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保護區 Protected Areahttp://140.137.70.88/class/c25PA/
For a better future or past?
Jackson Hu
你去過哪裡的自然保留區?印象最深的是?
Nodes and MUMs (Noss and Harris 1986)
世界保育聯盟 IUCN, 1994
• 1a, 嚴格的自然保留區• 1b, 荒野保護區• 2, 國家公園• 3, 天然紀念物• 4, 棲地及物種經營保護區• 5, 地景及海景保護區• 6, 經營資源保育區
Protected AreasBy IUCN, 1994
IUCN Category • Strict nature reserve or wilderness area• National Park• Natural Monument• Habitat/Species Management Area• Protected landscape/seascape• Managed resource protected area
• 1a, 嚴格的自然保留區• 1b, 荒野保護區• 2, 國家公園• 3, 天然紀念物• 4, 棲地及物種經營保護區• 5, 地景及海景保護區• 6, 經營資源保育區
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit 1992
United Nations on Biological Diversity
Each party must as far as possible
1. Establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity
2. Develop where necessary guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of protected areas
Protected areas and reserve design
Overview
Goals and limitations
Gaps in global protected areas
Systematic conservation planning
Surrogates for overall biodiversity
Reserve selection algorithms
Case study
terrestrial protected areas
105,000 protected areas18.4 million km2 land
Location of protected areas
12.65% of Earth’s land surface
marine protected areasC
um
ula
tive a
rea
pro
tect
ed (
ha)
but only 1.2% of the whole ocean!!!
Types of Protected Areas
BC ExamplesStrict nature reserve Wilderness area 1a Triangle Island 1b Campbell River Estuary
Protected AreasBy IUCN, 1994
IUCN Category • Strict nature reserve or wilderness area• National Park• Natural Monument• Habitat/Species Management Area• Protected landscape/seascape• Managed resource protected area
• 1a, 嚴格的自然保留區• 1b, 荒野保護區• 2, 國家公園• 3, 天然紀念物• 4, 棲地及物種經營保護區• 5, 地景及海景保護區• 6, 經營資源保育區
Area (km2) covered by protected areas 1-6
Global Canada
630,000 km2
6.3% land
1+2 72%
3-5 10%
6+ 18%
Types of protected area
6. Managed resource protected area
Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania
Goals of Protected areas
Protect particular species 保護物種
Preserve biodiversity: focus on areas of high species richness/endemism 保護生物多樣性整體
Preserve large and functioning ecosystems and their services 保護生態功能
Do protected areas work?
terrestrial protected areas
105,000 protected areas18.4 million km2 land
1956 (25yr) 1978 1987 1997 2003 1 … 34 481 926 1999 個保護區, 15
% China
Do protected areas work?
Do protected areas work?
1983新疆,阿爾金山1984新疆,塔什庫爾干、羅布泊、卡拉麥里1987 甘肅,祁連山1988 西藏,珠穆朗瑪自然保護區 , 34, 000 Km2 ( 3.4 萬 )1993 西藏,羌塘自然保護區 , 300, 000 Km2 ( 30.0萬 )1995 青海,可可西里自然保護區 , 83, 000 Km2 ( 8.3 萬 )2000 青海,三江源自然保護區 , 318, 000 Km2 ( 31.8 萬 )Total 711, 000 Km2 ( 71.1 萬 ) = 80 times of Yellowstone
Nodes and MUMs (Noss and Harris 1986)
Do protected areas work?
核心區緩衝區試驗區
1994自然保護區條例
Do protected areas work?Perc
en
t n
atu
ral veg
eta
tion
Amazon Atlantic coast forest
Congo forest West African forest
Joppa et al PNAS 2008
Do marine protected areas work?
Mosqueira Mosqueira et al. 2000et al. 2000Animal ConservationAnimal Conservation
(236)
Targetspecies
6543210-1
(110)
Non-targetspecies
Overall
(541)
Response ratio
More fishin reserve
More fishout of reserve
Overall effect of 12 reserves around the world
Limitations of protected areas
Land is often protected if it is “worthless”
BC1992 Stated Goal
- have 12% landbase “protected”2006 12.5% landbase is protected
BUTAlpine - over-representedCoastal lowland forest - under-represented
Limitation of protected areas
Protection is revoked if land is valuable”
Tasmania1939-1984 23 protected areas “unprotected”Why?forestry, mining, hydroelectric development
Yosemite National Park1904 Boundaries redrawnLand out - potential mining, logging, grazingLand in - low commercial value
What isn’t protected??
Global Gap Analysis ProjectDataWorld Database on Protected AreasDistributions of 11,633 spp vertebrates
x
xx
X - least protected biomes
What isn’t protected??
Global Gap Analysis Project
Number of gap speciesAll species All PAs PA>1000ha+IUCN 1-4Mammals 258 (5.5%) 644 (13.5%)Turtles 21 (7.7%) 48 (17.6%)Amphibians 913 (16.7%) 1718 (31.5%)
Threatened sppMammals 149 (14%) 314 (29.6%)
Birds 232 (19.8%) 437 (37.3%)Turtles 12 (10.1%) 32 (26.9%)Amphibians 411 (26.6%) 767 (49.7%)
Where are the Gap Species?
Global Gap Analysis Project
% g
ap
sp
eci
es
The area protected in a country is a poor predictor of conservation needs
Countries with lots of endemics have more gap species
What isn’t protected??
Local Gap Analysis - Hawaii - Essay 14.2 text
GIS parks +
Endangered finch distributions
--> Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
Systematic conservation planning
COMPREHENSIVENESSReserve system contains
Many species Many habitatsMany ecological processes
REPRESENTATIVENESS Reserve contains populations/habitats that cover range of variation in that spp/habitat
9 principal factors to consider
Systematic conservation planning
IRREPLACEABILITYImportance of an area in meeting the objectives of the reserve system
hairy-nosed wombatLocated in one placeEpping Forest National Parkif criteria is a system that retains all mammal species the area is irreplaceable
Systematic conservation planning
ADEQUACYFeatures within reserve will persist
Q. How might this be assessed?
SHAPElarge with low edge:area ratios
Q. why?
Better than
Global Gap Analysis Project
if conservation goal is species representation
we should also consider urgency = threat
Global Gap Analysis Project
Priority sites for protected areas based on irreplaceability and threat
Fetish Culture in Transformation: Poached
Tigers in Exhibits and National Parks in Cambodia
and Yunnan, China
Jackson Hu, Zoe Ju-Han Wang,Yue Wang, Sun Hean
Why Study Tigers in a Choatic Era?
Tiger (Panthera tigris) is the famous fetish sign in the regional culture of Southeast Asia
A spiritually powerful being whose bones, teeth, furs, etc. both royals and the common people have desired to obtain for prestige and wealth.
A pivotal communicative means
Indochinese tigers occurring in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia with a biologically “effective” population of 529-1059 individuals.
Story Series
• 1. Tiger hunting in Cambodia by Sun Hean
• 2. Cultural imagination of tiger in the Kham area (the pan-Tibetan region) by
Jackson Hu • 3. When the jungles become National
Parks in Yunnan, China by Zoe Wang and Yue Wang
Story 1
• Tiger Hunting in Cambodia
Wildlife Poaching in Cambodia
• Interviewed during April-August 1999 • 3 prime tiger areas, the Cardamom
Mountains, the Northern Plains, and South of Sre Pok.
• 2 trading centers of poached tiger parts: Phnom Penh ( 金邊 ) and Poipet ( 波貝 ).
Northern Plains
Pursat Sre Pok
Cardamom
What’s the Cultural Roots of Tiger Fetish?
• mountain protector (a deity) keeps the forest in balance– Send only old, sick animals to be killed
• Fetish spirits: embodied in white or ‘difficult’ tigers – Native hunters left them alone by
giving the jungle deities respect and offering prayers
Fetish Persists in Wartime?• Khmer Rouge fighters
– favored by the jungle deity because they respected the forest and save spiritual animals
– In 1975-78, a million people died in the civil war
• A holed tiger canine as a powerful means for avoiding miss-shooting
Traditional Beliefs in a Postcolonial Context
No Species Sci. Name Parts Used Khmer Term Khmer Beliefs
1 Tiger Panthera tigris corbetti
canine holed
Chamkom Khla Prahorng
to avoid dangerous animals, shots, and other evils
(Khla ) canine Chamkom Khla to protect holders from danger
floating bone
Chaeng Khla Andet
to seek good business and happiness
2 Wild Boar Sus scrofa canine solid
Khnay Tan 1) to defend holder himself or herself, 2) avoid dangers (shots), 3) bring in good lucks
(Chhruk )
canine Khnay Chhruk Prey
worn for avoiding shots and dangers during traveling
3 Elephant Elephas maximus
broken tusk left on a tree
Chai Kach 1) to defend holder himself or herself, 2) avoid dangers (shots), 3) bring in good lucks
(Damrey )
tusk Phluk Damrey 1) decorated for have good lucks with prosperity, 2) to avoid dangers
Busy Borderland Across Fetish Regions
Story 2
• How Fetish Desire Expands into the Kham area ( 康區 ), China?
Tiger Sales in China - The Becoming of a Luxury
Goods • The pan-Tibetan regions were supplied by tiger
skins poached in other range countries and smuggled into the China. (photo from EIA and WPSI, 2006)
Sentient Being in Tibet • tigers as a sentient embodiment of the fire deity • a local religious mimic, inheriting from the powerful
figure of lion in the Buddhist symbolism of India
Mystic Acient Image
• Lord Shiva kills the “tiger of desire ( 欲虎 )” and sit on tiger skins as mats, presenting the overcome of secular desire
Powerful Fetish in Shifting Context • 8th century: for an Kham tradition of the Tibetan
royal military, tiger skins are the “six indicators of bravery” that ancient Tǔbō kings praised soldiers by hanging tiger furs in shoulder.
• A governmentally promoted regional “cultural tourism” ( 文化搭台,經濟唱戲 ) has a sightseeing on “indigenous ecology” ( 原生態 ) in annual festivals among Tibetans.
A Hybrid Image of Exotic Desire, Wealth, and Conquers
• 19th century: tigers hunted by the colonial rich and English soldiers in India have strengthened tiger fur exhibitions in Tibet and Bhutan.
• 2006 individual pelts chuba sold: tiger at USD 3,307; leopard at 1,341
• Recent declines in use resulted from campaigns of environmentalists and religious groups, and the ban of the State Forest Administration of China
Story 3. National Parks
• When the jungles become National Parks in Yunnan, China
• First National Park-Pudacuo ( 普達措 ) in Shangri-La in 2007
• Include Bita Lake ( 碧塔海 ) provincial nature reserve, Shudu Lake ( 屬都湖 ) tourism area &
Nirutan ( 尼汝塘 ) range.• Meli Snow Mt. ( 梅里雪山 ), Laojun Mt. ( 老君山 ) N.P.• How has this western-oriented concept developed its faces in China? Pudacuo National
Park
http://www.chinatrekking.com/UserFiles/Image/Maps/Yunnan_map/map-of-yunnan-L.jpg
Location of Pudacuo, Shangri-La, Yunnan
Do NPs in China serve the role?
• Damaged environment in Pudacuo– No limit control on tourists– Not running “environmental-
friendly” toilets & buses– Polluted lake, endangered species
• Insufficient environ. education facilities
• Frequent conflicts between locals & the operating company of Pudacuo
• Modification of master plan of Laojun Mt., turning pristine area into a tourism spot.
http://travel.yninfo.com/subject/laojunmountain/images/1.jpg
Thousand Turtle Mt., Laojun Mt.
Why National Park for TNC?• An alternative to conserve a
land (no private land in China)
• Great American tradition (Yellowstone)
• A way to maintain relationship with the government.– “national” park emphasizes the
leverage of state on natural resources
– Supporting national park means approval of TNC’s work
Bison in Yellowstone National Park
Ideology Shaping the Parks• Tourists Orientation-
– N.P as strategy of developing tourism in Yunnan
– Administratively under management of tourism authority
• Over-Emphasis of Yellowstone Model
• Top-down ideology
Dilemma of TNC
• TNC initiate the whole process yet could dominate the direction of national park system in China.
• For TNC, N.P is more than just a conservation strategy, but a vector of development.
• As a foreign-funded NGO, TNC has to be more careful of its relationship with the government.
What is Missing in the Story?• Local community• National Park in China can be
seen as a product of negotiating power of the government & NGO.
• Future development of local power – will it become strong enough to
stabilise with other two forces? – Will the local Tibetan form a single
force or various voices due to the heterogeneity?
– key to understand how the N.P will influence the balance of the forces, and how the relationship between the three will be continuously shaping the N.P in China.
Villagers sold mushroom
Conclusion
This Prelim Combined Research Presents
1. a broad vision of the difficulty to restrict the growth of commercial markets on poached tiger furs
2. firmly-rooted traditional fetish cultures3. a socio-cultural analysis on
transformed social life of fetish/commodity, and jungle/park.
The Fittest Survive, Especially A Hybrid.
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