.
5). Representation of Power in Advice Form
[6] Teacher : Which one......? [11] Give somebody something. [12] How do you know? [13] Can you give me supporting sentence? [14] Gak papa yang pentingkan coba dulu. [15] Ketika anda salah di situ adalah mengevaluasi. [16] Just guessing. [17]
Student : Alasannya buk.... [18]
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
80
Teacher : Miss? [19] ...... miss [20](Then teacher appoints another student)
Description
The dialogue [6] describes the situation where the teacher wanted the
students give more explanation about their answer. In the turn (15) and (16) the
teacher gave the advice to students to not be shy in making mistake in answering
the question. The teacher argued that making mistake in answering the question is
normar. The most important thing is that the students are brave to express their
idea or answer. More over, the teacher said that when the students make mistake,
it means they can evaluate their answer. By giving the advice to the students, it
means that the teacher has motivate students to be more active in the classroom.
Interpretation
The duty of teacher is not only to share the knowledge but also to motivate
the students in studying. One way to motivate the students is by giving the advice.
In the dialogue [6] the teacher gave the advice to students twice. First, the teacher
adviced the students to not be shy in making mistake while answering the
questions. It could be seen that the students usually would be silent when the
teacher asked them. They were afraid if their answer were wrong, so the other
students would laugh them. It is the time for the teacher to motivate the students.
The second advice was when the teacher said that when they made mistake
essentially they had evaluated their mistake. They would know in which part they
were wrong. So in the next time they would not make the same mistake.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
81
Explanation
Harmer (1991) says that the motivation that students bring to class is the
biggest single factor affecting their success. It means that the motivated students will be
more successfull that those unmotivated students. One duty of a teacher is to increase
students’ motivation in learning. The teacher has the important role in the class
because the teacher has the authority in managing the classroom. The teacher has
the expert power, the power which is gotten by someone because of his or her
knowledge, skills or experience. Because of his or her expert the teacher can give
advice to the students. In the dialogue [6], the teacher gave the advices to students
by giving motivation. The motivation given by the teacher in order to to increase
students’ self-confident in answering the question.
6). Representation of Power in Asking Act
The power form in asking act can be found in the dialogue below.
[7] Teacher : Let’s go no. 4. (1) Rina.... just telling us (2) Student : annoy (3) Teacher : How do you know annoy? (4) What’s the mean of annoy?
(5) What’s the mean of annoy? (6) Student : jengkel (7) Teacher : Jengkel... (8) How do you know that’s jengkel? (9) Student : ......... Teacher : kenapa? Student : Repeat mam. Teacher : Ok.
Description
The situation in dialogue [7] was when the teacher appointed one of the
students to answer the question. Then the student answered it by saying “annoy”.
After that the teacher gave some questions to clarify the student’s answer. The
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
82
student clarified her answer into Bahasa Indonesia. Because the student’s answer
was not satisfying, the teacher asked again to the student about her answer. The
student still did not answer the teacher’s question. Finally the student requested to
repeat the listening record.
Interpretation
As one of the directive acts, question act potentially represents the
teacher’s power in the classroom. The power element in this act is where the
teacher wanted information from the students about their given question. Stubs
(1983: 104-109) classify the questions into two, yes no question and wh question.
Yes no question is closed question where this question limits the respondent’s
answer. While wh question is open question where the respondent’s answer is not
limited.
In the dialogue [7], the teacher gave five questions to the student. The
questions delivered by the teacher were about the student’s clarrification about her
answer. It happened because the teacher was not satisfied with the student’s
answer. In the first question, the teacher wanted to know how can the student
answer “annoy”. The second question is about the meaning of annoy. While the
third question was same with the second question. This question has function to
stress the meaning of annoy. From the questions given by the teacher, the student
only aswered by translating the meaning of annoy into Bahasa Indonesia. The
student’s answer was not satisfying the teacher. It can be seen from the following
question “How do you know that’s jengkel?”. The student still kept silent and did
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
83
not response the teacher’s request. Finally the students requested to repeat the
listening passage. From the dialogue [7], it can be known how the teacher did not
get the information from the student.
Explanation
Asking as one form of teacher power in the classroom essentially is a
command act in introgative form. Asking is the expression where the speaker
wants information from the hearer. In the context of classroom, the teacher
delivers the question because she or he expects the students can give the
information what the teacher wants. The dialogue [7] showed how the teacher
expected the more information from the student’s answer. However, the teacher
could not get what she wanted. The student just translated from her answer into
Bahasa Indonesia (turn 7). Finally the student requested the teacher to repeat the
listening record.
b). The Representation of Power in Assertive Speech Act
Assertive is one of speech acts that can represent the form of power,
whether by teacher or students. According to Searle (1976), speech acts has
function to inform others about something. This function is very important in the
classroom context, because the process in transfering knowledge, skills, and
attitude in the learning process can not be separated from the process of giving
information. Jumadi (2005: 88) argues that the assertive speech acts that have the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
84
power representation owned by a teacher in classroom discourse such as assertion,
suggestion, maintain, and appraise.
1). Representation of Power in Assertive Act
Assertion act done by a teacher is commonly found in classroom
discourse. A teacher uses this act in the classroom, such to ensure the students
with the teacher’s argument to make they agree with teacher’s idea. The form of
assertion act can be seen in the next dialogue.
[8] Teacher : No. 4. Rina menjawab itu annoy but the reason she needs repetation.(1) Sambil lalu dipending mungkin another ada yang tau supporting sentencenya kayak apa.(2)
Teacher : Diana...(3)Student : Gets something difficult. (4)Teacher : Gets something difficult. (5) How do you know?(6)Student : He does not understand anything.(7)Teacher : He does not understand anything.(8) So, is it same with be
breeze?(9) Jadi sama dengan be breeze?(10) So, actually be breeze at breath fluency something that’s quiet difficult.(11) Remember that when we try to understand about the context, mereka masuk ke sentence is not enough, but we have to know about the intonation.(12) Buktinya intonation dari the speaker kadang mengantar kita ke pemahaman yang sebenarnya.(13) Let me repeat.(14) {Teacher plays the listening recording}.
Teacher : Focus on the phrase freezy.(15)After playing the listening recording, the teacher started discussing the answer with the students Teacher : I don’t understand anything.(16) It makes me.....(170Students : Crazy(18)Teacher :Crazy.(19) Kalau Bahasa Indonesianya anda akan
menyatakannya seperti ini.(20) Saya tidak tahu sama sekali, males saya, jengkel saya.(21) So, actually from the intonation anda tahu seperti apa tadi kan?(22)
Students : Annoy(23)Teacher : Annoy....(24) OK. Let’s go.(25)
Description
The dialogue [8] describes how the teacher wanted not only the answer
from the studen, but also the supporting sentence or the reason from their answer.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
85
This dialogue also showed the teacher power representation in asserting act. The
asserting act done by the teacher was to omit the doubt of the students’ answers.
In this dialogue the teacher gave the question from the listening passage about the
meaning of breeze. First, the teacher asked Rina to answer the question and gave
the supporting sentence. Rina answered it “annoy”. When the teacher asked to
give the supporting sentence, Rina could not give it even she wanted to repeat the
listening recording. The teacher did not accept Rina’s request and the teacher
offered to other students to answer the question. Then the teacher appointed Diana
to answer the question. Diana answer “Gets something difficult”. Diana’s answer
was different with Rina’s answer. When the teacher asked Diana to give suppoting
sentence, Diana said that the speaker says “He does not understand anything”.
To response the Diana’s answer, the teacher wanted the clarification by
repeating the Diana’s answer and asking the similarity between the Diana’s
answer and breeze. The teacher seemed not satisfied with Diana’s answer and
gave the explanation to understand the context of the speaking and listened the
speaker’s intonation. Teacher argued that the speaker’s intonation can bring the
contextual meaning. It shows that the teacher used the asserting act to ensure the
students toward their answers. Teacher did it because the students’ answers were
different each another. Then the teacher repeated the listening recording and asked
students to focus on the phrase breeze.
After playing the listening recording, the teacher explained the meaning
of breeze in Bahasa Indonesia and the intonation of the speaker. In turn (21), (22),
and (23) the teacher asserted the meaning of breeze. So the students understood. It
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
86
can be said that the teacher’s power in asserting the differences among students’
answer will omit the students’ doubt toward the answer.
Viewed from the the using of pronoun, in this dialogue the teacher used
pronoun “we” or “kita” when remained students to understand the context of the
speaking and the the intonation of the speaker. According to Fairclough (1989:
127-128), the use of pronoun “we” shows the solidarity of people where the
participants are on the same ground of ideas or beliefs. It means that the teacher
assumed that she had similarity status with the students as the English foreign
language speakers. However, in the turn (20) and (22), the teacher used pronoun
“anda” means the teacher reduced the solidarity level where the use pronoun
“anda” same with “you” but it has has higher solidarity that “kamu”.
Interpretation
When there are the different arguments whether between students to
student or between the students and teacher, the teacher has to give the assertive
utterances to ensure the students and in order to omit the doubt among students. In
the dialogue [8], there are different answers from Rina and Diana about the
meaning of “breeze”. In the beginning, the teacher asked Rina to support her
answer with the supporting sentence or the reason. Because Rina could not give it,
the teacher pointed Diana to answer the question. However the Diana’s answer
was diffrent with Rina’s answer. So there were two answers from one question.
Because there were two answers, the teacher needed to assert the right
answer. In order to make the students could answer correctly, the teacher
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
87
explained the importance of understanding the speaking context and the speaker’s
intonation and asked the students focused on the “be breeze” phrase. In this
context, it can be assumed that the teacher wanted to assert that in understanding
the meaning of phrase “be brezee” the students must consider the context of
speaking and the intonation of the speaker”. It also happened in turn (21), (22),
and (23) where the teacher asserted the meaning of breeze from the speaker’s
intonation. Finally the students could understand the meaning of breeze. From the
dialogue above, it can be concluded that the teacher successfully ensured students
toward the doubt in answering the question.
Explanation
From the dialogue [8], it can be seen that the teacher manifested her power
in asserting act by performing the ideology that the teacher was someone who
gave knowledge in the classroom and decide the true or not the answer. The
teacher gave explanation how to understand the meaning of a phrase. It shows that
the teacher is a knowledgeable person. By sharing her knowledge she hoped the
students could follow her idea. In addition, the teacher also prefered asking
students to think by using their own knowledge to understand English words
based on the context rather than asking them to open the dictionary.
In this dialogue it also can be seen that the teacher has the authority to ask
the clarification from the students’ answer. The teacher asked the student to
clarify her answer five times, two times after Diana answered the questions and
three times after Diana gave supporting sentence. In addition, in this dialogue, the
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
88
teacher did not gave clarification toward students’ answer whether it was correct
or incorrect. Consequently, Diana might assume that Rina’s answer was incorrect,
so she chose different answer.
2). Representation of Power in Maintain Act
[9] Teacher : I have a game dimana nanti saya akan hitung sampai 20 dan
nanti berhenti dan kertas ini tidak boleh berhenti.(1)
The teacher shows some pieces of paper that will be used for the game. Suddenly students make noisy and refuse that game. Teacher : I have no. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.(2) Ada lima soal. Siapa yang
kebagian ini (paper) harus menjawab soal.(3)Students still make noisy to refuse the teacher’s proposal.Students : Gak mau pak.... gak mau....(4)Teacher : Jangan biasakan menjawab tidak mau.(5) Harapan saya yang
penting dijawab.(6) Pertanyaan ada di soal selanjutnya.(7)Teacher shows the material book.
Description
The dialogue [9] occured when the class entered the middle of teaching
learning activity. The dialogue describes the situation where the teacher proposed
the game to students in the classroom. This game had purpose to make the
learning will be more enjoyable and to refresh the classroom atmosphere. Teacher
argued that the situation of the class was not condussive yet after having lecture
around one hour. However, the students did not agree with the teacher’s proposal
and refused it. The teacher continued his argument by giving explanation that he
had five pieces of paper with numbers one until five and had prepared five
questions that must be answered. Listening the teacher’s explanation, the students
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
89
still refused the teacher’s idea. Then the teacher adviced students to not refuse his
idea. The teacher just expected students could answer the question given. The
teachers added that the question were from the book that they had. Finally the
students agreed with the teacher’s idea.
Interpretation
Teacher as one who has an authority in the classroom, can force his or her
idea to students. The force used in the classroom has the purpose in order to the
teacher’s idea can be accepted or agreed by students. From the turn (5), (6) and
(7), we can see that the teacher endeavorded to maintain his idea in order to be
accepted by students. In the first sentence of maintaining act was the prohibiton
form. Teacher used in suggested students to not complain with his idea.
Essentially, the prohibition is a negative form of command expression. Then the
teacher started lowering the command by giving the teacher’s expectation. To
make his idea was accepted, the teacher informed that the question were in the
student’s book. It could reduce the students’ anxiety toward the teacher’s
questions.
Explanation
Maintaining the argument can be categorized as the power manifestation
by a teacher in the classroom. In the context of classroom discourse, the teacher
endovours his or her argument in order to apply the teacher’s plan. Before
teaching in the classroom, a teacher must prepare his or her lesson plan. Lesson
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
90
plan cointains the goal of learning, the teaching activity, exercise, teaching
evaluation and etc. In the dialogue [9], the teacher has prepared a game in order to
refresh the classroom atmosphere. The situation of the classroom in the dialogue
[9] was at 2. pm. It means that the students were tired.
Usually when a teacher offers the game to students, they will agree.
However, when a teacher in this dialogue said that there were questions that must
be answere, the studenst became anxious. They tried to refuse the teacher’s idea.
As one who has legitimation in managing the classroom, a teacher tried to
maintain his idea. It can be seen that the teacher wanted to show that he has power
in the classroom.
c). The Representation of Power in Expressive Speech Act
In this research, there are two kinds of expressive act; pleasure expression
and displeasure expression. These expressions contains the power manifestation in
the context of classroom discourse.
1). Representation of Power in Pleasure Expression Act
Here is the dialogue that shows how a teacher express his or her pleasure
in the classroom.
[10] Teacher : Remember that when you answer the questions, when you choose the answer whether A, B, C or D, you have to give the following reason. (1) Kenapa anda menjawab itu, kenapa anda menjawab ini. (2) Ok! (3) It means that support your answer by giving me the sentence, paham?(4)
Students : Yes.(5)Teacher : Good. You know what I hope. (6) Can we start now? (7)Students : Yeah. (8)
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
91
Description
The Dialogue [10] turn (6) describes the pleasure expression from a
teacher toward students’ response. The teacher uttered the pleasure expression
after hearing students’ response toward teacher’s explanation. In this dialogue, the
teacher gave explanation about how to answer the question. Teacher stated that
when students answered the question, they must support it with the reason. In the
last explanation, the teacher uttered the tag question “paham?” to stress that the
students understood the teacher’s explanation. Then, students answered that they
understood. The teacher replied “good. You know what I hope”. From this
expression, the teacher was happy and satisfied with the students’ response. The
students’ response was suitable with what teacher’s expectation.
Interpretation
In teaching learning process, a teacher will be happy when the students do
what the teacher’s expectation such as understand with teacher’s explanation or
instruction, answer correctly the teacher’s question, do what the teacher’s ask, and
etc. The teacher will express his or her pleasure in the form of expressive act. In
the dialogue [10], the teacher expressed her pleasure after receiving students’
response toward her instruction. In turn (1), (2), (3) amd (4) the teacher gave
instruction to students to give explanation with their answer. The teacher asked
them whether they understood or not with the instruction. The students said “yes”.
It means they understood the teacher’s instruction. In turn (6) the teacher
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
92
expressed her pleasure by saying “good. You know what I want”. This expession
showed the teacher were happy and satisfied toward students’ understanding.
Explanation
In classroom discourse, usually the use of expressive act in pleasure form
is the result of response toward hearer’s act. It is a form of reward given by the
speaker to the hearer because the speaker is happy toward with what he or she
expected to the hearer is done by the hearer. In the classroom context, giving
reward is important. Reward given by a teacher in the classroom can raise
students’ motivation and attitude in learning. The student assume that the teacher
has appraise them. In other words, the reward given by a teacher in pleasure
expression is a form of power owned by a teacher.
2). Representation of Power in Displeasure Expression Act
Besides expressing pleasure, the teacher also ever express the displeasure.
Here is the dialogue that shows how a teacher express his or her pleasure in the
classroom.
[11] (Teacher goes around the class checking the students’ work, stops to one of students’ seat and responds to one student’s work)Teacher : What about you, finish? (1)Student : Not yet mam. (20Teacher : Pulpennya gitu, gak jelas pulpennya. (3)Then the teacher leaves him.
Description
The dialogue [11] describes the situation when a teacher went around the
classroom to check the students’ work. Then the teacher stopped to one student’s
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
93
seat. The teacher asked to that student about his work. The student responsed her
by saying “not yet mam”. After looking at student’s work, the teacher commented
about the form of student’s writing “Pulpennya gitu, gak jels pulpennya” and left
him. It shows that the teacher expressed the displeasure after looking at student’s
work. The teacher’s comment was not about the result of student’s work but about
the form of student’s writing which was not clear. The student did not write by
using a good pen so it was not clear.
Interpretation
Besides pleasure expression, displeasure expression commonly used by a teacer in
the classroom. It can be caused that the teacher is not satisfiied with the students’
acts or responses. As one who has an authority in the classroom, a teacher hope
the students do what she or he wants. However, not all the teacher’s instruction
can be done well by the students. Intentionally or unintentionally the teacher
expresses the displeasure. In the dialogue [11], the teacher expressed her
displeasure after looking at one student’s work. The teacher did not comment the
result of student’s work but the style of student’s writing. Teacher commented the
pen used by a student which was not clear. In this context, the teacher did not
explicitly asked student to change his pen because she assumed her students
mature enough to decide right or wrong thing. Here we can see that the teacher
showed her power in form of displeasure expression. The effect of an displeasure,
the teacher left the student without commenting the result of student’s work.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
94
Explanation
In the teaching learning process, the use of displeasure expression by a
teacher can give a certain restriction to students. If happy expression is identified
as reward, displeasure expression can be assumed as a punishment which has
negative effect to students. For a teacher, displeasure expression is a form of
response to the classroom conditions such as student’s attitude and classroom
atmosphere. By expressing displeasure, the teacher expected something from the
students. In the dialogue [11], the teacher express her displeasure after looking at
the writing style of students. The teacher felt uncomfortable reading student’s
work. Implicitly, the teacher wanted that student changed his pen to better one.
2. The Implication of Power in Language Manifestation by Teachers
Toward Students’ Learning Attitude.
The manifestation of power does not only happen in politic activity but
also in the classroom activity. The application of power in language usually done
by a teacher because he or she has legitimation to control the class. The forms of
power that teachers do in the classroom involve making the regulation before,
during, and after the teaching learning process, distributing someone’s speaking in
the classroom, controlling the topic of learning, and etc. Usually before teaching
and learning conducted, a teacher will make a learning contract. The learning
contract is an agreement or a regulation between teacher and students containing
their duties and responsibility in the implementation of their teaching learning
process. It is arranged by teachers that is needed by students in a lesson, which is
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
95
in accordance with the demands of the course curriculum followed by students. It
means that the learning contract is a form of power owned by a teacher in
controlling the classroom. For the teacher, it is important for every class or subject
makes an agreement before the teaching learning activities conducted. It is
suitable with the teacher who became informant in this research when researcher
asked the importance of learning contract. The informant says:
“Kontrak belajar merupakan interaksi antara mahasiswa dengan dosen
yang tidak hanya berupa pengajaran tetapi juga berupa kontrak yang merupakan
kesepakatan antara mahasiswa dan dosen yang tidak hanya berupa materi yang
akan diajar tetapi juga berupa aturan-aturan atau rule-rule nya yang akan
disepakati dalam perkuliahan tersebut. Contohnya aturan sebelum masuk atau
penilaian. Hal itu sangat penting. Sehingga anak itu sudah menggunakan
metakognitifnya, dia sudah mempunyai strategi apa yang harus dilakukan dalam
perkuliahan ini. Bagaimana resikonya dan seterusnya. Dan resiko tersebut pasti
akan terakumulasi di nilai.”
From the explanation above, the teacher argued that the learning contract
is important for the continuity the teaching learning process. The learning contract
is an agreement between the teacher and students not only about the teaching
material, but also the rules or regulations during the teaching learning process.
The regulations can be in form of the rules of attending the class or the students’
score. More over, the teacher said that the learning contract can train students use
their cognitive competence, so they have the strategy during the study. They will
know the risk from breaking the rules that will be accumulated to their score. It
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
96
can be concluded that the learning contract has power to push students obey the
regulations.
The purpose of learning contract application is how to manage class in
order to gain the goal of learning. The object of this regulation is students.
According to students who became the informants of this research that they
argued that the learning contract is very important for students where they will
know the description of the subject and the method used by the teacher. In
addition, they said that the learning contract was also about the regulations in the
class such as the studying time and punishment. For the efeectiveness of this
contract the student said that “lumayan efektif, karena masih ada mahasiswa yang
meremehkan. It means that the implementation of learning contract was effective
enough. However, there are some students underestimated it. It can be concluded
that the learning contract is an agreement between the teacher and students
containing the subject description, teaching method, regulations, and punishment
in order to gain the learning goal. The learning contract can be as an instrument
for teacher to controll the classroom activities. It can be implied that the learning
contract is one of power manifestations owned by a teacher.
The form of teacher power not only in making regulation, but also in
teacher’s utterances. Because the teacher has an authority in the classroom,
teacher’s utteraces have power that affect to students’ learning attitude. Here were
the the influeces of teacher’s power in language toward students’ learning attitude.
that were divided into three speech act forms; power in directive speech act,
assertive speech acts and expressive speech acts.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
97
a). The influence of Power in Directive Speech Acts
Teacher’s directive utterances potentially produce the power form. The
illocutionary power of these utterances is the attempt to get students to do
something. The directive speech acts can be categorized into six. They are power
in Command form, power in Request form, power in Prohibition form, power in
Permission form, power in Advice form, and power in Asking form.
1). Power in Command Form
Teacher in the classroom, intentionally or unintentionally giving command
to the student. According to teacher they said that “wajar, karena anak tidak sama
kesadarannya”. It means that the teacher assumed it was normal to give command
to students because not all students has the consciousness. It can be implied that
the teacher considered the power of teacher in command form is normally
happend in classroom discourse. Teacher can give commad because his or her
authority in the classroom.
If the teacher considered that the command act was normally happended in
the classroom, the students said that it was normal but they argue that not all
teacher gave command especially the new teacher.
“...untuk yang benar-benar dosen dalam tanda kutip memang banyak sih memerintah seperti bawa kamus..... tapi bagi dosen yang masih baru atau yang magang boleh diberi kelonggaran”
When they were asked about their feeling toward the teacher’s command
utterances, they said that it was ok and no problem. However, one of students said
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
98
he would be more respect the command of STKIP teachers rather than the invited
teachers. As information that in STKIP, there are two kinds of teachers; the
teachers owned by STKIP and invited teachers. It can be seen that the status of
teacher has power to ensure students in the classroom. The students will be more
respect the command of STKIP teachers’ rather than the invited teachers. While
asked about when they disagreed with the teacher’s command, the students said
that they disagreed when the students had to bring the dictionary. They argued
that they have ever disagreed with the teacher’s command. As stated by one
student below:
“bagi mahasiswa, kalau saya berpendapat itu bagus, Cuma menurut pandangan sih masak bahasa Inggris trus waktu kuliah masih bawa kamus, kok kayak SD atau SMA gitu”.
From that student’s argument, it can be seen that the student disagreed with the
teacher’s command when the students had to bring the dictionary to campus.
They assumed that it looked like the school students. Although, the student
disagreed, they argued that they still obeyed the teacher’s command. In other
words, the students were not brave to utter they disagreement. They still respect of
the teacher’s command. It can be concluded that the teacher’s command has the
illocutionary power. The effect of teacher’s power in command form toward the
students’ learning attitude is the students are not brave to utter honestly about
their feeling when they disagree with the teacher’s command.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
99
2). Power in Request Form
In the classroom discourse, a teacher commonly utters the request
expression when he or she needs something. Request is more polite form of
command. The students usually have no objection when a teacher asks them to do
something. The response of the teachers when they were asked about the
teacher’s request act were that it was normal for the teacher to ask students to do
something. They added that usually the students enjoyed doing the teacher’s
request. Similar to the teacher, the students argued that they were enjoyable when
a teacher asked them do something.
Usually the teacher asked the students to take the in focus, attendance list
or books in the office. Here was the example of teacher’s request expression to
students: “Could you take the books in my locker, please”. From the form of
request it was the polite form where the teacher used the past tense. When the
student were asked about his response toward that teacher’s request the student
said that “Wajar aja, lagian gak enak juga sama dosennya gitu”. It means that it
was natural if the student did the teacher’s request. However, from the student’s
response it can be implied that the student did not have the heart to refuse the
teacher’s request. It can be concluded that there is no negative effect toward
students’ learning attitude when the teacher performs the request act in the
classroom. The students are enjoyable do the teacher’s request because they
assume it is a natural thing.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
100
3). Power in Prohibition Form
As a controller of classroom atmosphere, a teacher often makes regulations
in form of prohibition. In the classroom discourse, the teacher prohibits the
students to do something can be related to the subject or related to the students’
attitude. Here are some prohibitions in Indonesian classroom:
- Students may not smoke in the classroom.
- Students may not wear slippers in campus.
- Students may not attend the class if they are late more than 15 minutes.
- Students may not activate their mobile phone in the classroom. etc
Asked about the prohibition act conducted by a teacher in the classroom,
here is the teacher’s response:
“... sedikit banyak saya ingatkan (untuk tidak merokok, mencontek), bukan berarti 100 % saya sikapkan. Paling tidak minimal mereka punya perasaan tidak enak sendiri.”
From the teacher’s response above it can be seen that the teacher tried to remain
students to not break the campus’ regulations such as not smoking in the
classroom or cheating in the test. However, the teacher assumed that the students
were mature enough to decide which one was permitted and which one was
prohibitted. Thus, they would be ashamed if they broke the regulations.
To know the students’ response toward the teacher’s prohibition act, here
was the student argument.
“ Mengenai larangan itu kadang-kadang, kalau sesuatu yang penting itu wajib. Contohnya waktu mata kuliah pelajaran itu ada yang main HP misalnya ada HPnya bunyi. Respon gurunya langsung tegas untuk mematikan HPnya atau keluar”
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
101
From the student’s argument above, it can be inferred that the student’s argument
almost same with the teacher’s argument where the teacher sometimes remained
them to not do something unless it was important. The student gave an example
when a student’s mobile phone rang in teaching learning process, the teacher
woud warn student to turn off the phone or ask that student to get out. It can be
implied that the teacher does not always remain students to not do something in
the class because the teacher assumes that the university students are mature
enough unless for the important thing such to turn off the mobile phone in
teaching learning process.
When asked the students’ respons toward the teacher’s prohibition, the
teacher said that:
“The students are welcome karena saya bilang itu untuk hal-hal tertentu tidak semuanya ketika membahas topik ini anda jangan membuka kamus untuk topik ini silahkan karena contohnya ketika di listening tidak ada waktu untuk membuka kamus ketika masuk ke tes. Di biasakan dari sekarang”.
It means that the teacher considered that the student would be welcomed with the
teacher’s prohibition act. The teacher prohibitted students for certain condition
like not to open dictionary in listening subject because the teacher argued that the
students did not enough time to open the dictionary. The teacher added that this
prohibition would train students’ listening ability. It can be implied that the
teacher’s power in prohibition form has the illocutionary power where the teacher
controll the students by limiting the students’ activities. Moreover, the teacher
assumed that the students would accept the teacher’s prohibition act.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
102
Perceiving the teacher’s power in prohibition form, a student argued that
the students must obey the regulations in the learning contract. However, he said
that the students could take permission to teacher if they would do something that
was not suitable with the regulation. He told an experience where there was a
student asked permission to the teacher to turn off his mobile phone because he
waited the important information.
However, sometimes a student ever broke the campus rules. One of
students told that he was found smoking in the classroom. His response just
grimaced and stopped smoking. As information that STKIP prohibits its students
to smoke in the campus area. From the students’ explanation, it can be described
that the teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’ attitude. The
students consider that the teacher’s prohibition is a must. However, the teacher
does not apply it rigitly. It can be negotiated as long as it was proper.
4). Power in Permission Form
In classroom discourse, a teacher commonly performs the permission act.
The teacher permits students to do something. It indicates that the teacher has an
authority to students. Here are the examples of teacher permission acts toward
students. The teacher lets students come to the classroom. The teacher lets
students go home earlier. The students let students to giving or answering the
questions. Asked about the teacher’s permission act, here was the teacher’s
response.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
103
“Tidak masalah asal tidak dibuat-buat kadang saya ya wajar-wajar saja, tetapi untuk HP baru saya tegur. Sebenanya untuk HP sudah saya bilang tong di silent kan atau di off kan dulu. Toleransi.. belajar toleransi.”
From the teacher’s response above, it can be seen that the teacher said that it was
natural as long as it was still in proper. However there was an regulation that
cannot be toleranted such turning off the mobile phone in the classroom.
Moreover, the teacher said that it trained students to be tolerant to the teacher and
other students. To perceive the teacher’s permission act, here was the student’s
response:
“Contoh bentuk izin seperti pulang cepat dan datang terlambat. Untuk pulang cepat memang boleh asalkan penting banget, sedangkan untuk datang terlambat maksimal dua pertemuan dan boleh masuk kalau sudah di izin kan”.
Viewed from the student’s response above, it can be interpreted that there was a
condition where the teacher gave permission to the students. The condition
usually had been discussed in learning contract at the first meeting.
Based on the researcher observation, the form of permittion acts not only
let students go home earlier or let the late students attend the class, but also in
form of letting students asking ans answering the question. The students would be
happy if they are permitted to give the questions or to answer the questions. On
the contrary, the researcher saw the students felt disappointed whet they were not
permitted to gave or answer the questions. It can be concluded that the permission
act of a teacher potentially contains the power representation. The teacher can
decide which one may be done and which one may not be done by students in the
classroom. Because it has been discussed between the teacher and students, it can
be assumed that this directive act influence the students’ learning attitude
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
104
especially related to the learning in the classroom. Furthermore, it has lees
negative effect when the teacher does not permit the late students attend the
classroom, because the students has known it has been discussed in the learning
contarct. So, they know the risk of breaking the learning contract.
5). Power in Advice Form
Advice is a directive acts commonly used by a teacher in the classroom. it
can be categorized as the humanistic power representation. The teacher usually
advices the students because the teacher assumes that he or she has more
knowledge, experience, or information than students. By sharing these wisdoms,
the teacher expects the students will get inspiration. Here was the teacher’s
response toward teacher’s power in advice form.
“Saya selalu memasukkan nasehat karena tidak hanya mengajar tapi saya juga mendidik, minimal bagaimana karakter dia, kenapa mereka di beri materi ini seperti untuk apa kedepannya. Kalau anda menjadi guru anda akan seperti ini. Saya beri tahu mereka. Jadi mereka tidak hanya di isi akademiknya saja tapi juga culture habit. Hati mereka juga harus diimbangi.”
From the teacher’s response above, it can be seen that the teacher always inserts
the advice during teaching learning activities. The teacher argued that the duty of
teacher was not only teaching but also educating the students. It was important to
build the students’ character. Moreover, they are the teachers to be. They will do
the same thing; advicing the students. It can be inferred that the teacher has
performed the expert and legitimate power, the power owned by someone because
of having the knowledge and because of his or her status.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
105
When the researcher asked the students’ response toward teacher’s advice,
the students said that the teacher used to give advice to students especially in
motivating students. Here was the student’s response toward teacher’s advice.
“Dosen selalu memberikan nasehat biasanya berupa motivasi. Mahasiswa senang dan tidak ada masalah soalnya kan mahasiswa disini juga gitu. Jadi dosennya sudah tahu kualitas mahasiswa disini. Biasanya saran berupa semangan dan juga pendidikan.”
From the student’s response, it can be interpreted that usually the teacher gave
advice in form of motivation and related to the education. The students assumed
that it was not a problem if a teacher adviced them and they were happy.
Moreover, the students said that the teacher gave advice because the teacher knew
the quality of students. However , the teacher assumed that the students were
happy when the teacher adviced them even they considered the teacher as their
mother. Here was the teacher’s argument about the students’response toward the
teacher’s advice.
“Alhamdulillah mereka senang, bahkan ada yang memanggil saya bunda. Mungkin mereka menganggap saya jadi ibu bagi mereka”.
Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the teacher’s
advice is very important to raise students’ motivation. The content of teacher’s
advice can be about students’ character, learning motivation, or education. The
students’ perception toward teacher’s advice was positive. It means that the
teacher’s advice influeces students’ learning attitude.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
106
6). Power in Asking Form
Asking is one form of power representation conducted by a teacher in the
classroom. The illocutiory power of this act is the teacher wants information from
the students. Allen and Guy (1978:165) say that there are four fuctions of question
in classroom discourse. They are to clarification, repetation, verification and
searching information. Here was the response of teacher about the teacher’s power
in asking form:
“Biasanya kalau saya lebih suka mengajukan pertanyaan siapa yang bisa menjawab silahkan ancungkan tangan. Biasanya tidak ada kriteria kepada siapa pertanyaan itu diajukan, biasanya berdasarkan absen biar lebih objektif”.
From the teacher’s explanation, it can be seen that the teacher did not have the
special criteria to whom the question would be given and the fuction of question
was to get information about the teacher’s question. While based on the researcher
observation, the researcher found other forms of question given by the teachers,
for example in clarifying the students’ answer (can you give supporting sentence?)
and verification (You mean annoying?). When the researcher asked to the
students about teacher’s asking act, they said that “Biasanya habis penjelasan
diumpankan ke mahasiswa”. It means that the teacher usually gave the question
after explaining the teaching material. Furtermore, talking about the students’
response toward teacher’s question they argued that “Lumayan senang kadang
deg-degan terutama kalau dosennya killer”. In other words, the student was pretty
happy with the teacher’s question, but the student also nervour especially toward
fierce teacher.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
107
From the teacher’s explanation and students’ response toward teacher’s
question, it can be implied that the asking form has the influece to students’
learning attitude where they are so afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions.
They argued that they were anxiety if their answer was incorrect. It was suitable
with the researcher’s observation in the classroom. The researcher found that the
students who were not ready to answer the teacher’s question would answer
shakily.
b). The influence of Power in Assertive Speech Acts
Assertive act is a form of power represented by a teacher in the classroom.
Teacher’s assertive utterances potentially produce the power form. According to
Searle in Jumadi (2005:88) that assertve act has the function to inform someone
about something. Moreover Jumadi (2005:88) says that viewed from its function,
this speech act tends to represent an expert power. In this research, the researcher
classified this speech act performed by a teacher in the classroom into two:
assertion in clarifying students’ different idea and in maintaining teacher’s
argument.
1). Power in Asserting Form
The use of assertive power by a teacher in the classroom can be found
easily especially in discussion. The different of students’ opinion in answering a
question or in arguing a topic can produce a doubt among students. The teacher as
a fasilitator in the classroom should take a part in mediating this difference. In
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
108
other words, it can be said that the teacher can intervere by asserting an answer to
avoid a difference in the classroom in order to get the correct information.
Perceiving the teacher’s intervention by asserting in the classroom, here
was the teacher’s response:
“Kalau ada perbedaan pendapat. Kalau dalam hal materi iya (intervensi), kalau diluar materi saya biarkan dulu. Contohnya dalam presentasi. Saya biarkan dulu. Saya ingin tahu anak itu mengeluarkan curiosity rasa penasaran mereka. Saya biarkan dulu baru saya evaluasi. Pertama presenternya dulu baru partisipannya, dan baru saya pertemukan keduanya itu. Jadi sama-sama saya evaluasi keduanya. Jadi saya biarkan dulu sementara saya penegn tahu bagaimana attitude mereka, tidak langsung mengcut.”
In this teacher’s explanation, there was an intervetion from a teacher when there
was the different opinion in a discussion. However, the teacher did not directly
interfere this debate. The teacher gave chance to students to express their idea.
After that, the teacher will evaluate them, firstly from the presenter and continued
to the participants in the classroom. Finally, the teacher will inform the correct
one. It can be assumed that the teacher assertion wa important in clarifying some
students’ idea. It shows that the teacher has the power to influence students’
opinion. It was also supported by students where they agreed if the teacher must
interfere the different argument in a discussion. Here was the stduent’s opinion:
“Iya harusnya selalu ada karena dosen sebagai fasilitator ikut berpartisipasi juga. Kalau ada perbedaan pasti di tengahi”
From the teacher’s and student’s opinion, it can be concluded that the teacher’s
assertion always needed in moderating the students’ differences. Indeed it will
influece stuedents’ perception toward a learning. Students’ will be more confident
in expressing their idea.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
109
2). Power in Maintain Form
In the classroom discourse, the different argument between a teacher and
students commonly happens. As a human being, a teacher can make an error or
mistake. Even in digital era where the information can be gotten easily gives
chance to students to get information not only from the teachers but also from
internet. It will be possible the students know earlier than a teacher. A good
teacher will be respect toward information or correction from the students.
However, there are so many teachers defend their argument. To perceive it it was
the teacher’s response:
“Saya welcome (terhadap perbedaan pendapat tersebut), kalau ada perbedaan saya akan bawa sumbernya dan menyuruh mahasiswa bawa bukunya. Dan saya akan mengatakan bahwa saya tidak sempurna. Pernah ada perbedaan tentang perguruan tinggi. (kalau ada perbedaan) kita tanya ke sumber lain. Kalau berkaitan tentang teori bawa bukunya dan kita bahas. Jika berkaitan dengan update informasi kita browning internet.”
In this teacher opinion, the teacher was very welcomed in responding the different
argument with students. Teacher invited students to discuss the differences and
asked students to find other sources as comparison. In addition, the use of internet
was useful as the references. It can be interpreted that the teacher very appreciated
the students’ opinion. The teacher did not consider the students’ argument as a
harm. The students had different oipinion about this. One of them said that
sometimes the teacher defended his or her argument. Finally the students agreed
with the teacher’s argument in the class but they were still unsatisfied. Commonly
they just grumbled in the outside of the class. It can be concluded that the teacher
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
110
may defend his or her argument but it must be proved by the data or theory. The
students will grumble at outside the class as a form of their unsatisfication. It can
be seen that teacher’s defend act has the influence to students’ learning attitude.
The students will be happy if the teacher appreciate their argument. In contrary,
they will grumble outside the class because of teacher’s defence act.
c). The Influence of Power in Expressive Speech Acts
Expressive speech acts are the forms of speech acts to express the
psychological feeling of speakers such as pleasure, displeasure, pity, and etc. In
the classroom discourse the teacher’s pleasure and displeasure expression have the
illocutionary power. Because these acts has the power representation, these will
have the influece to students’ learning attitude. Here are the explanation.
1). Power in Pleasure Expression Form
The expression of pleasure is commonly performed in the classroom
especially by the teacher. The teacher uses this expression as a positive response
toward students’ act where it is also to show teacher’s appreciation. By giving this
expression it will affect to student’s learning attitude. The students tend to be
happy when they get teacher’s appreciation. To know about this expression, here
wa the teacher’s argument.
“Penting bagi seorang pengajar memberikan apresiasi terhadap keberanian anak dalam menjawab ataupun bertanya. Dengan begitu anak tersebut akan lebih termotivasi untuk aktif di kelas. Bentuk apresiasi itu bisa berupa applause atau good. Dan yang pasti bisa memotivasi siswa yang lain untuk lebih aktif lagi.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
111
It can be inferred that the teacher’s pleasure expression was good for student to
raise students’ motivation in the classroom. It was a form of teacher’s appresiation
toward students’ activeness in the classroom. Furthermore, it will spread the
students’ braveness and motivation to other students. The form of this
appreciation can be in form of applause or praise expression like “good”.
The students agreed with the teacher’s argument that appreciation is
important to raise student’s motivation. Here was the student’s argument.
“Iya ada biasanya berupa tepuk tangan atau mengatakan good. Menurut saya itu bagus karena apa ya... pokoknya mahasiswa itu senang. Ada rasa kepuasan tersendiri sehingga kita ingin lagi dan lagi”.
From the student’s argument, it can be seen that the students would be happy
when the teacher appreciated them. It would trigger students to be more active in
the classroom. In other words, the teacher’s pleasure expression can increase
students’ motivation. Automatically the students will be more interested with the
study.
2). Power in Displeasure Expression Form
Besides pleasure expression, in the classroom the teacher also often utter
the displeasure expression. The teacher uses this expression as a negative response
toward students’ action where it is also to show teacher’s punishment. For
example from the researcher observation where the teacher expressed her
displeasure when she looked at students’ hand writing style. This expression also
tends to be used in responding students’ answer. However, based on the
observation the teacher never used this expession to respond the students’ wrong
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
112
answer. It is also suitable with the teacher’s argument about it. Here was the
teacher’s argument about the using of displeasure expression:
“Tidak masalah mahasiswa buat salah, saya biasa mengatakan bagus mungkin ada yang menambahkan. Tapi saya lihat dulu untuk semester awal saya akan mengatakan seperti itu. Tapi semester delapan, ketika tidak fokus terhadap apa yang diminta saya agak keberatan dan akan di tegur. Pokoknya beda treatmentnya.“Saya akan panggil, saya beritahu kepada dia, jadi kalau dapat sekian jangan salahkan saya. Biarkan dia berpikir. Karena sudah cukup dewasa. Yang penting sudah saya ingatkan bagaimana responnya dia dia harus nego dengan dirinya sendiri”.
The teacher said that she would not blame students when tehy made mistake in
answering the question. Teacher would offered to another student to answer the
question. However, it would be different if the eighth semester students made
mistake. The teacher would warn them to be focus with teacher’s request. Teacher
argued that they were mature enough to decide the right thing. It can be inferred
that the teacher avoided using displeasure expression in the classroom.
In accordance with the teacher’s argument, the students argued that the
teacher never complained or uttered the displeasure expression in the classroom.
However, they said that they would be displeasure if the teacher blamed the
students’ mistake. It has ever occured when the researcher did observation in the
classroom, the student was ashamed when the teacher complained the student’s
work. This expression has negative effect to students’ learning attitude. The
students will be less confident. In conclusion, the displeasure expression has the
high restriction of illocutionary power. By avoiding this expression means the
teacher has appreciated the students’ work.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
113
Finally, the researcher concludes the finding of this research as follows:
1. In the classroom discourse, a teacher can represent his or her power in
language into some speech acts forms. They are directive, assertive and
expressive. The directive speech acts are the teacher’s utterances as the
attempt of teacher to get students do something. The directive speech acts
can be classified into six forms of act; command request, prohibition,
permission advice, and question. Next, the assertive speech acts, the
utterance of a teacher to ensure the students with the teacher’s argument to
make they agree or believe with teacher’s idea. It can be classified into
assertion and maintain acts. The last, the expressive speech acts, the
teacher’s psychological states about the students. It can be classified into
pleasure and displeasure expressions.
2. The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence
students’ learning attitude.
Directive speech acts
a. Command act:
- The students are fine with the teacher’s command act. However,
the status of teacher will influence their degree of respect toward
teacher’s command.
- The students are not brave to utter honestly to refuse the teacher’s
command. Consequently, they do the teacher’s command not
sincerely.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
114
b. Request act:
- The students are enjoyful do the teacher’s request because they
assume it is a natural thing.
- There is no negative effect toward students’ learning attitude when
the teacher performs the request act in the classroom.
c. Prohibition act
- The teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’
attitude because the students consider that the teacher’s prohibition
is a must. There are the consequences if the students break the
prohibition. It train students to be more discipline.
- Some teachers do not apply prohibitionit rigitly. It can be
negotiated as long as it was proper.
d. Permission act
- Students consider that the teacher’s permission act has less
negative effect to them because they have known the items that
may or may not done by the students during study.
- Generally, the teacher has announced the regulations about
permission before the teaching learning activity and the students
has known the risk of breaking the regulation.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
115
e. Advice act
- The teacher’s advice influences students’ learning attitude towards
positive side because it can increase students’ motivation and add
students’ knowledge, information and experience.
- The teacher’s advice gives the description to students about
students’ character, students’ future, learning motivation, and
education field.
f. Asking act
- The asking act has the influece to students’ learning attitude.
Students tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions.
- The students argue that they are so anxious because they are afraid
if their answer is wrong.
Assertive speech acts
a. Assertion act:
- Students need teacher’s intervention when there are different
arguments among students.
- In moderating the differences among students’ arguments, the
teacher has to be objective.
b. Maintain act:
- The students will be happy if the teacher appreciate their argument.
In contrary, they will grumble at outside the class if the teacher too
defend his or her arguments.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
116
- In defending his or her argument, the teacher shoud provide the
data or theory because he or she will be a model for his or her
students.
Expressive speech acts
a. Pleasure act:
- The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more
active in the classroom.
- The teacher’s pleasure expression can increase students’ motivation
because the students assume it is as the form of teacher’s
appreciation to them.
b. Displeasure act:
- The students assume that teacher’s displeasure act will affect to
their learning attitude because they will be ashamed when the
teacher complains their work.
- The displeasure expression has the high restriction of illocutionary
power. So, the teacher should avoid using this expression in the
classroom.
3. Factors affecting teachers’ power in the classroom are:
1. Teachers’ status.
The teachers’ status in the school will influence the respect degree of
students to teachers’ power. The higher status of a teacher in the the
school, the higher respect of students to teachers.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
117
2. Teachers’ teaching experience.
The experienced teachers usually have more powerful than new ones in
managing the classroom because they are more respectable in students’
view.
3. Teachers’ education background.
Teachers’ education background influences the teachers’ trustworthiness.
B. Discussion
Regarding the findings of this research, there are some theories that can be
generated. In this case, the researcher grounded the theory into two: Firstly, The
teacher performs a power manifestation in the classroom as an effort to controll
the teaching learning process. And secondly, the implementation of teacher’s
power in the classroom has an effect toward students’ learning attitude.
1. The Teacher Performs A Power Manifestation in the Classroom as An
Effort to Controll the Teaching Learning Process
The findings of this research showed that the teaching learning activity in
the classroom involving the interaction between teacher and students was the form
of language uses for social roles. The way of teacher’ interaction to students
reflected the teacher’s view to their students’ position. In the classroom, a teacher
has role not only as the knowledge source, but also as the controller of teaching
learning process. It means that a teacher has more power and authority than that of
students in the classroom. Tollefson (1995:9) says that power and domination may
be invisible, they permeate the fabric of classroom life. Moreover, Van Dijk
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
118
(2001:300) says that power involves control from member of a people group to
others in form of action, so the power group can limit the freedom of other group
that will influence their mind. The form of controll conducted by the teacher in the
classroom can be in the forms teacher’s utterances involving directive, assertive
and expressive speech acts. These speech acts can produce the power in the
classroom because by implementing these speech acts essentially the teacher has
triggered students to do what the teacher’s want. It is supported by Leech (1996:
163) that the purposes of speech acts are to produce an effect in form of action
done by the hearer.
Essentially, the teacher’s directive utterances potentially produce the
power form. The illocutionary power of these utterances was proved when the
teacher attempted to get students doing his or her instruction. It was accordance
with Bach and Harnish in Geis (1995:18) who say that directive utterances
express the speaker's attitude toward some prospective action by the hearer and
his intention that his utterance, or the attitude it expresses, be taken as a reason for
the hearer's action. The speaker acted on the belief that he or she had sufficient
authority over the addressee that simply expressing his or her desires should be
sufficient to guarantee compliance.
During observation, in the classroom discourse, the directive acts were
commonly used by a teacher to controll the class. The directive acts were
manifested by teacher in the classroom including command, request,
prohibitation, permission, advice, and asking form. In applying these acts, a
teacher represented the power form could be in high, standard, or low
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
119
(humanistic) restriction degree. Therefore, it showed how a teacher viewed his or
her status compared to their students’. The command act had the high restriction
because there were consequences if the students broke the rule. Viewed from the
teacher and students relationship, this power showed that the teacher had the
higher position rather than the students. In this context, students were in the
position of social subject who are in the passive and constrained condition
(Fairclough, 1989:39).
Next, request act. Based on the observation, this act was almost similar
with command act where the speaker wanted the listener did what the speaker’s
say. The difference just was in the restriction degree where it was lower than
command act. It was also associated with greater politeness than that command
act. Viewed from the ideology appeared, it was the concept of a superior-
subordinate relationship. However, sometimes the teacher unintentionally
performed this power in the classroom. Because this act did not clearly show the
power manifestation, the teacher considered it as a common thing in the
classroom. Moreover, Jumadi (2005: 75) says that request speech act is more
humanistic than command act.
The other speech act was the prohibition act. The researcher observed that
it tended to have high restriction degree where the teacher prohibited the students
did something. In other words, it showed the teacher’s domination toward
students. There was consequence of breaking teacher’ prohibition. Bach and
Harnish in Jumadi (2005:75) says that the prohibition act is related to the
speaker’s authority toward the listener to not do something. In the classroom
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
120
discourse, it means that the teacher has the authority toward studetnts to not do
what the teacher prohibits.
Permission act could be classified into power representation. The speaker
let the listener do something. The research finding showed that in the classroom
discourse, the teacher performed this act to reduce teacher’s domination in the
classroom. The teacher wanted the students also involved in the classroom
activity. Compared to the other directives acts, the permission act had the lower
restriction because the students may express their argument, idea, or opinion. It
can be concluded that the permission act is the more humanistic power compared
to other directive acts. Bach and Harnish in Jumadi (2005: 79) say that permission
act can be categorized as humanistic power because the speaker has an authority
toward listener and let the speaker does something.
In the research finding, one of teacher acts was giving advice in the
classroom. Power forms affecting a teacher gave advice in the classroom were
experts power and legitimate power. The forms of expert power were experiece,
skills, knowledge and etc. Legitimate power was the status and the age of a
teacher. The purpose of advice was to motivate the students. The motivated
students will be easily receiving the lesson. Harmer (1991) says that the
motivation that students bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their
success.
In the research finding, asking act was a form of teacher’s power in the
classroom. Essentially it was a command act in introgative form. The purposes of
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
121
a teacher asked to students were to get information from the students, to clarify
and to verify the students’ argument. The forms of question could be in yes/no
questions and wh-questions. In the classroom discourse, the teacher could gave
question to any student he or she wanted. When the teacher gave question to a
student, the other students tent to be anxious waiting their turn. In other words, it
potentially produced the power. Banc and Harrish (1989: 48) say that the
illocutiory power of asking act is the speaker wants the listener gives information
what the speaker wants.
In this research, the researcher has found that the assertive act potentially
could represent the teacher’s power in the classroom. By expressing these speech
acts, the teacher wanted to show his or her superiority in form of expertise.
Usually the teacher used these expressions when there were different arguments
between teacher and students or among students. According to Searle in Jumadi
(2005: 88) that assertive act has the function to inform someone about something.
Moreover Jumadi (2005: 88) says that viewed from its function, this speech act
tends to represent an expert power.
There were two forms of power representation in this speech act. They are
assertion and maintain acts. Assertion usually used by the teacher to assert the
argument toward the differences among students arguments. Teacher as fasilitator
in the classroom should be able to moderate the different arguments. It was
important in order to omit the students’ doubt toward an information. Hymes in
Sumadi (2005: 89) says that the using of assertion act to avoid the doubt, giving
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
122
the stress, and giving clarification. However, in moderating the diferences the
teacher should be objective. It showed that the teacher has an expert power.
Another form of assertive speech act was maintain act. In the research
finding, it has been explained that the teacher usually used this speech act to
defend his or her argument or policy. It happended when students protested or
complained with the teacher’s argument or policy. The teacher tried to ensure
students to do the teacher’s instruction. The teacher assumed that the teacher had
authority to control the class. Sumadi (2005: 99) says that the use of maintain act
tends to represent the expert power.
The expressive speech act is a description about teacher’s psychological
expression that shows the power form. In research finding, it was described into
two; pleasure expression and displeasure expression. The pleasure expression
showed the condition where the teacher was happy toward shis or her students. It
was also another form of teacher’s reward because the teacher was satisfied.
Besides that, in research finding, the researcher also described the power
representation in displeasure expression. In the teaching learning process, the use
of displeasure expression by a teacher could give a certain restriction to students.
If happy expression was identified as reward, displeasure expression was
considered as a punishment form which had negative effect to students. For a
teacher, displeasure expression is a form of response to the classroom conditions
such as student’s attitude and classroom atmosphere.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
123
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that in the teaching
learning process, in using language, there are forms of a power manifestation by
the teacher in the classroom in the form of speech acts. It is supported by
Tollefson (1995: 10) who says that authority and power are manifested and
perpetuated by the ways language is used and the purpose for which it is used.
2. The Implementation of Teacher’s Power in the Classroom has An Effect toward
Students’ Learning Attitude
In the research findings, it has been explained that the implementation of
teacher’s power in classroom has an effect toward students’ learning attitude. The
students’ attitude toward teaching learning process was related to teacher’s
treatment to them. consequently it will affect not only to students’ learning
achievement but also to students’ perception to teacher. Perkins and Adams in
2003 did a research about students’ learning attitude where they found that there
was correlation between teaching practice conducted by the teacher with the
students’ learning attitude and it was positive correlations between student
attitudes and conceptual learning gains.
The earlier form of teacher’s power in the classroom was the making of
learning contract. Learning contract is an agreement between the teacher and
students containing the subject description, teaching method, regulations, and
punishment in order to gain the learning goal. The learning contract can be an
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
124
instrument for teacher to controll the classroom activities. It can be implied that
the learning contract is one of power manifestations owned by a teacher.
Based on research findings, the form of teacher power was not only in
making regulation, but also in teacher’s utterances. Because the teacher had an
authrity in the classroom, teacher’s utteraces had power that affected to students’
learning attitude. Here was the the influece of teacher’s power in language toward
students’ learning attitude. It was divided into three; power in directive speech act,
assertive speech acts and expressive speech acts.
The finding of this research explained that teacher’s directive utterances
potentially produced the power form. The illocutionary power of these utterances
was the attempt to get students to do something. The researcher classified the
directive speech acts into six categories, power in Command form, power in
Request form, power in Prohibition form, power in Permission form, power in
Advice form, and power in Asking form.
Based on research findings, the teacher’s command act has the
illocutionary power. The effect of teacher’s power in command form toward the
students’ learning attitude was the students were not brave to utter honestly about
their feeling when they disagreed with the teacher’s command. The status of
teacher also influeced the students’ respect degree. In other words, the higher the
status of a teacher in the institution, the greater the level of students’ respect
toward teacher’s command.
In this research, it was also found that although the students considered the
teacher’s request was fine, they did not have the heart to refuse the teacher’s
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
125
request. There was no negative effect toward students’ learning attitude when the
teacher performed the request act in the classroom. It also showed the intimacy
relationship between teacher and students.
For the influece of teacher prohibition act toward students’ attitude, this
research also explained that the teacher’s power in prohibition form had the
illocutionary power where the teacher controlled the students by limiting the
students’ activities. Perceiving the teacher’s power in prohibition form, the
student argued that the students must obey the regulations made by the teacher
which has been agreed in the learning contract. In other words, the teacher’s
prohibition act had the influence toward students’ attitude. They were more
discipline.
Giving permission to students is a form of teacher’s authority in the class.
It has been explained in the research finding where the permission act of a teacher
potentially contained the power representation. The teacher had an authority to
decide which one may be done and which one may not be done by students in the
classroom. It implied that this directive act influenced the students’ learning
attitude especially in building students’ awareness.
Because the teacher has the expert and legitimate powers in the classroom,
students need teacher’s advices. The research findings concluded that teacher the
teacher’s advice was very important to raise students’ motivation. Usually, the
teacher gave advice about students’ character, learning motivation, education and
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
126
etc. The students’ perception toward teacher’s advice was positive. It means that
the teacher’s advice raised students’ learning attitude better.
The last form of directive speech act is asking act. Based on the research
findings, the teacher’s questions had the influece to students’ learning attitude
where students were so afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions. They argued
that they were anxious if their answer was incorrect. Based on the observation,
some students were strained when the teacher asked and they would answer the
teacher’s question shakily.
In the research finding, it has been explained that assertive act was a form
of power represented by a teacher in the classroom. Teacher’s assertive utterances
potentially produced the power form. Searle in Jumadi (2005: 88) argues that
assertive act has the function to inform someone about something. Moreover
Jumadi (2005: 88) says that viewed from its function, this speech act tends to
represent an expert power. Furthermore, the researcher classified the influece of
these speech acts into two: assertion in clarifying students’ different idea and in
maintaining teacher’s argument.
Talking about the teacher’s assertion, this research found that the teacher’s
intervention always needed in moderating the students’ differences in the form of
teacher’s assertion. By asserting an argument, the teacher could omit the students’
doubt toward information, idea, opinion or data. It showed the teacher’s expert
power. However, the teacher must be objective in giving argument. The influence
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
127
of applying this assertive speech act was the students would be more convinced to
their teacher’s ability.
Another form of assertive speech act is maintain act. The research findings
showed that in defending the argument, a must provide the supporting data or
theory. Based on the observation, the students grumbled at outside the class as a
form of their unsatisfication. So, teacher’s maintain act would influence the
students’ learning attitude. The students were happy if the teacher appreciated
their argument. In contrary, they would grumble outside the class if the teacher
maintain his or her wrong argument.
In the research findings, expressive speech acts described as the forms of
speech acts to express the psychological feeling of speakers such as pleasure,
displeasure, pity, and etc. In the classroom discourse, it was found that the
teacher’s pleasure and displeasure expression had the illocutionary power.
Based on the result of research, the teacher’s pleasure expression was the
form of reward from the teacher to students. The students would be happy if the
teacher appreciated their argument. It could trigger students’ activeness in the
classroom. So, students became more motivated studying that lesson. .In other
words, the teacher’s pleasure expression can increase students’ motivation.
Automatically the students will be more interested with the study.
Contrary with teacher’s pleasure expression, based on the research finding,
the teacher’s displeasure expression showed a form of punishment in responding
students’ mistake. Students said that they would be displeasure if the teacher
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
128
blamed the students’ mistake. For college students, they would be ashamed when
the teacher uttered displeasure expressions in the classroom So, this expression
could produce negative effect to students’ learning attitude. The students would be
less confident. in conclusion, the displeasure expression had the high restriction of
illocutionary power. By avoiding this expression, it means the teacher has
appreciated the students’ work.
From the above explanation it can be concluded that the teacher’s power
manifestation can influence to students’ learning attitude. By considering the
findings of this research, the teacher can create more humanistic teaching learning
process especially in English language teacching. Fairclough (1989: 244) suggests
that the development of children’s language capabilities should proceed through
bringing together their existing abilities and experiences, their growing critical
awareness of language, and their growing capacity to engage in purposeful
discourse.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
129
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTIONS
In teaching learning process, intentionally or unintenationally, a teacher
performes the power manifestation in the classroom. It will bring some effects to
students’ learning attitude as mentioned in the previous chapter. The last chapter
presents about the conclusion, implication, and the suggestions.
A. Conclusion
Regarding the findings of this research, there are two main points related
to the power manifestation in language performed by the teachers in the classroom
of STKIP Bangkalan, Madura in the academic year of 2013/2014 that can be
summarized based on the problem statements as follows;
1. In the classroom discourse, a teacher can represent his or her power in
language into some speech acts forms. They are directive, assertive and
expressive speech acts. The directive speech acts are the teacher’s utterances
as the attempt of teacher to get students do something. The directive speech
acts can be classified into six forms of act; command request, prohibition,
permission advice, and question. Next, the assertive speech acts, the utterance
of a teacher to ensure the students with the teacher’s argument to make they
agree or believe with teacher’s idea. It can be classified into assertion and
maintain acts. The last, the expressive speech acts, the teacher’s psychological
states about the students. It can be classified into pleasure and displeasure
expressions.
129
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
130
2. The application of teacher’s power in speech acts forms can influence
students’ learning attitude. Applying the directive, assertive and expressive
speech acts in the classroom affects to students’ learning attitude as follows;
1). The implications of command act toward students are there are different
views of students to teacher’s status in giving command and students are
not brave to utter honestly to refuse the teacher’s command. Consequently,
they do the teacher’s command not sincerely.
2). For the students, implementing teacher’s request is enjoyful because they
assume that it is a natural thing. There is no negative effect toward
students’ learning attitude when the teacher performs the request act in the
classroom.
3). The teacher’s prohibition act has the influence toward students’ attitude
because the students consider that the teacher’s prohibition is a must.
There are the consequences if the students break the prohibition. For the
teacher, It is as the form of train for students to be more discipline.
However, some teachers do not apply prohibitionit rigitly.
4). Students consider that the teacher’s permission act has less negative effect
to them because they have known the items that may or may not be done
by the students during study. Generally, the teacher has announced the
regulations about permission before the teaching learning activity and the
students has known the risk of breaking the regulation.
5). For students, the teacher’s advice influences their learning attitude towards
positive side because it can increase their motivation and add their
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
131
knowledge, information and experience. Usually the teacher gives the
description to students about students’ character, students’ future, learning
motivation, and education field.
6). Teacher’s questions has the influece to students’ learning attitude. Students
tend to be afraid in facing the fierce teacher’s questions. They are so
anxious getting the turn to answer teacher’s questions.
7). For students, the teacher’s intervention when there are different arguments
among students is a must. It will influence student’s perception toward
teacher’s ability. In moderating the differences among students’
arguments, the students expect the teacher’s objectiveness.
8). The students will be happy if the teacher appreciates their arguments. In
contrary, they will grumble at outside the class if the teacher too defend his
or her arguments. In defending his or her argument, the teacher shoud
provide the data or theory because he or she will be a model for his or her
students.
9). The teacher’s pleasure expression will trigger students to be more active in
the classroom. It also can increase students’ motivation because the
students assume it is as the form of teacher’s appreciation to them.
10). The students assume that teacher’s displeasure expression will affect to
their learning attitude because they will be ashamed when the teacher
complains their work. Because the displeasure expression has the high
restriction of illocutionary power, the teacher should avoid using this
expression in the classroom.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
132
3. The power dominantly used by the teachers in the classroom is directive speech
acts, followed by expressive speech acts and the last is assertive speech acts.
B. Implication
The results of the research confirm that in teaching learning process, a
teacher intentionally or unintentionally performs the power in langauge
manifestation. The application of this power shows the teacher’s view toward
students. Moreover, the implication of this power manifestation affects to
students’ learning attitude. The teacher wants to maintain his or her status as the
controller and the owner of authority in the classroom. On the other hands, the
students want the humanistic teaching in the classroom. From this research, it can
be seen that there are an inequality and a struggle in teaching learning process.
C. Suggestions
From this research, some suggestion can be drawn as follows:
1. For Teachers
The research findings are expected as an alternative refernce for teachers
in conducting teaching learning process. The teachers should be realized that their
utterances have power that can influence students’ learning attitude. The students’
attitude can shape students’ perception toward their teachers. If the students’
perception is good, it will raise students’ motivation. On the other hands, it the
students’ perception is not good, it will decrease students’ motivation. So, it will
influence to teaching learning goal.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
133
2. For Students
They should keep in mind that essentially the purpose of teacher’s power
manifestation is how to make teaching learning process can run well. It needs
students’ awareness to reach the teaching learning goal.
3. For Researchers
Furthermore, it is also a very good idea for the next researchers especially
who are interested in teaching learning process in the classroom to use this
research as one of their main references.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
134
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allan, Keith. (1986). Linguistic Meaning. Encyclopedia of Language andLinguistics Vol. 2. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Al-Saaidi, Al-Shaibani & Al-Husseini. (2013). Speech Act of Prohibition in English and Arabic: A Constrastive Study on Selected Biblical and Quranic Verses. Arab World English Journal. AWEJ Vol 4. No. 4 2013
Bach, Kent and Harnish, Robert M. (1979) Linguistic communication and Speech Acts. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Baker, Colin. (1988). Key Issues in Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.
Brown, H.D. (1987). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language learning and teaching (4th ed.).Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Brown, Gillian and Yule, George. (1988) Discourse Analysis. New York. Cambridge University Press.
Brown, Roger, and Albert Gilman. (1960). The pronouns of power and solidarity. ~Style in language, ed. by Thomas Sebeok,. Cambridge, Mass.: M.l.T. Press.
Bukhari, Nasir. H.S. and Xiaoyang Wang. Critical Discourse Analysis and Educational Research IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME) e-ISSN: 2320–7388,p-ISSN: 2320–737X Volume 3, Issue 1 (Sep. –Oct. 2013), PP 09-17 www.iosrjournals.org
Chambers GN (1999) Motivating Language Learners. Modern Languages in Practice 12. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Chouliaraki, L., & Fairclough, N. (1999) Discourse in Late Modernity: Rethinking critical discourse analysis. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
Cohen, D. J., & Crabtree, B. F. (2008). Evaluative criteria for qualitative research in health care: Controversies and recommendations. Annals of Family Medicine, 6(4), 331‐339.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
135
Cook, V.J. (2002). Language teaching methodology and the L2 user perspective. In V.J Cook (ed), Portraits of the L2 User, Clevedon: Multilinguage Matters.
Coultas, Amanda (2003), Language and Social Contexts. Routledge A level English guides. London. Routledge
Creswell, John W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications
Creswell, John W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Reserach, 3rd Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education International.
Crookes, G., & Lehner, A. (1998). Aspects of process in an ESL critical pedagogy teacher education course. TESOL Quarterly, 32(2), 319-328.
Fairclough, Norman (1993). Critical Discourse Analysis and the Marketisation of Public Discourse: The Universities. Discourse & Society 4(2): 133-168
Fairclough, Norman (1989). Language and Power. New York. Longman Inc.
Fairclough, Norman (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The Critical Study ofLanguage. New York. Longman Inc.
Fairclough, Norman (2001). Language and Power (2nd edition). London: Longman
Gajalakshmi (2013). High School Students’ Attitude Towards Learning English Language. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 3, Issue 9, September 2013
Gardner, R. C. (1972). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning. The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold
Gardner, R.C. (1985). Language attitudes and language learning. in E. Bouchard Ryan & H. Giles, Attitudes towards language variation. Massachusets:Newbury House Publishers
Geis, Michael L (1995) Speech Acts and Conversational Interaction. New York: Cambridge University Press
Leech, Geoffrey. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics. New York: Longman Singapore Publishing.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
136
Harmer, Jeremy. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Cambridge:Pearson Longman
Huckin et al., (2012) Critical Discourse analysis and Rhetoric and Composition. Available on www.ncte.org
Jumadi. (2005). Representasi Kekuasaan dalam Wacana Kelas. Jakarta: Pusat Balai Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.
Korompot, Chairil Anwar (1999) Teacher-student Power Relationships in Language Classrooms: A Comparative Case Study in ESL and EFL Contexts. Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press
Kristina, Diah (2013). Current Trends in Discourse Analysis for Language Teaching. Handout of Discourse Analysis Lesson
Maftoon, Parviz and Shakouri Nima (2012). The Concept of Power in Teacher Talk: A Critical Discourse Analysis in World Applied Sciences JournalVol 19, No. 8. http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj19(8)12
Martínez, Dolores Fernández (2012). Critical Learning: Critical Discourse Analysis in EFL Teaching in Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, No. 2.
Mills, Sara. (1997). Diskursus: Sebuah Piranti Analisis dalam Kajian Ilmu Sosial. Diterjemahkan oleh Ali Noer Zaman. Jakarta: Penerbit Qalam.
Perkins, K.K and Adams, W.K. (2003). Correlating Student Attitudes With Student Learning Using The Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey. Colorado: Department of Physics University of Colorado
Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; Svartvik, Jan (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language. Harlow: Longman.
Richard, Jack (2006). Communicative language Teaching Today. New York:Cambridge University Press
Richard, Jack and Roger, Theodore (2002). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press
Santoso, Anang (2002). “Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia dalam Wacana Politik”. Disertasi. Malang: Program Pascasarjana Universitas Negeri Malang
Saracaloğlu A.S (2000). The Relation Between Traniee Teachers’ Attitudes to Foreign Languages and their Academic Success. Journal of Education and Science. January, Vol 254. No. 115 Ankara.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
137
Schiffrin, Amanda (2005) Modelling Speech Acts in Conversational Discourse.Leeds: University of Leeds.
Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. London: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J.R. (1976). A Classification of Illocutionary Act. Language in Society. Vol. 5. No. 1. Cambridge University. Press. www.jstor.org/stable/4166848
Seymour and Hewitt. (1997) Talking About Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press
Shastri, Dave Pratima (2010). Communicative Approach to The Teaching of English as The Second Language. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House
Sinclair and coulthard (1992). Towards discourse analysis. in Coulthard, MAdvances in Spoken Discourse Analysis. Page 1-34. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Spradley, James P (1980) Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Suharyo. & Irianto. (2009). Kekuasaan Sosial Dalam Bahasa (Studi Kasus Pada Komunikasi Verbal Dalam KBM Di SMPN 32 Semarang.http://eprints.undip.ac.id.
Thomas, F. Karen and Rinehart, Stevan D. (1994), Instituting Whole Language:Teacher Power and Practice in Reading Horizon Journal Vol. 35
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics.London: Longman
Thomas, Linda and Wareing, Shan (2005). Language, Society and Power. New York: Routledge.
Todd, Loreto (1995). An Introduction to Linguistics. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers.
Tollefon, Jamew. W. (1995) Power and Inequality in Language Education. New York: Cambridge University Press
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
138
Trochim, W. M. (2006). The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Editionion. Retrieved from Internet on January 25, 2014 from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php.
Van Dijk, Teun A. (1998a). Ideology: A Multidisciplianary Study. London: Sage
Van Dijk, Teun A. (2001): ”Critical Discourse Analysis“. In: Tannen, D./ Van Dijk, Teun A. Schiffrin, D./Hamilton, H. (eds.): Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell.
Widdowson, H.G. (1991) Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Wodak, R. (1996). Disorders of Discourse. London: Longman.
Wodak, Ruth & Meyer, Michael (2001). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Sage
Yuwono, Untung. 2005. “Wacana” dalam Kushartanti, dkk (Eds.), Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistik. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Yule, George (1996). Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Yule, George (2006). The Study of Language 3rd Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
commit to user
Recommended