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ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun
NDEKLER
Emine Grsoy Naskali, Sunu
TARHTEN RNEKLER 1 Neslihan Ko Keskin, 17. Yzyl Osmanl ve Amerikan Toplumlarnda Zinann
ntikam [162-172]
2 Sevim Ylmaz nder, Vengeance in the Chronicles Written in Old Anatolian Turkish
[173-211]
3 Samira Kortantamer, ecer ud-Durrun ntikam [212-218]
DESTANLARDA NTKAM 4 Abdulselam Arvas, Krgz Destanlarnda ntikam Duygusu ve ntikam Biimleri
[219-233]
NTKAM SZLER
5 zlem Demirel Dnmez, Divan Lgatit Trk ve Kutadgu Biligde ntikam Kelimeleri
[234-241]
6 Bahadr Gne, Genel A Szlklerinde ntikam/ ve lgili Kavramlarn Ele Aln [242-254]
7 Glcan olak Bostanc, Bir ntikam Haneri Olarak Kelimeler [255-275]
EDEBYATTA NTKAM
8 Fatih Yldz, Hiciv Oklarna ekilen Kl: Nefnin lm [276-290]
9 Nebahat Yusolu, Ahmet Midhat Efendinin Macera Romanlarnda ntikam [291-301]
10 Mevhibe Coar, ntikam: znesi de Nesnesi de Madur Bir Duygu [302-309]
11 Elmas ahin, Mektup Aklarnda ntikam [310-321]
12 Hikmet Kora, Rauf Parfinin iirlerinde ntikam [322-352]
NTKAM GELENEKLER
13 Sahure nar, Erzurum Hamamlarnda ntikam [353-358]
ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun
14 Mustafa Gne, Tasavvuf Kltrnde ntikam (Erzurumlu brahim Hakk rnei) [359-367]
15 Elmira G. Cahiyeva, Kumuklarda Kan Davas Gelenei [368-371]
ACTA TURCICA evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies www.actaturcica.com Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun
Sunu
Acta Turcicann ntikam konulu says, kltrmzde intikam ile ilgili vaka ve
yaklamlarn tespit edilmesini amalamtr. Kltrmzde kim, kimden, ne sebeple ve ne
biimde intikam almay tasarlam veya intikam almtr sorularna cevap aramtr. Bu
almada, kltrmz intikam nasl alglar; intikam kavram ve olaylar ne ekilde tasnif
edilir, dilde intikam balamndaki kelimeler hangileridir gibi almlarla intikam etrafnda bir
yazl birikim sunulmak istenmitir.
Tarih metinleri intikam vakalarn kayda geirmitir. Gerek destan, gerek divan ve
tasavvuf edebiyat, gerekse modern edebiyat metinlerinde ve elektronik ortama den
kaytlarda intikam bahsi olaylarn dokusunda yer alm veya kurguya yn vermitir. ntikam
ifade eden kelimeler intikam kavramnn katmanlarna iaret etmitir.
Prof. Dr. Emine Grsoy Naskali
162
17. Yzyl Osmanl ve Amerikan Toplumlarnda Zinann ntikam The Revenge of Adultery in 17th Century Ottoman and American Society
Neslihan Ko Keskin*
zet:
Bu yazda, bir tr kiisel adaleti salama yntemi olan intikamn, cezalandrma yn
zerinde durulmutur. Bu balamda, 17. yzylda Amerikan toplumunda zina yapan Hester
Prynnea verilen kzl damga ve ayn yzylda Osmanl toplumunda zina yapan
kadn/erkee uygulanan baa necis ikembe geirme tehir cezalar karlatrmal olarak
incelenmitir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: ntikam, Zina, Ceza, Kzl damga, Hester Prynne, Necis ikembe, 17. yzyl, Osmanl.
Abstract:
This article compares two examples of public punishment given for adultery: One is
the punishment of red stamp given to Hester Prynne in 17th Century America and the other
is the punishment of placing tripe on the head which was dealt out for both men and women
as punishment for adultery again in 17th Century Ottoman rule.
Keywords: Revenge, Adultery, Punishment, Red stamp, Hester Prynne, 17th Century, Tripe, Ottoman.
Bacon, intikam, yasalarn skp atmas gereken vahi bir adalet duygusu olarak
tanmlar.1 Bu tanm ksa olmasna ramen aslnda intikamla ilgili ok nemli noktann
altn izmektedir: Bunlardan ilki, intikamn bir duygu olmasdr ki bu duygu; sevgi, nefret, * Yrd. Do. Dr. Neslihan Ko Keskin, Gazi niversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakltesi Trk Dili ve Edebiyat Blm retim yesi, Ankara. neslihank@gazi.edu.tr 1 Francis Bacon, stne, Denemeler, ev. Akit Gktrk, YKY Yaynlar, stanbul 1999, s. 36-37.
ACTA TURCICA Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun
evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies
www.actaturcica.com
163
korku, fke gibi insann doasnda doutan yer alr. Tanmdaki ikinci nemli nokta ise
vahiliktir. Her ne kadar intikam, insann doasnda olan bir duygu olsa da yabanilik,
yrtclk, kabalk, uyumsuzluk, sra dlk, zarar verme, ldrmevb. olumsuz armlar
zihnimizde uyandrmaktadr. Tanmn en arpc son noktas ise intikamn adaleti salamaya
ynelik olmasdr. Fakat bu adalet kiiseldir. Kiisel adalet bir anlamda kast ve sistemlilii
beraberinde getirir.
nsan intikam almaya iten pek ok sebep olabilir fakat intikamn vahilik ve kiisel
adaleti salama yn, en ok nc kiilerin neden olduu ihanette, sevdiini bakasyla
paylamann verdii fke ve zntyle ortaya kar. Sevdiini ve ona duyduu ak yitiren
kimse, araya giren nc kiiden ve belki de sevdiinden eitli yollarla intikam alarak
onlar cezalandrr. Allan Hillerynin Kller Kllere adl hikyesi bu bakmdan intikam ve
cezann i ieliini bize gsterir. Hikyeyi ksaca u ekilde zetleyebiliriz: Doktor Frank
Morrow, kars Melanienin kendisini ressam Robert ile aldattn zanneder. Kars iin bir
lm ilan verir. Kahvalt masasnda bu ilan okuyan Melanie, ok arr ve eine ilan okur.
Frank Morrow, soukkanllkla ilan kendisinin verdiini syledikten sonra, Melanieyi bir
yumrukla bayltr ve karsnn kalbine bir ine enjekte eder. neyle enjekte edilen ila
nedeniyle Melanie, bir l gibi kaskat kesilir. Durumdan haberdar edilen cenaze grevlileri
bir tabutla eve gelirler, kaskat kesilmi cesedi ipek bir kefene sararak ve lm belgesini
imzalayarak giderler. Yalnz kalan doktor, karsnn kefenini syrr, ameliyatlarda kullanlan
iplikle, karsnn dudaklarn ve ayaklarn birbirine, kollarn gsne diker daha sonra kefeni
tekrar sarar. Sakin geen bir cenaze treninden ardndan Melanie, iinde bulunduu tabutla
belediyenin cenaze yakma evine getirilir. Bu srada, ilacn etkisi gemeye balar ve kadn
yava yava kendisine gelir. Melanienin son hatrlad ey, kocasnn kendisine att
yumruktur. Konumaya ve kprdanmaya alr, bir yandan da scakl ve acy hissetmeye
balar. Bu ekilde aclar iinde yanarak lr. Doktor, leden sonra kendisini aldattn
dnd karsndan intikamn almann rahatlyla ikisini yudumlar. Hikyenin sonunda
ise Frank, Melanienin kendisinin aldatmadn ac bir ekilde renir.2 Bu hikyedekine
benzer ekilde, bu yazmzda aldatmann daha dorusu zinann intikamnn nasl alndn,
Amerikan ve Osmanl toplumunda verilen iki tehir cezas zerinden anlatmaya alacaz.
Zina yapan Hester Prynne ve cezas: Kzl Damga
2 Allan Hillary, Kller Kllere, ykleri Antolojisi, ev.Haluk Erdemol, stanbul 2002, s. 224-230.
164
Hester Prynne, Nathaniel Hawthorneun orijinal ad The Scarlet Letter olan romannn
bakahramandr. The Scarlet Letter, roman olarak Kzl Damga3 ve film olarak Krmz Leke4
adlaryla dilimize evrilmitir. Romana konu olan olaylar, 17. yzylda, Amerika
Massachusettste (Boston) gemektedir. Romann ana karakteri gen, gzel ve yoksul bir
kadn olan Hester Prynnedir. Hester, yal ama zengin bir doktor olan Roger Chillingworth
ile evlenir. Kocas iki yl boyunca ortadan kaybolan Hester, onu, kasabann gen rahibi Arthur
Dimmesdale ile aldatr. Bu beraberlikten hamile kalan Hester, zina suundan hapse girer ve
hapiste Pearl adl bir ocuk dnyaya getirir fakat Hestern cezas bununla bitmeyecektir.
Bostonun en eski kilisesinin saann altna tahta ve demir kullanlarak bir platform
oluturulur. Bu platform aslnda, sulunun yzn kapatmasn ve kprdamasn engelleyen,
demirden kskalar olan bir makine, bir alet grevini grmektedir. Hester, bu platformda
saat boyunca tehir edilme cezasna arptrlr. Ayrca hem tehir srasnda hem de kamusal
alanda, ngilizce zina/zinac (adultery/adulteress) kelimelerinin ba harfi olan, altn rengi
simle bezenmi, kpkzl bir A harfini elbisesinin zerinde tayacaktr. Romanda, bu A
harfinin, aylk bebein kapatamayaca kadar byk olduu belirtilir. Tehir srasnda onu,
sradan halkn yannda, kilisenin balkonundan vali, hkimler, bir general, din adamlarndan
oluan resm bir erkn ve hatta Hestern kocas ile kasabann gen rahibi Arthur Dimmesdale
da izler. Hester, tm srarlara ramen ne kocasnn adn ne de rahibin adn syler ve
hayatnn sonuna kadar bu A harfini zerinde tar.
Romandaki ilgin ve arpc diyaloglardan biri hapishaneye gelen Doktor Roger
Chillingworth ile Hester arasnda geer. Tehirden sonra sinir krizi geiren Hester ve srekli
alayan bebei sakinletirmek iin hapishaneye ziyaret bahanesiyle gelen Doktor
Chillingworthtan yardm istenir. Aslnda doktorun ziyaretinin sebebi, Hesterdan kendisinin
kimliini gizlemesini istemektir. Doktor nce bebei ilala sakinletirir daha sonra Hestera
imesi iin ila verir. Hester, kocasnn bu ilala kendisini ldreceini sanr. Doktor ona
yle der: Beni bu kadar az m tandn sen Hester Pryenne? Ben byle basitlikler yapacak
kadar s biri miyim? ntikam almay planlasam seni hayatn tm ktlk ve aclarndan
kurtaracak ilac vermek yerine, bu utancn gsn dalayp gitmesine izin vererek, yaaman
salamak ok daha gzel bir intikam olmaz m? ... Sen yaamalsn! Utancn zerinde
3 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Utku lban Cokunolu, Bilge Kltr Sanat, stanbul 2008; Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Z.Glmser Arer uhadar, Arion Yaynlar, stanbul 2002. 4 The Scarlet Letter filmi 1995 ylnda gsterilmitir.
165
tarken tm kadn ve erkekler bu damgay grsn. Kocan olarak sevdiin o adam da urada
yatan bebek de! Herkes her zaman grsn! Haydi yaamak iin bu ilac i imdi.5
Osmanl toplumunda zina yapan kadn/erkek ve cezas: Necis kembe
Fatih Sultan Mehmet zamannda yaam nl bir Bizans imparator ailesine
(Cantacuzeneler) mensup olan Theodore Spandounes/Spandugnino, The Origin of The
Ottoman Emperors6 adl eserinde zina yapan erkee uygulanan ilgin bir tehir cezasndan u
ekilde bahseder:7
Eer bir Hristiyan, Trk bir kadnla cinsel ilikiye girdii esnada yakalanrsa ya
krbalanr ya da Mslman olmaya zorlanabilir. Bu cezadan kamak iin 500, 1000 ve hatta
2000 duka altn deyen kiiler tanyorum. Eer bir Hristiyan veya Trk erkei, nikhl ei
olmayan bir kadnla yatakta yakalanrsa, kafasnda bir hayvann i organlar (ikembesi)
elinde de hayvann kuyruuyla eee ters bindirilerek ehirde gezdirilir. Bu durumdaki bir
kii 1500 duka altn deyerek bu ayptan ve cezadan kaabilir. 8
Theodore Spandounes/Spandugninodan sonra 17. yzylda Osmanlya gelen botanik
uzman Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, yazd seyahatnamesinde zina yaparken yakalanan
kadnlarn denize atldklarn sylerken, erkeklerin de balarna barsaktan yaplm bir ta
ve boyunlarna da ayn ekilde bir kravat taklp, eee ters bindirilerek tehir edildiini u
ekilde anlatmtr:
Zina Trkiyede ok sert biimde cezalandrlr. Yalnzca zina hlinde kocalar
karlarnn yaayp yaamamasyla ilgili karar verebilirler; zira eer kocalarn ruhu kinle
doluysa, sust yaplm ya da biimsel olarak kandrlm bu bahtsz kadnlar ii ta dolu bir
uvala konarak denize atlr; ne var ki; kadnlarn ou o kadar iyi yzer ki pek ender
5 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Kzl Damga, ev. Utku lban Cokunolu, s. 76 6 Orijinal ad Discorso di Theodoro Spandugino Cantacusino Gentilhomo Costantinopolitano Dallorigine deprincipi Turchidir. 7 Metin And, XVI.Yzyl da Osmanllarda Cezalar balkl yazsnda bu cezay farkl olarak u ekilde aktarrr: Bir zmm bir Trk kadnyla zina ederse Mslman olmazsa yaklrd. Bir zmm veya Mslman Trk bir zmm kadnla zina ederken yakalanrsa, hem erkek hem kadn sokaklarda bir eein zerine ters oturtulur, bana koyun ikembesi sarlr, eein kuyruunu yular gibi tutarak sokakta dolatrlrd. Hayat Tarih Mecmuas, S. 3, 1 Nisan 1969, s. 32. 8 If a Christian is caught in sexsual act with a Turkish woman he can either be lashed or be forced to become a Muslim. I have known of men who have paid 500, 1,000, or even 2,000 ducats to avoid this penalty. If a Christian or a Turk is found in bed with a woman not his wife, he is paraded around the town sitting backwards on as ass with entrails on his head and the animals tail in his hand. A man of status in these circumstances escapes the penalty and the shame by paying 1,500 ducats. Theodore Spandounes, On the Origin of the Ottoman Emperors, Translated and edited by Donald M. Nicholl, Cambridge University Press, New York 2009, s. 130-131.
166
boulurlar. Eer kocalar hayatlarn balarsa, kadnlar bazen eskiye oranla ok daha mutlu
olurlar: nk bu kadnlar klaryla-eer klar Hristiyansa Mslman olma cezasna
arptrldktan sonra evlenmeye zorlanrlar. ou zaman erkek k, bir eee ters binip
eein kuyruunu dizgin gibi tutmak zorunda braklarak, bana barsaktan yaplm bir ta
ve boynuna da barsaktan bir kravat taklm vaziyette sokaklarda dolama cezasna
arptrlr. Bu zafer turundan sonra, brlerine ve tabanlarna birka sopa vurulur.9
Her iki yabanc yazarn bahsettikleri bu tehir cezasnn gerekten uygulanp
uygulanmad konusunda akla baz soru iaretleri gelmektedir. Fakat ilgin olan Evliya
elebinin Seyahatnamesinde de bu cezaya atfta bulunulmasdr. elebi, stanbuldaki oyun
kollarndan Yahudilerden oluan Semmr-ka kolunu anlatrken, onlarn dman olduklar
ingenelerle yaptklar bir gsteriden bahsetmitir. Gsteride, Yahudi bir erkekle zina
yaparken baslan ingene kadn, bir eee ters oturtulur, bana ceza olarak pis ikembe
geirilir ve baka bir eee bindirilen Yahudiyle birlikte gezdirilir:
On ikinci semmr-ka kol: 200 neferdir ve cmlesi Yahdlerdir. Bu Yahd
kollarnn istihrlar oldur kim cem-i hokkabz ve srhbz ve kzebz ve kadehbz ve
tebz ve ebbz ve perendebz ve mhrebz ve sinibz ve taklabz [ve] kullebz vel-hsl
cmle marifet-i bz-bzan bunlarn kollarnda mevcd olup ta sabha dek b-minnet fasl
iderler ve bunlar ingene kollarna gyet hasm olduklarndan bir kol ingeneden ve bir kol
Yahudiden dutup hasmne bir fasl Yahudiler ve bir fasl ingneler ide. Garb ve acb
temlar olur amm bu Yahudilerin ingenelerine galebe takldleri var kim grp istim
iden temclarn akl glmeden zil olur. Evvel ingneler ay oynatmala mehrdur.
Yahdler oynadrken gn-a-gn akalar idp, ingnelere sz atarlar. Bir ingne avratn bir
Yahdiyle dutup, Yahdye ve ingneye ikence idp, sylediklerinde [temdr] ve
ingne karsn necsli ikembe ile ters eee bindrp, Yahd dahi bir eek zre siyset ile
gerp, bir hy-h ile takld itdklerinde, dem glmeden mebht olur ve nie bunun emsli
ingnelere ramen takldleri vardr.10
Fakat Theodore Spandounes/Spandugnino ve Tournefort, necis ikembenin erkein
bana, elebi ise kadnn bana geirildiini belirtmitir.
9 Joseph de Tournefort, Tournefort Seyahatnmesi, ev. Zll Kl, stanbul 2005, s. 72. 10 Evliya elebi b. Dervi Mehmed Zll, Evliya elebi Seyahatnmesi Topkap Saray Badat 304 Yazmasnn Transkripsiyonu-Dizini I.Kitap stanbul, hzl. Orhan aik Gkyay, stanbul 1996, s. 308.
167
Hayat Tarih Mecmuasnda ceza bu ekilde grselletirilmitir.11
Gerek yabanc iki seyyahn gerekse elebinin bahsettii bu cezann izlerini, 17.
yzyl divnlarnda da taradk.12 Sadece Vecdnin Divnesinde yer alan bir matla beytinde
bu cezadan bahsedildiini tespit ettik. Vecd bu beytinde, mumu bir kadn, rzgr da onunla
ilikiye giren bir erkek olarak dnm, mumun bana snmesin diye kapatlan fanusu da
baa geirilen hayvan ikembesine benzetmitir. airi bu dnceye sevk eden eskiden
fanuslarn ikembeden yaplmasdr:
emn bu gice rzgr itdi tebeh nmsn
Geydrdi hir bana ikenbeden fnsn Vecd matla 1
Sonu
Kkeni Arapa olan intikam kelimesinin cezalandrma anlam, Kurnda birok
ayette geer ve yine Allahn esma-i hsnasnda geen bir ad da sulular cezalandran
anlamna gelen Mntakimdir.13 Bu yazda, intikam kelimesinin cezalandrma
11 Metin And, agm., s. 32. 12 Bu ceza ile ilgili aada ismi verilen divn airlerinin divnlar taranm fakat baka bir rnek bulunamamtr. Aty (. 1635), Bahyi (. 1654), Baht (. 1617), Cevr (. 1654), Fash (. 1699), Fehm-i Kadm (. 1647), Smkezde Feyz (. 1690), Hlet (. 1631), Hevy (. 1710), Hisl (. 1651), smet (. 1665), zzet (. 1681), Kelm (. 1686), Mantk (. 1635), Mezk (. 1676), Nb (. 1712), Ndir (. 1626), N'il (. 1666), Nm (. 1673/4), Nedm-i Kadm (. 1670), Nef' (. 1635), Net (. 1673), Nisr (. 1656), Ram (. 1640), Sbit (. 1712), Sabr (. 1645), Sabh (. 1647), Sheyl (IV.Murad dnemi), Skker (. 1686), ehr (. 1660), h (. 1683), T'ib (. 1683), Tyb (. 1679), Tecell (. 1688), Tfl (. 1660), Va'd (. 1678), Vahy (. 1718), Vecd (. 1661), Vech (. 1660) ve Yahy (. 1644). 13 Kurn- Kerm; Secde 22, Zuhruf 41, Duhan 16, Araf 136, Hicr 79, Zuhruf 25-55.
168
anlamndan yola karak, iki farkl toplumda zinann nasl cezalandrld konusunda
rnekler verdik.
Roman kahraman Hester Pryenne rneine bakldnda, kzl damga cezasnn
verilmesine etken olan Pritenizmi de gz nnde bulundurmak gerekir. Pritenizm, 17.
yzylda ngiltereden Bostona gelen gmenler tarafnda yaylmtr ve I. Elizabethin
ngiliz Kilisesinde balatt reformist harekete kar kan, kendini safl aramak olarak
tanmlayan bir Protestan doktrin ve ibadet eklidir.14 Romanda Hestera nce lm cezasnn
verilmesi kararlatrlm daha sonra ise kzl damgaya karar verilmitir. Bu ekilde onuru
ve haysiyeti zedelenen Hestern iledii su, hem kendisine hem de yaad topluma
unutturulmayacak, kzl damgayla tehiriyle devaml hatrlatlacaktr. Hestern kocas, ona
bu cezann verilmesinden memnundur nk bu ekilde kendisinin intikamnn alndn
dnr fakat yine de onun kocas olmaktan utanr, Hestern adn aklamasn istemez.
Rahip ise, Hesterla birlikte olduunu syleme cesaretini gsteremez.
ada hukuk sistemi asndan tehirin bir ceza olup olmad tartmaldr.15 Ceza,
sadece kanunla korunabilen; amac su iledii mahkeme kararyla sabit olan kimseyi yine
mahkeme kararyla kusurunun karl olarak baz yoksunluklara tabi klarak slah etmek ve
genel nlemeyi temin etmek iin korkutucu yaptrmdr.16 Ayn zamanda ceza, telafi
edilebilmeli, tamir edilebilmeli veya cezann geri alnmas mmkn olmaldr.17 Bu sebeple
tehir, hem insan onurunu ve haysiyetini zedelemesi hem de telafisinin mmkn olmamasyla
ada ceza hukukuyla badamaz. Buna ramen tehir Osmanlda yaygn uygulanan bir
cezadr. Mesel, aada, 1720 enliinden bir minyatr ayrntsnda, eksik arlk lleriyle
sust yakalanm bir esnaf ve samandan yaplm bir giysi iinde klk deitiren muhtesip
(muhtesip, zabta gibi, Osmanlda asayii salayan grevlilerdendir.) grlmektedir. (Resim
1)18 Bu esnaf bana geirilen tahtaya dizilmi arlk lleriyle tehir edilmektedir:
14 tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priten 15 Konuyla ilgili olarak u makaleye baklabilir: Ahmet Kln, Mukayeseli Hukuk ve Hukuk Tarihi Asndan Yaptrm Tr Olarak Tehir, Gazi niversitesi Hukuk Fakltesi Dergisi, C. XI, S. 1-2, 2007, s. 1007-1032. 16 Bahri ztrk-Mustafa Ruhan Erdem, Uygulamal Ceza Hukuku ve Gvenlik Tedbirleri Hukuku, Ankara 2006, s. 279. 17 Bahri ztrk - Mustafa Ruhan Erdem, age., s. 269. 18 Esin Atl, Levni ve Surname Bir Osmanl enliinin yks, stanbul 1999, s. 182.
169
Resim 1
Resim 2
Asl konumuzla ilgili olan baka bir tehir cezas da Seyyid Lokmann Hnernmesinde
minyatrize edilen engel cezasdr. Mslman kadnlarla zina eden gayr Mslimler,
minyatrdeki gibi engellere aslarak ikence ile idam edilirlerdi. (Resim 2)19
Bir tehir cezas olan necis ikembe ile ilgili ayrntl bir bilgiye sahip deiliz. Bu
cezann kadna m erkee mi yoksa ikisine de mi uyguland konusunda kaynaklarda farkl
bilgiler verilmitir. Dier taraftan slam hukukunda zinann cezas recmdir. Recmin de
Osmanl Devletinde sadece bir defa uyguland kaydedilmitir.20 Bu sebeple, necis ikembe
cezasnn slam kaynakl olmasna da pheyle baklmaldr. Bu cezayla kadn/erkein bana
pis hayvan ikembesi sarlarak onlarn pis bir i yapt, manen ve madden kirlendikleri, kzl
damgadaki gibi topluma tehir edilerek anlatlmtr. Zinann intikamnn bu ekilde
alnmasyla sokakta dolatrlarak aalanan kiiler ve ceza, toplumun bilincine de kaznm
olmaktadr.
Kaynaklar
Akku, Metin, Nef Divn, Ankara 1993. 19 Seyyid Lokman, Hnernme, C. II, TSMK H1524 vr. 172b, Ahmet Atilla entrk, Osmanl iiri Antolojisi, stanbul 1999, s. 228. 20 Mustafa Avc, Osmanl Hukukunda Sular, Gkkubbe Yaynlar, stanbul 2004, s. 1.
170
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Vengeance in the Chronicles Written in Old Anatolian Turkish Eski Anadolu Trkesinde Yazlan Tevrihlerde ntikam
Sevim Ylmaz nder*
zet:
Chronicles that were written in many aspects of social life, including daily life,
entertainment and sports, at a time when history writing was beginning to show some
methodology, describe vengeance as a sentiment that is required to survive and succeed. In
acts of vengeance narrated in chronicles, social structure manifests itself over three axes,
namely religion (Christian-Muslim), status (ruler-subject) and gender (men-women). In some
cases, an act that is too trivial to cause a feeling of vengeance warrants revenge simply
because of the social structure involved. Reasons for revenge in chronicles are divided into
two categories: social reasons such as observing a different religion or denomination,
apostasy, claiming to be prophets, uprising, bribery and personal reasons such as jealousy,
lack of protocol, murder of someone in the family. Vengeance is enacted in two different
ways: direct with the religious assistance or ploys and indirect with collective punishments
such as occupation, exile, pillage and individual punishments such as selling as slaves, killing
by weapons, decapitation, burning, skinning, confinement, filling the mouth with dirt. Since
all acts of vengeance become public to a certain degree, its aftermath is discussed in detail.
Therefore, the public nurtures different sentiments as celebration, mourning and regret after
the act of revenge. Victims try to find some ways to avoid revenge indirectly with the
assistance of Prophets (Mohammad or Jesus Christ) or Khidr and directly with his own
survival plan such as flight, converting, paying tribute. * Dr. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Yldz Technical University, Turkish Language and Literature Department, Istanbul. sevim.yilmazonder@gmail.com
ACTA TURCICA Yl III, Say 1/2, Ocak 2011 Kltrmzde ntikam, Editrler: Emine Grsoy Naskali, Hilal Oytun Altun
evrimii Tematik Trkoloji Dergisi Online Thematic Journal of Turkic Studies
www.actaturcica.com
174
Anahtar Kelimeler: Vengeance, Apostasy, Gender, Uprising, Protocol, Tribute, Old
Anatolian Turkish, Ottoman historiography.
Abstract:
Tarih yazclnn bir metot izlemeye baland dnemde yazlan ve gndelik yaam,
elence, spor vb. birok sosyal konuda veriler sunan tevrhlerde intikam, hayatta kalmak ve
baar elde etmek iin gerekli bir duygu olarak tarif edilir. Tevrhlerde intikam alma
durumunda sosyal yapnn din (Hristiyan Mslman), stat (yneten ynetilen) ve cinsiyet
(kadn erkek) bakmndan farkl yapda ortaya kt grlr Bazen duygusu
yaratmayacak kadar nemsiz bir davran, sosyal yap nedeniyle ok byk cezalandrlmalar
gerektirir. Tevrhlerde intikam konusunun getii ksmlar incelendiinde sebepler asndan
farkl dinden veya mezhepten olma, din deitirme, peygamberlik iddias, isyan, rvet gibi
toplumsal sebeplerin yan sra kskanlk, protokol kurallarna uymama, aileden birinin
ldrlmesi gibi bireysel sebepler olmak zere iki trde olduu grlr. ntikam alma
trlerinde kullanlan yntemler incelediinde dolayl (dini yardm veya hile ile) ve dorudan
olmak zere iki farkl yol izlendii grld. Dorudan intikam almalarda topraklarn ele
geirilmesi, evlerin boaltlmas, yama gibi toplumsal cezalandrmalar ile esir olarak satma,
silahla ldrmek, attan drme, ban kesme, yakmak, derisini yzmek, zgrln
kstlamak, azna toprak doldurmak gibi bireysel cezalandrmalar eklinde uygulanr. Her
intikamn bir ynyle toplumsal olmas sebebiyle, intikam sonras yaananlar ayrntl
biimde anlatlr. Bu nedenle intikam alndktan sonra toplumda kutlama, yas tutma ve
pimanlk gibi farkl tepkiler oluur. Kurbanlarn Muhammet ve sa Peygamberlerin veya
Hzrn yardmyla intikamdan kurtulduklar dolayl yollarn yan sra kamak, din
deitirmek, hara vermek gibi kendi bulduklar kurtulu planlar da mevcuttur.
Keywords: ntikam, htida, Cinsiyet, Ayaklanma, Terifat, Hara, Eski Anadolu
Trkesi, Osmanl tarih yazcl.
Ottoman History Writing between the 13th and 15th Centuries
Historical texts in Ottoman Turkish are initially referred to as destn/dsitn
(legend), hikye (tale) or menkbnme (epic), but with the development of history
writing throughout the years, these texts are subsequently named trih (chronicle) or its
plural, tevrh.
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As with all nomadic peoples, history writing in the Ottomans occurs at a much later
phase. The first examples indicating a lack of history writing tradition tend to confuse fact and
legend, listing them as one narrative. A notion of causality does not appear until the late 15th
century. Occurrences that are completely void of credibility are narrated as they were facts. In
the example below, Seyyid Battal kills his enemy, skins him, dries and straightens the skin,
and then puts it on as a guise to deceive his enemys men:
Harsn mest old. Seyyid kalanna destr vrdi. Harsan alkod, halvet kalcak ier
girdi, iler yridi, bogazna yapd. ehdet kelimesin bua arz eyledi, ln feryd tmek
istedi. (Seyyid) bogazn berk dutd, cn cehenneme smarlad. Tz derisin yzdi, kend eliyile
dzledi, tabaglk eyledi. rteye degin kurtd. Sabh seg-srlar geldiler. Seyyid Harsnu
derisin geydi, dara kd, bunlara yz gsterdi. Dkelisi yz yre srdiler. (Battalnme, 568-
569)
Until the 15th century, Ottoman Turks sing the epic songs they have brought from their
homeland in Central Asia to Anatolia. Poets and musicians in court narrate the deeds of their
renowned forefathers and heroes accompanied by an instrument called kopuz. The most
distinguished hero of all is Ouz: the forefather and the first ruler of the group of peoples to
whom the Turks of Asia Minor belong. Although these early examples do not contain
information that is significant from a historical perspective, they do provide a painstaking
lineage of Turkic tribes and their chieftains.1
The first Ottoman chronicle that bears a semblance to contemporary works was written
in the early 15th century by Yahi Fakih, the son of shak Fakih, who was the imam of Orhan
Gazi. Known as the Yahi Fakih Menakbnmesi (Epic of Yahi Fakih), this work did not
survive. Its existence is known only by the references made by kpaazde when he was
writing his own work. This Epic has probably been a resource for the anonymous Tevrh-i
l-i Osman (Chronicles of the Ottomans), which were written on the founding stages of the
Ottoman Empire.2
The earliest recovered Ottoman chronicle today is the Chronicle that is annexed to the
skendernme by Ahmed, written in the early 15th century and presented to Emir Sleyman.3
Ahmed wrote this work in 1390, and subsequently added a chronicle until 1410.
1 Franz Babinger, Osmanl Tarih Yazarlar ve Eserleri, ev. okun ok, Ankara 1982, pp. 7-10. 2 Erhan Afyoncu, Osmanl Tarih Yazcl, Trk Edebiyat Tarihi, C. l., stanbul 2007, pp. 570. 3 smail nver, Ahmed, skendername, Ankara 1983, pp. 44-45.
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Following the invasion of the Mongols under the command of Tamerlane, the Ottoman
state was devastated, and along with it, history writing. There are no historical works
surviving from this period. However, as Sultan Murat II ascends to the throne and the state
begins to recover from the defeat at the Battle of Ankara, a methodology in history writing
begins to emerge.4 Dated back to the reign of Sultan Murat II, the anonymous chronicles are
among the most important works in Ottoman history writing. Called the Anonim Tevrh-i l-
i Osman, these chronicles begin with the arrival of Sleyman-ah at Anatolia, and end on
dates that encompass various periods.5
The developments in Anatolia and Thrace in the 15th century sparked further interest
and style in history. Contrary to the earlier stages of history writing, some works are written in
Turkish. A series of victories by the state nurtured an admiration of the Sultan and his family
this would be further entrenched in the society with the conquest of Constantinople. Sultans
must have felt a need to tell their past especially their triumphant past to the people as they
demanded that the historians of their times write the history of the Turks beginning with their
migration to Anatolia. Written in plain, straightforward Turkish, these texts were usually
dedicated to the sultans of their times. Originally a pleasure hoarded by the elite, history was
extended to the people with legendary works like Battalnme6 and Danimendnme7, both
popular among the people of Anatolia. During his time in Edirne, Ebul-hayr-i Rm was
commissioned by Cem Sultan, who had heard about the legends and tales surrounding Saltuk
the Blond in various parts of Thrace, and had wanted a compilation of these narratives, to
write the Saltuknme.8
Works on Seljuk and Ottoman history were specifically translated on orders from the
Sultan, and their translators were rewarded. Many anonymous Chronicles are dated to the
reign of Bayezit II. Examples of Ottoman history texts enriched by poems range from
Ahmeds skendernme9 to the Akpaazde Tarihi (Chronicles by Akpaazade)10 and Oru
Bey Tarihi (Chronicles of Oru Bey). Other important writers are the famous historian Ner,
4 Franz Babinger, Osmanl Tarih Yazarlar ve Eserleri, pp. 16-17. 5 Erhan Afyoncu, Osmanl Tarih Yazcl, pp. 570. 6 Yorgo Dedes, Battalname, Harvard 1996. 7 Necati Demir, Danimend-nme, Harvard 1999. 8 Timurta, eyhinin Harnamesi, stanbul 1981, p. 192; Necati Demir, Danimend-nme. 9 For the annals at the end of the work, cf. smail nver, Ahmed, skendername, pp. 44-45. 10 H. Nihal Atsz, Ak Paaolu Tarihi, stanbul 1992.
177
who wrote the Kitab- Cihn-nma (Book of the World),11 and Yazczde Ali with his
Tevrh-i l-i Seluk (Chronicles of the Seljuks). Although not completely scientific, these
works can be considered secondary resources that can be used to reinforce or expand the
information gained from primary resources like documents, edicts, mandates, private letters
and treaties.
The historical texts that comprise the foundation of this study are prose chronicles that
were written in many aspects of social life, including daily life, entertainment and sports, at a
time when history writing was beginning to show some methodology. In addition to legendary
chronicles like Battalnme and Dnimendnme written in old Anatolian Turkish, methodical
works such as Akpaazde, Oru Bey, Ner and Yazczde are included. These chronicles
are based on and refer to each other. Except Yazczde, all are chronicles of the Ottoman
State. Yazczde covers Ottoman history from the Ouz tribe to the Seljuks and the conquest
of Constantinople. However, this work is significant in the sense that it includes details on
social life, which are not found in the originals, and are presumed to be added by Yazczde.
It may be thought that the author added these details with reference to his own era, namely the
15th century. This is the reason Yazczdes work is frequently referred to in this study:
Although it narrates a previous era, the social data contained therein is more relevant to the
period at hand.12
The Notion of Vengeance in Chronicles
Chronicles describe vengeance as a sentiment that is required to survive and succeed.
Specifically, vengeance is explained as one of the key factors of military achievement.
Soldiers are infused with sentiments of grudge and vengeance so that they will show no
mercy during the fight, battle zealously to enact their revenge, and, naturally, kill their
enemies in the end:
Ve dmen zerine zafer bulmagu bir nie sebebleri vardur drdi. Birisi, ganmet
ve yagma mdi ki leker gllerinde rsih ola, cidd cehd tmekde mbliga derler. Ve
ganmet muhabbet[i] bunlaru glinden lm korkusn giderr. Ve ikincisi, dmene kn ve
intikm kasd yle ki leker dmenden acm olalar ve gllerinde aa kn dutm olalar.
Pes arada intikm kalbe mstevl olur. Havfa ve ihtiyta yol varmaz. ncisi, dmen
11 Orhan Kololu, Kitb- Cihnnma, stanbul 2008. 12 For more information cf. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Introduction Tevrh-i l-i Seluk, ll. cilt Rhat-s-Sudr ve yet-s-Srr tercmesi. stanbul 2009.
178
lekerin gllerine korku brakmak ki glde korku olcak azda kuvvet kalmaz.
(Yazczde, 76a)
A soldier filled with a will to avenge will kill anyone standing before him without any
sign of mercy. This is frequently described as a ravaged wolf attacking a herd of sheep in
chronicles:
Derhl kfirlere rip ol a kurt koyuna girer gibi kfirleri sdlar.
(Dnimendnme, 119)
When Muslims or Christians view themselves as superior to their enemies, ridicule
frequently comes before vengeance. Ridicule indicates that the forces are not equal and the
adversaries will be crushed, and is employed as a tactic to keep morale high. Meanwhile,
readers or listeners find an opportunity to be proud of their people and their army, and look
towards the future with confidence. Derogatory remarks are frequent in sections of ridicule,
and the enemy despite sometimes outnumbering the victors is described as an incompetent
horde. Enemies are likened to animals, which further humiliates them. People reading or
listening to these texts feel pride in their ancestors and scoff at the enemy:
Atua haber kld ki Kardau Kibriyanos, Melik elinde helk old ddi. Atu lan
n an iitdi bir delrmi dv gibi slm erisin arasnda ddi; ayu gibi bagrd, eek gibi
agrd, touz gibi hortlad, dah srdi (Dnimendnme, 119)
Mockery and ridicule sometimes become so over-the-top that it feels unreal. In the
early stages of history writing, when chronicles were very popular among people,
historiographers wrote with a sense of entertaining their audiences while keeping annals.
These entertainment sections become distinct parts of the chronicle, where the writer finishes
relating the event and begins a separate section under the heading of latife (banter) and tells a
joke to further ridicule the victim of the related event in the eyes of the reader. In the example
below, the testicles of enemy soldiers are removed to erect an awning. The battlefield then
becomes known as the Great Balls Plains:
Latfe: Tatarlaru haylaru kesp derilerini birbirine dikp bir syebn tdiler.
imdiki hlde dah ol sahrya Taak Yazus drler. (Ner, 67)
Since chronicles are usually written for future generations, they contribute greatly to
the formation of a collective memory. Remembering the past and taking revenge are inscribed
into the minds of the society. Consequently, some calls for revenge become social grudges
due to the efforts of history writers and the assertions of their chronicles, and are never
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forgotten or allowed to be forgotten even if centuries pass. An example is the grudge
related to the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and how this is passed down from
generation to generation. In chronicles, it is clear that the Greeks who have close ties to the
Ottoman throne after the conquest do not give up on this grudge:
Rm vezr Pdiha eydr: Hey devletl sultnum! Mahmd srdgi evleri teft
dp grdm, ekseri fakrlerdr ve hem az srdi ddi. Ve ganlerin srmedi ddi. Bu Rm
vezr stanbolu intikmn almaga gyetde kim mtk intizrd kim ehl-i slm[]
inciteyidi Murd buyd ki ehl-i slmn evlerin ykdurmagd. (k Paazde, 446).
In the immediate aftermath of the conquest of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas stands up
to lead a new crusade to avenge the conquest. In the communiqu he issues on 30 September
1453, he calls to the rulers of the West to unite against the Turks. Meanwhile, he urges the
bickering countries of Europe to cast civil wars aside and join forces against the enemies of
Christianity13. However, the common belief in Rome at the time was that the conquest was
an act of revenge in itself, that the Ottomans indirectly avenged the fallen of Troy, and that
the Greeks were now suffering for the violence they once committed. The resulting
resentment towards Byzantium and the realpolitik Sultan Mehmet II crafted out of the
ensuing quarrel ensured that the movement was left on paper.14
Although considered the revenge of Troy, the conquest of Constantinople is also
viewed as the attack of Muslims on Christianity by Greeks and many other Christian
nations, and revenge becomes inevitable. Particularly when the Ottomans enter a state of
decline, Christian countries like Russia and Austria lead a Greek Project to avenge the
revenge and to revive the old Byzantium.15
Social Structure in Vengeance
The social status of the person or community that will be punished when they feel
vengeance or later seek to enact vengeance should not be underestimated. In some cases, an
act that is too trivial to cause a feeling of vengeance warrants revenge simply because of the
social structure involved.
In acts of vengeance narrated in chronicles, social structure manifests itself over three
axes, namely religion (Christian-Muslim), status (ruler-subject) and gender (men-women):
13 Steven Runchiman, Konstantiniye Dt, stanbul 1972, p. 255. 14 Ibid. p. 259. 15 Armaolu, Siyas Tarih 1789-1960, Ankara 1973, p. 96.
180
Christians and Muslims
The key dividing factor between avengers and their victims in chronicles is religion.
Refuting each other although being introduced one after the other, Christianity and Islam are
often in clash. While Christians cannot come to terms with the newer Islam, Muslims, safe
in the belief that theirs is the last Godly religion, expect everyone to adopt their faith. Being
of the other religion is a crime in itself in the chronicles, and both sides wage holy wars
against the other. Believing that holy wars are among the greatest good man can do, both
sides fight enthusiastically:
(Cafer) Hak taldan istinet isterdi. Eydrdi kim y Hlik, nin nola bu b-re
miskn yetm kulua lutf ihsn dp yardm klasn, kudret ve kuvvet vresin, bu Rm
memleketin mslimnlk desin, kiliselerin ykam yerine, mescidler ve medreseler yapam.
(Battalnme, 350)
Wars waged in the name of religion require revenge in the name of religion. The
desecration of a mosque or church is regarded a tragedy almost as severe as the conquest of a
country. The destruction of places of worship causes great hatred in both religions, and is
used as an instrument to provoke the people:
Andan grdiler kim Melik erisiyle kala stine kapuya gelp ok kfir helk tdiler.
Kfir ygrp kala kapusna geldiler. Grdiler kim gzler kapuy krmlar. Hemn ehre
koyuldlar. Gavars ters yzine kaup kalaya kd. ehire haber old kim Sematorgos Diyri
alnm. Kfirler bun iitdiler, cnlarndan nevmd oldlar. Andan eytdiler: Biz cnumuz
Mesh yolna kurbn delm dyp birbirlerine eytdiler. (Dnimendnme, 190)
Attacks against religious elements are considered attacks against other countries of the
same faith, so warriors from other countries come to aid their brethren in the holy war. This
instills hope in the hearts of the warriors, who then launch verbal attacks against the enemy to
lower morale:
Kffrdan Alkan girdi eydr: y demrden yrekl kavm, serverzi biz oda
yakduk. Siz basuz bir kavmsiz. Ne zehreyile ubu kadar leker birle bize karu geldz?
Yenildz gerek. U Kaysar geli yrr, lekerin yr gtrmez ytmi iki millet ittifk
tmilerdr ki sizi ara yrden gtreler. (Battalnme, 462)
These two groups create their divide over religious differences, and transition between
the two groups is possible by converting to the others religion. A person who decides to
convert to the enemys religion is not merely a citizen with a different religion he becomes
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the enemy himself. Former Christian, converted Muslim Afroumiyeh now fights for the
Ottomans:
Kfirler kuvvet tutup mslmnlar sdlar. Ol arada bir tag vard. Gzler ol tagdan
yaa vardlar. Efrumiyye, ol gzler cmlesi mecrh olmlard. Ol tagn penh dindiler.
(Dnimendnme, 74)
Rulers and subjects
The dividing factor between people of the same religion is whether they are subjects or
rulers. This makes it clear that the social status of the avenger is important when
contemplating revenge. Some act that is quite ordinary for a person at the bottom of the social
pyramid becomes a punishable crime as the person moves up the pyramid.
When revenge is due upon a person who belongs to the upper levels of society, not
anyone can go to take revenge. A person who belongs to a lower level of society must obtain
the assent of the relatives of the dead or wronged person. Because enacting revenge is a
matter of honor in society, such honor must be bestowed by permission. The higher the social
rank of the person to be avenged, the greater the honor:
Eger buyurursa ben kulu varayn Mezd Beg intikmn ol kfirden alayn. ddi.
(k Paazde, 401)
When taking revenge, people of lower rank are killed first, and higher-ranking people
are left to be killed later. Furthermore, lower-rank people die an easy death while agony and
suffering increase as victims climb the ranks of society. If the victim is a Kaiser, an emperor,
then he is not killed by a ploy; he is usually called out onto the battlefield for revenge:
Kaysar on iki bi kul birle drt yz ydek nice nice begler rikbnca meydana tazm
birle geldi Seyyid eyitdi: ok syleme, eger sen beni zebn derse ben sen dne
girem. Ve ger ben seni ykarsam bes benm dnme gire misin? Kaysar rz old.
(Battalnme, 477)
State and religion remained two distinct realms until the reign of Selim I, who claimed
the title of khalifa for the Ottomans.16 Prior to this, when the Sultan and the khalifa were two
different people, and they confronted each other for some reason, the situation could easily
become a deadlock.17 Under normal circumstances, wronging the leader of the state and the
16 Azmi zcan, Hilafet slam Ansiklopedisi, C. 17, 1998, pp. 546. 17 For the khalifas position on the social pyramid, cf. Sevim Ylmaz nder, Tevrh-i l-i Selukta Hediyeleme ve Hediye Szleri, Motif Akademi Dergisi- Muhal Bali Armaan, stanbul 2009.
182
country would be inexcusable; however, if the wrongdoer is the khalifa, action will not be so
swift. Even when the issue is associated with women and the pride and honor of the parties
are at stake, negotiations, condemnation and warnings are favored ways of resolving the
situation. In asking for Seyyids assistance in taking the girl that his son wants to marry,
Abdulvahhab pits Seyyid and the Khalifa against each other. In these cases, someone other
than the Khalifa is responsible for the problems that ensue. In other words, there are people
like Ukba who provoke the Khalifa, and they are the true culprits. Always ready to act,
Seyyid merely disarms the assailant in the attack perpetrated in the presence of the Khalifa,
and sets out to uncover the truth:
Ukb (Halfeye) eyitdi: Byle sormagla i olmaz. Buyur Abdulvahhabu elin
baglasunlar, boynn ursunlar ddi. Celld klc ekdi, iler yrdi. Seyyid dyemedi,18
srad, celldu elinden klc ald, eyitdi: ah anu gnhn sbit eyle, andan ldr
ddi. Ukb feryd eyledi, eyitdi H grdz mi? Halfe yzine klc ekdz. imdi sen
kanu helldr. Seyyid eyitdi: Ben kimseye kl ekmedm. Klc zlim elinden aldum. Sen
otur aaga ben isteyem, kzu ahvlin hikyetin bileyin ddi. (Battalnme, 489)
Men and women
From a gender perspective, being a man or a woman does not have a bearing on
seeking revenge, with the exception of the Sultan, who occupies the highest position on the
social pyramid. Devout women or women who have recently converted to Islam go to holy
war alongside men. As the daughter of an aristocratic Greek family, Afroumiyeh converts to
Islam and fights alongside Muslim men on the battlefield in the name of Islam:
Efrumiyye tgin eline alup hamle kld. yle ceng tdi kim vasfa gelmez. Ol gce ok
kfir krdlar Efrumiyye ve syir gzler gceye degin ceng tdiler. (Dnimendnme, 73-
74)
Although the two genders may be portrayed as equals in holy war, the female warrior
is almost always wed to a male warrior at one point, becoming a warrior that is the wife of a
known man. As in the example of Afroumiyeh, sometimes religion comes to their assistance:
The great warrior Seyyid Battal appears to Melik Danimend in his dream, and says that the
two converts, Artuhi and Afroumiyeh are suited to each other:
18 Yorgo Dedes reads dyemedi as duyamad.
183
Ol gce Melik Dnimend rahmetullhi aleyhi- dinde iki cihn gnei Muhammed
Mustafy grdi. Cmle ashab, Seyyid Battal ve Abdul-vahhb bu cmle begler bir yre
cem olmlar. Melik bunlara karu vard, hdmet kld Hazret-i Resl dah Meliki bagrna
basd, arkasn sgad, htrn sord. Melik eytdi: Nite old, bizi sora m geldiz? ddi.
Seyyid Battl cevb vrdi kim Biz bunda Artuhnu dgnine geldk. Gerek kim rte dgn
yaragn klasz. (Dnimendnme, 89)
Besides avenging women, there are women who become the targets of revenge. Some
men, when they realize they have lost, murder their own women and children to save them
from the hands of the avengers:
Bu tarafdan kfirler azgunlar melnlar, Trke olmasun dy ehr bir
tarafna gherile saup ehri oda urdlar yakdlar. Baz kfirler melnlar azgunlar, ogln
kzn masm uacuklar ve avratlarn kend eliyle kldan gerdiler. (Oru Be, 202)
Reasons for Vengeance
Reasons for revenge in chronicles are divided into two categories: social reasons and
personal reasons.
l. Social reasons
1. Observing a different religion or denomination Social revenge occurs when people observe different religions or denominations.
People who hold believing in different religions one with disbelieving seek vengeance as a
community even if no actual clash exists:
Drt yz seksen sekiz senesinde askeri mlhiddr dy beyyine ikme dp
depeleyince eceli anda mukadderdr. (Ner, 19)
Regarding the believers of different religions as disbelievers is as common among
Muslims as it is among Christians. As a result, a Christian considers Muslims enemies that
have to be captured or killed, even if they may have done nothing, and seeks to punish them.
In the best case, they are imprisoned:
Malatyyeye gelrken bir yrde yatdlar. Meger yaknda bir kfir ehri vard. Adna
Klimiya drlerdi, pdihna Kaytur bin Ssn drlerdi. Bir ka kfir stlerine ridiler,
Muhammed dy dutdlar. Kaytura getrdiler, zindna koydlar. Bir ay bunlar zindnda
yatdlar. (Battalnme, 411)
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It is also clear that different denominations give rise to a feeling of vengeance similar
to different religions. This feeling sometimes translates to action and motivates assaults
against the followers of other denominations. When opportunity presents itself,
neighborhoods are invaded and houses are set on fire:
Bu ehr halk arasnda ihtilf- mezhib vard. Ol sebebden birbirine kn ve hkd19
derlerdi. imdi ki fursat buldlar, her gce birbirin mahallesin basarlard ve evlerin20
kalancasn dah oda ururlard. (Yazczde, 42a)
2. Refusing the call When a feeling of vengeance arises between two enemies or neutral parties that follow
different religions, a proselytizing call is made to the adversary. If the other party refuses the
call, his murder becomes incumbent on the caller. As part of their faith, Muslims invite the
non-Muslims they meet to their religion. When Danimend captures the Byzantine soldier
who fought against him, he asks him to convert to Islam. When he does not, he kills the
captive:
Melik Dnimend kendyi gsterdi ve eytdi21 kim: Benem Melik Dnimend Artuh
eytdi: Benem Artuh dyince melnlar bildiler kim hl nice old. Hemn dndiler kim
kaalar. Melik ve Artuh ol iki kiiyi tutdlar, imn arz tdiler. mna gelmeyp Melik ol
arada ikisin katl etdiler. (Dnimendnme, 16)
Sometimes the captive is informed that converting is the only way to avoid death, and
that he will be killed if he does not accept:
Ol yz kiiyi dne davet tdiler. On kii mslmn old, kalan mselmn olmadlar.
Melik Dnimend buyurd, burn ve kulagn ve sakallarn tr tdiler. Ve dah bir nme
yazdlar kim: Evvel nm- Hud, andan bilesin ki, Melik Dnimend katndan ki saa Nastor
ve attatsz. mn getrp mslmn olasz, lz vilyetz ile lmden kurtlasz. Ve ill
ne sizi koram ve ne erizi koram. Cmlezi kldan gerem. yle kim asluzdan bir
diri kii komayam ddi. (Dnimendnme, 67)
3. Apostasy Although conversion to another religion is the guarantee of ones life, sometimes it
becomes just the opposite: Apostates, either of their free will or by force, become targets of
19 hkd: hukd M. 20 evlerin: erlerin M. 21 eytdi: tdi M.
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vengeance for others. Revenge enacted on them will set an example to others, and they will
know what awaits them if they convert, and will remain true to their faith regardless of the
circumstances. Former Christian Abdullah decides to help his brethren. However, when trying
to rescue his family, Abdullah is forced to inform his wife that he has converted to Islam, and
that soldiers will be coming. When his wife tells of Abdullahs conversion, Abdullah is
severely tortured. Observing different faiths may even destroy families:
Abdullh kim yei mslmndur, ehl-i ayalin tara karmaga kalaya varup Melik
ahvlin haber vrr. Gel sizi tara karaym, yed bunda helk olasz dr.
Abdullhun avrat bu haberi iidr, kfirlere haber vrr. Kfirler Abdullh tutarlar.
Melik ahvlin ve kendn ahvlin sorarlar. Abdullh dmez, inkr der. hir Abdullha
ikence dp Melik kala stine gelmesi haberin alurlar. (Dnimendnme, 56)
If the convert is the child of an emperor, the situation becomes critical. Although the
convert feels good about his or her choice, the rest view this as a great shame, and may
sometimes fall sick with sorrow:
Sngn leker kaysara ridi, haber vrdiler, ogl hikyetin bildrdiler. Tcn gtrdi,
yre urd, aglad, feryd tdi. Ydi gn tahta oturmad. H kimse yzin grmedi, lokma dah
ymedi. Begler vezrler drildiler, katna girdiler, eyitdiler: h22, aglamakla i bitmez
bua yarak gerek, eri dvirelm. (Battalnme, 366)
If the convert is an aristocratic woman, especially if she has joined the ranks of the
warriors, she will be ridiculed if not killed. When taking to the battlefield, Afroumiyeh cuts
her hair the one visible property of womanhood and is ridiculed as the shorn:
Andan Nastor ve attat buyurd kim celldlar Efrumiyye[yi] getrp ol meclisde
siyset meydn dzdiler. attat, Efrumiyyeye ok herzeler syledi. Derhl buyurd kim
ldr bu sa bgi ddi. Nastor komad, hals kld. (Dnimendnme, 99)
4. Claiming to be prophets As Islam is proclaimed as the last holy religion, anyone who claims to be a prophet
after the prophet of Islam has been considered a sinner, and punished for his sins in the mortal
world. As a prominent figure in history, Babak claims to be a prophet. He upholds the idea of
sharing women and property, and kidnaps many women and girls to this purpose. This
becomes a method he employs to make those who do not believe in him suffer. Despite this
22 h: ha M.
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cruelty, the real reason he is killed is his insistence in claiming to be a prophet and reluctance
to accept Islam:23
Bbek eydr: Y Battal, ben peygmberem. imdiki vakt benm vaktmdr.
Muhammed devri gedi, ol yn erkn ko. Gel, benmle mutbbaat t kim yarn kymet
gninde benden utanmayasn ddi. Seyyid kakd tz buyurd, bir engel getrdiler, agzna
bragup dilin kartd, dibinden kesdrdi. (Battalnme, 596)
5. Abuse of fellow believers People who share a faith are inclined to regard a wrongdoing against their fellow
believers as an act against themselves, and seek revenge. Cruelty, murder, war and all other
forms of abuse warrant punishment:
Andan Melik kalaya kasd tdi. Andan Mihayil buyurd, elli esr getrdiler, burc
banda pre pre kldlar. Andan agrdlar kim Dn yohsa Artuhy dah pre pre
devz. n Melik bu haberi iitdi, resz olup gr dndi. Andan Melik erisiyle kala
stine geldiler Ol mslmnlar ile burca yryp ol elli kfire kl koydlar Kanda kim
kfir buldlarsa krdlar. (Dnimendnme, 56-57)
6. Uprising Any and all acts that may be considered a challenge to the rulers will be punished.
When the challenge becomes collective, in other words, an uprising happens, forgiveness is
not very common. Such punishment is required for the rulers to maintain their position of
power. When Lifon, who had previously escaped with his life and retained his religion by
agreeing to pay tribute, continues the same behavior, he is not allowed a second chance:
Ve andan sora Lifon harca kesp gr salvrdiler. Bir nie mddetden sora gr
isyn zhir old. Sultn bu defa dutup helk tdi. Ve memleketin mslmnlara ledrdi.
(Yazczde, 74b)
Betrayal by a trusted person also requires punishment. Since this will be an example to
others, punishment usually becomes inordinate:
Ve n Hruzm-h Hruzma geldi, vezrine thmet tdi ki Miycug baa sen
terbiyet derd ddi. Buyurd ki vezri ldrdiler. Ve Miycug Hrozm in ber-dr
eylediler. Ve nie gn turd. Ve kgrtdlar ki nimet hakkn bilmeyen ve kfrn gsteren
23 Hakk Dursun Yldz, Bbek slam Ansiklopedisi, C. 4, 1991, pp. 376-377.
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cezs budur ddiler. Ve kendsi dah Seluklaru nimetine kfrn klup hakk- nimeti
yerine getr[me]midi. Bu kendye dah ey fl olmad. (Yazczde, 74a-b)
7. Refusing surrender If the vanquished side of a war refuses to abandon their posts or the commander of a
castle or other fortification does not march out, a feeling of vengeance arises. Emissaries are
sent to enemies who are perceived as weaker before the war, or during the battle when it
becomes clear that the enemy will lose, to urge them to surrender. The consequences of
refusing to surrender may be greater than that of surrendering. People who refuse to surrender
the castle or the castle commander are warned, and if they do not heed the warning, killed:
(Kir-Aleksi) tutsak olan beglerinden birisini ihtiyr tdi. Sultn hkmiyile ayagn
bagdan hals tdiler. Ve Tekvur katna iletdiler. Tekvur aa dil haberin vrp ehr iindeki
ululara gnderip eyitdi ki ehri sultnu kullarna teslm tsnler. dy. Ve eyitdiler ki:
Eger Kir-Aleksi tutsak oldysa anu ulu rimi ogullar vardur ki her biri kiver-drlk
dbyla rste Cnt [ve] Tarabizonda tururlar. Anlardan birini pdih derz. Bu
memleketi Trke ve mslmna vrmezz. ddiler Sultn ol hlden kat gazaba gelp
kakd. Buyurd ki Kir-Aleksiyi agr bend-ile ehr katna ileteler. Ve azb- balg birle
ikence deler. Ve eydeler ki Y ehri vr y Kir-Aleksiyi helk derz. diyeler.
(Yazczde, 129a-b)
8. Great casualties in war If a side takes too many casualties in war, they are filled with vengeance and become
determined to punish the enemy. After a battle where they suffer heavy casualties, warriors
gather and count the bodies of their fallen brothers, complete the funeral prayer and bury
them, and feel a greater dedication to battle fueled by the vengeance in them:
Bir ceng tdiler kim vasf olnmazd. Kfirler arh okyla ve ta ile ok Mslmn ehd
kldlar. Gzler dah aagadan yukaru okla ok kfir helk tdiler Melik Dnimend
erisin yoklad. Sekiz yz mslman ehid olm. Buyurd hedy bir yre cem dp
namzlarn kldlar, defn tdiler. (Dnimendnme, 170)
9. Bribery Although a personal offense at first, bribery soon becomes a widespread issue as
individuals who are at a disadvantage due to bribery lose their faith in their state, and the
power of the government diminishes. Individuals begin to pressure the government to put an
end to this problem, and it is the ruler that is charged with bringing an end it. Deciding to
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punish the corrupt judges who are detrimental to his authority, Sultan Yldrm Bayezid orders
these judges to be locked into a house and burned alive:
nki Kara Rstem Karamandan geldi, hle ve bidat hdis ola balad. Ve kdlar
dah azup ilmleriyle amel tmeyp rvet almaga baladlar. nki su badan ad,
Byezd Hn, kdlar teft tdrp, her birinde bir drl fesd bulup, hkm dp ne kadar
kd varsa, bunlar cem dp Yi-ehirde cmlesin bir eve toldurup buyurd ki tolayna
odun ygup od ura, t ki bu zlim kadlar cmlesi yaalar. (Neri 337)
ll. Personal reasons
1. Jealousy Among the most prevalent personal reasons is envy. This has fatal consequences
especially if between people in high seats. In the chronicles, holders of power are in a state of
ceaseless competition. Being the minion of the person at the top may result in irredeemable
consequences such as causing the suspension or even execution of someone else. As a very
strong vizier, Nizamlmlk had considerable influence over the sultan. When he was envious
of the interest the sultan showed in his adversaries, he did not hesitate to send them to the
gallows to rule out competition. This conflict among minions was recorded in chronicles:
Alp Arslan tahta gedi. Vezrler Nizml-mlk24 ve Hasan bin Ali bin shkd
Ve Nizml-mlk ki evvelden kendn mlzmyd, vezreti aa vrdi Ve n-ki celld
Amdl-meliki ldrmege getrdi, Amdl-melik cellddan mhlet dileyp bdest ald. Ve
iki rekat namz kld. Ve cellda yalvard. Ve and vrdi ve eyitdi: n-ki pdihu
fermnn yrine getrrsin, senden dilegim budur-ki bir haberm vardur pdih hazretine
dyesin. Ve bir haberm dah vardur vezri Hca Nizml-mlke diyesin. Amm pdiha
dyesin ki25 Ne baht ve sadet ki baa siz kapuuzda ald. Ve ne devlete ve izzetlere ki
siz hizmetzde ytidm. yle-ki bunca zamn ammu Tugrul Beg baa dny ululgn
erzn kld. Cem memleketleri benm hkmmde kod. Bi-hamdillh ki imdi sen hiret
ululugun erzn klup ehd kldu ki sen sebeb-ile hr cinn myesser old. Allh siz
asluzdan ve neslizden honz olsun ki hondam, dnyy ve hireti sizile buldum
ddi. Ve vezri Nizml-mlke dyesin ki zit bidat26 ve yaramaz kide kodu. Bu lemde
senden din yogd ki vezr ldreler. Korkaram ki bu snnet gr sen ve ikbu zerine
24 Nizml-mlk: Nizml-melik M. 25 dyesin ki: dyesin ki eyitdi ki M. 26 zet bidat: zt ve bidat M.
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dah cr ola27 ddi. Ve andan sora celld an ehd klup bu haberleri sultna ve vezre
ytidrdi. Bunlar dah hayl mteessir oldlar. (Yazczde, 26a-b)
2. Lack of protocol Contempt, self-praise, failing to kiss the floor and other disrespectful acts are looked
down upon from a social perspective. The higher the rank of the person who is the target of
these acts, the greater the punishment will be. When the person is a sultan or a vizier,
disrespect to his person is considered disrespect to the state. Similarly, disrespect to
ambassadors, who are the representatives of their states, is considered disrespect to the state
and its ruler, and is always punished:
hir liye tahff tdiler, hakret-ile sz sylediler. li dah geldi, hep mcery
pdiha haber vrdi. Pdih- Rm bu harekete mell old. Bir dah advete sebeb bu old.
(k Paazde, 490)
3. Murder of someone in the family The murder of someone in the family requires retaliation; otherwise, the victims
blood will dry on the ground, which will bring shame on the men of the family. Therefore,
the father or the brothers of the deceased do their best to avenge the deceaseds blood and
save the honor of their family. This grants the avenger prestige in the society:
Osmnu birderi Sar-yaty anda ehd tdiler. Ol yrde bir am agac vardur,
kandill am drler. Zr gh gh anda bir ule grnr. Saru-yat anu dibinde ehd old.
Ve ol Kalanoz kfir dah anda dp Osmn Gzi buyurd, karnn yarup ve yri bir mikdr
p it gibi gmdiler. Ol sebebden imdi ol yre t-ini drler. (Ner, 85)
The family unites and decides who will avenge the deceased in what way. In the
chronicles, avenging the blood is common to Christians and Muslims. The Christian Astr
fights Seyyid on the battlefield to avenge his forefathers:
Astr kakd, drt yz zerrn kemerl kul ve hc peyker alemi birle meydna girdi.
Seyyide berber geldi, eyitdi: y Battal- kattal, bugn ol gndr kim atamu dedem
senden intikmn alam ddi. (Battalnme, 535)
If the deceased is of a high rank, his blood must always be avenged. This feeling of
vengeance becomes inscribed in the minds of individuals, and gradually becomes a collective
motive:
27 cr ola: cr olmasayd M.
190
Kfirler dah silh giyinp atlarna svr oldlar. Nastor ve Sunbat ve attat andan
Hisarbad karda Kiarbad svr olup Nastor katna geldiler. Eytdiler kim: Dilerz kim bu
gn Hisarbad karda Karbad meydna girp karda kann ala ddiler.
(Dnimendnme, 109)
Types of Revenge
Vengeance is enacted in two different ways: direct and indirect.
Indirect
A number of indirect methods are used when avengers or their men cannot directly
enact vengeance.
1. Religious assistance Religious assistance is very common in indirect revenge. People call for help from
celestial and holy beings during war. When under attack by swordsmen, Muslims cite the
prayer of Khidr and call the name of the Prophet, asking for help from these holy men:
Derhl Hzr peygamber duasn okd ve kendye frdi, rdi Melik Dnimend Gz
st lan kafsndan rdi. Eyitdi kim Be-nm- Hud, be-nr- pk- Muhammed
Mustafa dyp Atu lane bir darb- tg yle urd kim lan ba evgndan kar gibi
krk adm yr gitdi. (Dnimendnme, 120)
Prayer and adoration before going to battle are very common practices of ensuring
victory:
Grdiler kim ok mslman ehd olm. Melik an grp ok aglad. Andan Hakka
tevecch dp, yardm ve inyet ve meded diledi. (Dnimendnme, 113-114)
Christians take oaths to wage war against Muslims, and fight in the name of Jesus
Christ:
stanbulda ne kadar ulu kii varsa Seyyide muhibb oldlar. Kaysar iler geldi eydr:
Y dn ulus Mesh biz kullaryuz. Bir oglan peyd old, hayl ulu kiimz depeledi.
Buncalarumuz dah atalar dedeleri dninden kard. Muhammed dnine koyd. mdi
himmet bile olsun. U yarak de dururam ki kam ol oglan ele getrem. Temmet slm
lekerin klcdan gerem. Ol kabelerin ykam oda uram. Bagddda ol halfelerin dutam.
Mesh yzi suyn yrine getrem ddi. (Battalnme, 393)
After the avengers say their prayers, they usually go to sleep and dream a premonition,
which tells them what they may anticipate, and how to protect themselves. This sometimes
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has implausible consequences: While an entire city is ravaged by disasters, people who had
secretly converted to Islam are inexplicably protected from such disasters. Their homes and
families come to no harm:
Ol gce Melik dinde grdi kim bir nrn koca geldi. Sakal ggsine inmi, eytdi:
Ben Abdl-vahhb Gzyem. Yarn erini bu yazdan gider. Yce taglara varu kim hakk
tal Sisiyye kavmine hm eyledi. Bu gn gerek kim anlar helk yleye. Melik uyand,
ahvli eriye dy vrdi. Gp yce taglara vardlar. yle kim ol yazda bir mslmn
kalmad. Yarndas gn yleye karb olnca gk yzini bulut ald, grlti old. Gceye dek
yldrmlar old. Gcen bir bah gemiidi kim Nh Tfn gibi yagmurlar yagd. Taglar
gibi siyller old. Tarnu emriyle Sisiyye kavmi habersz uyand Ol ehr iinde ne varsa
siyle gitdi. Ancak b yz ev kald. Anlar dah kfirlkdan dnp tevbe klmlard. Vel
kfirlerden korkup ikre demezlerdi. (Dnimendnme, 183)
2. Ploys
Muslim or Christian heroes who claim ploy is the better part of heroism frequently
resort to ploys. Chronicles depict ploys by Muslims as clever ruses. Muslims secretly
infiltrate Christian ranks in battle, and call out a Muslim name. Thinking that they have been
compromised by Muslim soldiers, Christians turn to kill their own men:
Kend birka kez leker sagndan girdi, nara urd kim Menem Ahmed-i Turrn,
menem Tevbil-i Rm, menem Abds-selm dy. Yine rak yrden teferrc derdi
tururd. Leker birbirin krdlar. Kan gevdeyi gtrdi, kteler pte pte old, ykld. Ol
gce ytmi bi kfir klcdan gedi. rte old ki gz gzi grdiler ki aralarnda hi bigne
yok. Kendler birbirin krmlar. Kim atasn ldrmi, kim ogln ldrmi. (Battalnme, 459)
New converts play important parts in ploys. New Muslims cheat their former people
with particular ease, knowing their language and religion natively. When they want to deceive
someone, they tell them in Greek how they regret having converted, and they are awaiting
forgiveness to return to the true faith. They promise to bring the severed heads of the enemy
in consideration:
Ahmed Serkis haymesinde oturd, bir nme yazd Rm diline kim Titi miti, bu nme
benden kim Serkisem. Sen katua kim Nastorsn. Bilgil ve agh olgl kim ben kldugum
ilere pimn oldum. Dilerem ki siz katuuza varam. Gzlerle b yz kii atlandlar
Ahmed Serkis Rm diline agrd: Kapuy au ki benem, Serkis. Melik ban kesdm
getrdm. Birka serverler benm kasdm kldlar. Baa meded kluz kim benden intikm
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alurlar ddi. Kfirler Nastora haber kldlar. Buyurd kapuy adlar. Gzler ehre
girdiler. (Dnimendnme, 173)
If an avenger was seeking a ploy, the first thing he would do would be to change attire.
At a time when the attire of people varied from region to region, even from city to city, ones
attire would give clues about their religion, ethnicity, and even occupation.28 Therefore, a
person who wanted to enact revenge by ploys had to overcome certain barriers to reach his
victim. He had to dress like the person he intended to harm. Sometimes the success of these
ploys is exaggerated to the point of implausibility. The avenging Muslim speaks the language
of his victim perfectly, dresses as a priest, and reads passages from the Bible to convince
others:
Seyyid kalaya yakn gelicek haber eylediler, krk ruhbnla Tugn karu geldiler.
Seyyid birle gridiler, sordlar: Kimsin, adu nedr? ddiler. Seyyit eyitdi: Borz-
Akanam, bu yolda ok riyzetler ekip dururam. Zahmet bisyr grp dururam ddi.
Tagn eyitdi: Sakn sen Battal olmayasn? ddi. Seyyid aglad Beni sen kime
bezedrsin? ddi. Agzn ad, hb vzla bir iki yt ncil okud. (Battalnme, 396)
Intoxication is another common aspect of ploys, sometimes accompanied by sexuality.
Particularly men with homosexual tendencies are wooed by young and handsome men, whom
they follow without questioning, and are trapped in an act of vengeance:
Mihriyyil Caferi ileri okd, arb vrdi. Cafer eydr: Ahdlyem ol vakt ki atam
katndan gitdm, sakalum gelmeyince arb imeyem ddm. Evet sklk deym ddi.
(Mihriyyil) iler yridi, kadeh eline alup idi, mest old. Ol lan Cafer yzine nazar
kld, bir hb suratlu grdi, meyl eyledi kim birka eftlukrlk de. Turd, tahtdan aaga
indi, Cafer elin ald, tenh bahe bucagna bir halvet yre vardlar Cafer drd yaa
bakd, hi kimse grmedi eydr: D imdi ata kann al dyp yumrugn dgdi Ol kfir
herzeye balad, grdi kim mna gelmez, ban gvdesinden cd kld. (Battalnme, 355)
Direct
Avengers enact vengeance either personally or through dependable associates.
Punishments may be categorized as collective and individual.
l. Collective punishments
1. Occupation 28 Halil nalck, Some Remarks on the Ottoman Turkeys Modernization Process, Transfer of Modern Science & Technology to the Muslim World, stanbul 1992, p. 50.
193
The most severe punishment directed to a non-Muslim society is conquest. The
avenger both gains new territories, and does good work from a religious perspective:
Bayezd Hn nki Selnik vilyetin bazn feth dp Frenkle advet gsterp
gelp Burusada klad. Bahar olcak azm lekerle Geliboldan gep Edirneye varup kasd
tdi ki ngrse vara, gaz de. (Neri 325)
2. Exile If vengeance is not too intense, an appropriate punishment is the forced migration of
the community. Former settlements are usually not left to abandon, and are occupied by the
relatives of the avenger:
Evrenez-ogl Al Beg ddi: Devletl sultanum, Bu hisr cengi hayli mkildr.
Sultnum bun yagma tmek gerek kim bu alna ddi. Sultn Murd Hn- Gz eydr: Bre
hisr yagmadur gzler ddi. Allhuekber, nkim yagma haberin gzler iidecek her
tarafdan nerdbnlar getrdiler, yrdiler, gz adurmadlar. Def tarfetl-ayn iinde
hisra koyuldlar, feth old. Ml- ganmete gark oldlar. Kfirlerini esr tdiler. Acyib
toyumluklar old. ehr evleri hl kald. htiyr olup kalana evlerini milklige vrdiler. Ve
Vardar Yicesin halkn srp anda getrdiler. Selnik iinde skin tdiler. (k
Paazde, 390-91)
The same method is used by Christians: the Governor cannot keep the Muslims under
rule, and decides to exile them from Constantinople. Then, he orders the destruction of the
temple:
Amm kfir mslmnlara hkm demezdi. Byezd Hna kim Temr vartas vki
olcak tekr ol mahalleyi srdi stanboldan ve ol mescidi ykd. (k Paazde, 340).
3. Pillage The namesake of a Turkic tribe (Yama), pillaging is considered the taking of what
is rightfully theirs from the enemy. Also known as toyum/doyum (fill) or ganimet
(spoils), pillage motivates soldiers to war. Soldiers are more enthusiastic to take part in
battles where the spoils will be plenty, and practice pillage at times and locations deemed
appropriate by the commander, or the sultan who is the commander-in-chief. Within the
boundaries of the territory available to pillage, any property above or below the ground may
be taken. It is common that communities bury some of their property before the war, or hide
them in secret wells. After the war, precious metals like silver and gold, and items of value
including silken fabrics, carpets and mattresses are pillaged:
194
Ve Merve ki agr Beg zamnndan ber pdihlaru drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve
defyin dolu idi.29 Ve begler ve ayn ehri gizlemidiler. Guzlar gn tamm yagmaladlar.
Evvelki gn altun ve gmi ve harri aldlar. kinci gn demr ve bakyye-i altun aldlar ve
nci gn dek ve kl aldlar. Ve nihl ve bk hurdavt ne varsa hatt kapularn dah
karup aldlar. Ve ehr halknu ekserin esr tdiler. Ve yagmadan sora bunlara ikenceler
derlerdi ki gizl kuyular ve zr- zemnlerde nesne varsa eyitdrrlerdi. Fil-cmle yr
yzinde ve yr altnda h nesne komadlar, aldlar. (Yazczde, 41b)
4. Demolition Especially in large and beautiful cities, the destruction of magnificent structures and
surrounding gardens is considered a severe punishment for the community:
Ve buyurd ki Konyanu bglarn zarar baltalar ve kahr dehrileri birle kat tdiler
Ve bglar iindeki, kkler30 ve kasrlarn cef klngiyile31 ve intikm kazmalar birle harb
tdiler. (Yazczde, 102a)
Sometimes the city is torn down after pillage to prevent the enemy from mustering
forces. The community first loses all property by way of pillage, and then is left homeless and
without sustenance. As most young men are already dead due to the preceding war, the enemy
has no means to gather strength and muster a force to counterattack:
Ve Miycug dutd. Ve ne-kadar lekeri ve tevbii varsa krd. Hrozm-hu
lekeri her defa ki Irka gelrlerdi, mblaga nimetlerle giderlerdi. Bu defa nesne
bulamadlar. Pes andan Kazvne vardlar. Anda melhiden kalalar vard. Ol kalalar
feth tdiler Ve hayl nimetler hsl tdiler. Ve Irk harb ve vrn koyup gitdiler. Ve
bundan tamalarn kat tdiler. (Yazczde, 74a)
5. Destruction of property One of the milder ways to enact revenge is to destroy the property or livestock that the
enemy owns or wants to possess. Food stores, clothing items and weapons are destroyed or
livestock are slaughtered or mutilated to rid the enemy of its strength. Sometimes, victims
destroy their own property to deny their use to the enemy:
Ve Miycuk gr gelp memlekete mstevl old. Evvelden dah beter32 old zulm
tmekde. Pes Irku ayn ittifk dp Hruzm-ha bir garr mektb yazdlar. Ve 29 agr Beg zamnndan ber pdihlaru drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve defyindolu idi: agr Beg zamnndan ber drl-mlki idi, hazyin ve defyindolu idi pdihlaru M. 30 kkleri: kleri M. 31 klngiyile: klngleri.
195
Miycugu hlin ilm tdiler. Ve eger bu zulmi def tmezse cemmz33 hasm sen
olursn ddiler. Hruzm-h dah gazab dp fil-hl Irka tevecch tdi. Miycuk iidp
Lter tarafna revne old. Hruzm-h ardndan srp -bir ulu rmak vard- anu
kenrnda yetidi. Miycuk grdi ki leker yetidi, ne-kadar tavar varsa, cemin siirlerin
kesdrdi. Ve lt u esbb ne varsa suya dkdrdi. (Yazczde, 74a/ 1-10)
ll. Individual punishments
1. Social punishment The mildest punishment that will be given to high-ranking officials that make a
mistake or ignore mistakes is dismissal. Sometimes, not receiving intelligence about a
planned act or failing to inform superiors despite receiving intelligence are reasons for
punishment:
Ve n Abbs, Abdur-rahmnu ldgin itdi, Halfe Mukted34 birle ittifk tdi ki
bayram gni n ki sultn namza gele. Anda sahrda an dutalar. ttifk ol gn be-gyet
yagmurlar old ki h kimse evinden kmaga mecli olmad. Ve Hak sbhnehu ve tal
sultndan ol erri def tdi. Ve bir ka gnden sora Abbsu bu ittifk duyuld. Sultn
bun saryna getrtdi, dutd. Anda ban kesdi. Ve Abbsla Abdur-rahmnu veftlar
arasnda bir ay gemedi ki Sultn, Tced-dn Vezri dah bu srdan haberi vard dy,
azl tdi. (Yazczde, 47b-48a)
High-ranking officials may share power with the Sultan, in other words, they rule the
country in the name of the Sultan. As they are rewarded when they function meritoriously,
they are punished for even the smallest mistake. At times, viziers and other high-ranking
officials may become too involved in their vicarious power, and disregard the sultan in whose
name they rule. They may start allocating conquered lands to their relatives, strengthening
their position in power. In this case, the sultan must make a display of true power even if the
person in question is the Nizamlmlk and make an example of the offender. People who
influence the sultan in making this decision usually ascend to the post of the dismissed
official:
32 beter: biter M. 33 cemmz: cemmz M. 34 Mukted: Muktef R.
196
Bir gn Nizml-mlke35 dem gnderdi. Eytdi: Ne drsin? Benmle pdihlkda
erk misin ki benm meveretmsiz ve iczetmsiz tasarruflar dersin. Ve vilyetler iktn
ledrrsin. Ve memleketler[i] oglanlarua36 vrrsin. Diler-misin ki dem gnderem,
dlbendi baudan alalar.Nizml-mlk eytdi: Sultna eyd ki ol vakt ki anu bana
tc kodlar, benm bauma dlbend kodlar. kisi birbirine bagludur ve ulaukdur. Ayrlmag
olmaz ddi. Nakl denler sultna dah ziyde katup ayruks sretile eytdiler.37 T ki sultn
gazab dp Nizml-mlki azl tdi ve vezreti Tcl-melike vrdi. (Yazczde, 30a)
2. Selling as slaves Although not as brutal in the Ottoman society as in other countries, the sale and
purchase of humans was an accepted practice; women in particular were sold and bought to be
put to housework. A slave who began working in the house would gradually become an
extended member of the household. Slavery continued in this fashion until abolition in 1846
by Sultan Abdlmecid.38
One of the greatest sources of slaves is postwar pillaging. At a time when the enemy is
beaten and is powerless to resist, soldiers pillage all valuable property at the order of the
commander, and capture any young women and children they may find to sell them to human
traffickers at a later date. People who need servants in households shop slave markets to
purchase a slave that meets their needs:
Hnkr buyurd kim, Lz lini uru, kalalarn yku, halkn esr d ddi. Ol
vakt yle toyumluklar old kim drt yanda oglan skbde yigirmi akaya satdlar. (k
Paazde, 399)
Sometimes, high-value individuals like governors may become captives; in this case,
they are sold for great amounts of money to someone of the captives race and community:
Bu tekvur eytdi. Beni stanbula satu. Orhna haber gnderdiler. Bu tekvur
satalm m, yoksa ldrelim mi? ddiler. Orhn satu, gzlere harlk olsun ddi. (Ner,
139)
3. Psychological punishment Another arguably more effective method of punishment is humiliation. Working to
disrupt the psychology of the enemy and ridiculing him in front of his relatives and 35 Nizml-mlk: Nizml-melik M. 36 oglanlarua: oglanlar ki M. 37 eytdiler: tdiler M. 38 lber Ortayl, Osmanl Toplumunda Aile, stanbul 2001, p. 129.
197
acquaintances leave indelible scars on the soul. However, this gives rise to another
vengeance: the ridiculed individual begins to look for ways to punish those who have
subjected him to such ridicule. This becomes a feud that only ends when one of the parties
dies. The humiliation of a man by a woman in particular is narrated by historians humorously:
Yolda gelrken agaclara ugradlar, ymilerinden ydi, Seyyidi tutd, akl gitdi,
atdan ykld. Kz an grdi, Hsrevi bendden kard. Hsrev diledi kim Seyyidi ldre, kz
komad eyitdi. Mabza yoldalarndan kimse rie ddi. Seyyidi agaca bagladlar, atn
tonn aldlar, revne oldlar. (Battalnme, 486)
A very effective method of humiliation is shaving. Considering that the beard is a
status symbol in Eastern societies, this is a severe punishment for an adult.39 After reaching a
certain age, men no longer shave their beards or mustaches. Shaven men are called names like
hairless and ridiculed:
Seyyid eyitdi: Tz imdi mslmn ol yohsa sen bilrsin ddi. Bu lan herzeye
balad. Seyyid berk dutd bir bir sakaln yold. (Battalnme, 450)
If a more severe punishment is due, cutting the beard will not suffice. The victims
nose and ears are also cut off, his face is tarred, and he is put on a donkey to be paraded in
town. Sometimes this is accompanied by verbal harassment:
Seyyid eyitdi: Bu meln baa vr, bri bir hakkum alaym ddi. Halfe eyitdi: Sen
bilrsin nice kim sen bilrsin t ddi. Seyyid dur geldi, kend eliyle burnn, kulagn kesdi
buyurd, soydlar, sakaln yldiler, yzine karar drtdiler, eege bindrp ehri gezdrdiler
c gn Ukbay ehirde gezdrdiler grenler yzine tkrleridi, be-lanet derlerdi.
(Battalnme, 495)
Animal treatment is very frequent when the victim is to be paraded in town, and he
may be collared and leashed to be led around the town like a dog:
Sultn Mustafa dah Karahisrdan anlaru zerine yridi ve ol siler-ile bulud.
Ey sultn cengler olund. Uzun Hasandan gelen beg kim Ysuf mirzdur ve hem ol Uzun
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