2013 Chinese Philosophies and Religions

2013 Chinese Philosophies and Religions

What is philosophy?• Literally: a love for wisdom• Typically asks Questions like:

– What is the purpose of life?– What is a good person like?– What is success?– What is truth? What is knowledge?– How should I act in a situation?

• Often philosophy and religion overlap

Why did these philosophies develop?

• War and social changes were disrupting everyday life

• Government lacked control

• These philosophies helped guide people and the government to a better life

• The religious history of China is complex, and has evolved over the centuries.

• Deeply interwoven into their beliefs is the worship of their ancestors.

• The Chinese believed that the spirits of their ancestors were watching over them, and that they could be called upon during difficult times.

Religion In China

Chinese Folk Religion• Belief in spirits• Reverence for ancestors• Priests perform blessing rituals:

– purifying space – Exorcising evil spirits (“hungry ghosts”)

• Astrology• Divination

Chinese metaphysics is about…

• Energy• Change• Balance• Harmony• Inter-relationships

Chinese MetaphysicsMovement of cosmic energies:

RisingFalling

Expanding Contracting RotatingRepresented by and expressed in the “five elements” of nature…

The “Five Elements”

Wood

Water Metal

Earth

Productive cycle

Fire

Chinese MetaphysicsConcepts

• Chi – life force, life energy (“ultimate”)• Yin-Yang – harmony of opposites

– Yin = passive state of energy– Yang = active state of energy

Tao – the “way” of the cosmos, of natureHeaven (t’ien) and Earth“Mandate of Heaven”Practical applications: I-Ching and Feng Shui

The I-Ching“Book of Changes”

• Ancient divination technique (at least 3000 years old)

• Intended to guide humans in decision making

• Based on combinations of lines representing the ever changing relationship between passive (yin) and active (yang) energy flow of heaven, human, and earth

= yang= yin

The Tri-gramsEight combinations of three lines each:

wind / wood

Fire

lake

earth

mountain

water

thunder

heaven

Using the I-Ching Tool

• Symbolism of the lines:– Upper line = energy state of heaven– Middle line = energy state of human– Lower line = energy state of earth

• Two sets of trigrams are divined to create a hexagram

• Use coins or sticks to divine one of 64 hexagrams

• Use I-Ching text to discern meaning of the hexagram and any additional meaning for “changing lines” (energies on the verge of changing)

• A skilled interpreter is needed to apply the generic meaning of the hexagram

#31

Feng Shui• The Chinese art of placement (geomancy) • Means “wind water”– symbolically, the

constant flow of wind and water that creates constant change in the world also affects us

• Uses the five elements and the eight directions of the I-Ching as the Bagua tool

• Seeks to maintain constant and balanced flow of energies (chi) in a space for improved flow of energy in the people who use the space

Origins of the Mandate

• During the Shang dynasty (2000-1027 B.C.E.) the concept of “Tian” was created

• Meaning: sky, heavens, god, the cosmos– idea of heaven– governed all creation – guided moral order

天

Origins of the Mandate

• Zhou dynasty (1120-221 B.C.E.) concept of “tian ming”

• Mandate of Heaven– explains conquest and

submission of falling dynasties– Divinely inspired process– Anyone could assume the right

to rule– Tian, or Heaven, chose who

would rule the people

The Mandate of Heaven is based on four principles:

• The right to rule is granted by Heaven– Which gives the ruler prestige and religious importance.

• There is only one Heaven – Therefore there can be only one ruler.

• The right to rule is based on the virtue of the ruler– Which serves as a check on the ruler's power.

• The right to rule is not limited to one dynasty– Which justifies rebellion as long as the rebellion is successful.

Origins of the Mandate

• A dynasty maintained rule as long as they:– ruled with benevolence and

justice– duties of the ruler were

carried out correctly• Failure meant the Tian could

choose a new ruling family– could not be selfish, cruel, or

oppressive

Dynastic Cycle• Represents a dynasty’s rise

and fall• Cycle starts with winning the

Mandate (approval) of heaven• Period of prosperity, marked

by motivated and capable emperors

• Apex (peak) marked by political, economic, and cultural flowering.

Dynastic Cycle• Then the decline began,

usually slow (sometimes quite rapid): marked by administrative corruption, repressive laws, and incapable and lazy emperors.

• Dynasty would face rebellion and disunity, the loss of peoples’ support, and loss of Mandate

The Dynastic Cycle

Decline of Dynasty

Loss of The Mandate of

Heaven

New Ruler Achieves

Prosperity

Winner of the Rebellion Wins The Mandate of Heaven

Rebellion and Disunity

Peak of Dynasty

In SummaryThe dynastic cycle appears as follows:

1. A new ruler unites China, founds a new dynasty, and gains the Mandate of Heaven 2. China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity.3. The population increases4. Corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter

decline and instability.5. A natural disaster wipes out farm land. The disaster normally would not have been a

problem; however, together with the corruption and overpopulation it causes famine. 6. The famine causes the population to rebel and starts a civil war.7. The ruler loses the Mandate of Heaven.8. The population decreases because of the violence. 9. China goes through a warring states period.10. One state emerges victorious.11. The state starts a new empire. 12. The empire gains the Mandate of Heaven.

– (The cycle repeats itself.)

• Kennedy, Bruce. "Chinese Dynastic Cycle." Killer Roos. 17 February 2008

Key Chinese Dynasties

XiaShang

2070-1600 BCE1600-1046 BCE

470 years554 years

Zhou West 1046-771 BCEEast 770-256

275 years514 years

Tang 618-907 AD 289 years

Song North 960-1127 ADSouth 1127-1279 AD

167 years152 years

Ming 1368-1644 AD 276 years

Qing 1644-1911 AD 268 years

A terra cotta officer from the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) Emperor Taizong - Tang Dynasty

History of Chinese Philosophies

The History of Chinese Philosophy• The Classical Age (6th century BC-2d century AD)

– Confucianism (Confucius, 551-479 BC)– Daoism (Lao Tzu, 6th century BC)– Mohism (Mo Tzu, 468-376 BC)– The Yin-Yang School (founder unknown)– The School of Names (Logic) (Hui Shih, c. 380-305 BC)– Legalism (Han Fei Tzu, d. 23 BC)

• The Medieval Age (2d-10th centuries BC): relations & conflicts between Confucianism, Daoism, & Buddhism

• The Modern Age (11th century AD-Present)– Neo-Confucianism (incorporation of Daoist & Buddhist elements in an

overall Confucian perspective) (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200 AD & many others)– 20th century impact of Western philosophies such as Pragmatism &

Marxism

How is a man to live in a world dominated by chaos, suffering, and absurdity??

Confucianism --> Moral order in society.

Legalism --> Rule by harsh law & order.

Daoism --> Freedom for individuals and less govt. to avoid uniformity and conformity.

Confucianism

Philosophy Goal How Achieved

Influence

Confucianism

Founder:Confucius

Confucianism

A just and peaceful society

All people must respect and obey those above them. Those with authority should set a good example.

Civil servants were hired on the bases of ability and had to pass tests.Values such as respect for elders, proper behavior and love of scholarship became part of Chinese culture.

Belief Systems• Confucianism

– Based on the writings of Confucius (ca 500 BCE)– Human nature is essentially good– Emphasized virtuous behavior – Hierarchal view of the universe

• Focuses on relationships: ruler/subject, parent/child, husband/wife, older brother/younger brother, friend/friend. When each behaves correctly society functions correctly.

– Moral foundations of govt.

Rise of Chinese PhilosophiesConfucianism• Founder:

– Confucius (551-479 B.C.) • Ideas About Social Order:

– Emphasis on family– Respect for elders (filial piety)

• Ideas About Government:– Emphasis on education

• Could change a commoner into a gentleman– Trained civil service essential for good gov’t

5 Basic Social Relationships:

• Ruler & Subject

• Father & Son

• Husband & Wife

• Older Brother & Younger Brother

• Friend & Friend

Confucius

• Confucius: Latinized title• Real name K’ung Fu-tzu

(Master K’ung)• 551-479 BCE• Nicknames: The First

Holy One, First Teacher, Teacher of the Ten Thousand Generations

• Never lived to see his doctrines put into practice

The ancient State of Lu

That’s where Confucius was born & spent most of his life.

Anthem

Confucianism originated in China, but its influence spread to Korea & Japan over the centuries.

Confucius

• Born in 551 B.C.• died in 479 B.C.

551 – 479 B.C.E.

Born in the feudal state of Liu.

Became a teacher and editor of books.

Confucius

• Born into a noble family• Passionate

about studying• Developed many talents

and skills

Confucianism - OriginsKung-Fu-tzu (Confucius) “Master Kung”• 551 - 479 BCE• Embraces the values of the past• Political aspirations unfulfilled• The “greatest teacher who ever lived”• Rejected in his own day, but the model for

Chinese culture for over 2000 yearsMeng-Tzu (Mencius) (4th century) continues

to develop teachings of Confucius

Confucius as Leader• Became a judge in Zhongdu• Later, Minister of Crime for the state of Lu• His state grew rich and crime was lowered• Greedy, jealous leaders of other states forced

him to leave his job.

A Time of Turmoil• Chou Dynasty (1122-253 BCE)• Golden Age -> The reign of Yu Wang (780 BCE)• Feudal lords in power, Emperor is empty title

“China was no longer one country but a dozen, each potentially the enemy of any other” (Collis 6)

Traveling Teacher• Taught throughout China

• Had 72 close disciples• A few thousand others

• Word of mouth

Confucius Traveled

• Confucius visited the courts of various princes, hoping to convince them to put his ideas into practice.

• Disappointed by the princes refusals, he returned home, where he taught a small but loyal group of followers.

• After his death, his followers collected his teachings in the Analects.

Confucianism• In his early twenties he became a tutor• At the age of fifty Confucius set out on a 13 year

trek• He died at the age of 74• Confucius was undoubtedly one of the worlds

best teachers• He always taught very informal, like a fellow

learner with his students• He never thought of himself as a sage

The Life and Legacy of Confucius

• Born in 551B.C.E. to a noble but poor family.

• Confucius died in 479 B. C. E.• Confucius was an exceptional

student who later became a teacher and a government official.

Confucianism• With his death began his glorification

– His teachings have touched almost every Chinese student for the past two thousand years.

– Confucius believed that tradition was the key to peace, in this very unstable time.

– He believed that tradition would show them the way back to a happy China.

Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.)

• Chinese thinker and social philosopher

• Deeply influenced Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese thought

• Emphasized study, and learning

• The best government rules based on natural morality rather than bribery

"What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." -Confucius

372 - 289 B.C.E.

Disciple of Confucius.

Starts off with the assumption that “people are basically good.”

If someone does something bad, education, not punishment, is the answer.

Good people will mend their ways in accordance to their inherent goodness.

Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.)

• Follower and disciple of Confucius

• Emphasized the moral and righteous qualities of a ruler

• Rulers: insure peace and prosperity, lead by example through education and virtue, provide for the people

• A tyrant is more of a thief than a king

• A ruler who is unjust may lose the Mandate of HeavenMandate of Heaven

"He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature“ -Mencius

Followers of Confucius

Confucianism• Confucius looked back Five Hundred years to the

Chou Dynasty for the answer on how to get China out of turmoil. – He shifted tradition from an unconscious state to a

state of consciousness.– During the Chou Dynasty, warfare had become a very

gruesome affair, whole populations were put to death. Anywhere from 60,000 to 400,000 people slaughtered

What did Confucius believe?

• People are basically good• Need to be trained• Training begins with family• Love family, later society

• The most important things to Confucius were peace, and order.

• He felt that everyone had a proper role in society, and that if people were willing to accept their role, and fulfill it, that peace and harmony would abound.

Peace and Order

• In order to help people accept their roles in society, and establish order, Confucius outlined how individuals should treat one another.

• The most important of these ethics outlined the responsibilities of children to respect and listen to their parents, and other elders.

Respect for Elders

• He also laid out ethics for how subjects should follow rulers, for how rulers should treat subjects, how husbands and wives should treat one another, and how friends should treat each other.

Ethics

Confucianism as a system of ethics

• Moral conduct is the basis of social harmony• Emphasis on self discipline and education• Obligation to family

– Family as microcosm of the universe– Strict Father vs. Nurturing Parent model

Confucianism as a philosophy

• “Confucianism’s root metaphor was and is a concern for the world” (Berthrong)

• Humanity, reciprocity, empathy

• Collective > Individual• Humans are good, but

we stray– Education and self-

discipline

Confucianism

• Concerned primarily with restoring social stability and order– What is the basis of a stable, unified, and enduring

social order?• a system of social and ethical philosophy

– “only when character is cultivated are our families regulated; only when families are regulated are states well governed.”

Human Relationships

Self = the center of all relationships and is constantly changing and growing towards maturity.

Family = each person has a clear sense of place and purpose. Good behavior and respect for elders are important in the family.

Government = the leader has acquired the moral perfection needed to lead by the power of example.

Heaven = represents the ultimate moral force that guides and nurtures humanity.

ConfucianismA political and social philosophy seeking

social harmony on all levels:Within the self…the family…the community...the state…the nation…the world…the cosmos

Learning from the past to improve the future

Confucian goal• Unconditional moral obligation to work for:

– Universal human well-being– Order & harmony – peace & happiness in this life here on earth

• Good ruler– Morally good– Reasonable– Moderate – not extreme– Kind and helpful

• Implications for Government – Best rulers are wise – Lead by example – Developed & used civil service system

• Exams and training for gov’t jobs

Confucianism• Confucius had Five Ideals that guided his

thoughts:– Wen: Victory goes to the state with the highest

culture. Art has the power to ennoble the human spirit.

China placed the scholar-bureaucrat at the top of its social scale, and its soldiers at the bottom.

Confucianism• Confucius had Five Ideals that guided his

thoughts:– Jen: Is the ideal way for one to carry oneself through

life. “Measure the feeling of others by one’s own.”

– Chu Tzu: If Jen is how a person should be, then Chu Tzu is how a person should act.

Goal of ConfucianismTo develop one’s Jen: Human

Heartedness - the innate goodness of humanity

Thus becoming a Chun Tzu: the “Great Man” or “Gentle Man”

Jen is developed through intentional living by Confucian virtues…

Jen•A principle of mutuality, human- heartedness, and empathy. •The ability to empathize with another’s discomfort that would prevent the moral person to refrain from acting in ways that would cause discomfort. •Similar to Christianity’s Golden Rule

Basically…A person does all actions for the sake of Jen

because the respect for humanity implies the right human way to act.

Yi• Righteousness, moral description to do good.• Acting in a way or doing what needs to be done

simply because it ought to be done, not for personal gain or profit.

Basically…A person does all action for the sake of Yi because they

are the right thing to do.

Confucius

Li draws our attention more to the social or conventional aspects of benevolent human conduct

Ren draws our attention more to the moral and spiritual aspects of that conduct

Together, they comprise a social - moral - spiritual human phenomena that can only be reduced for the purposes of analysis

Confucianism

• li– rituals, norms, institutions, or mores– the outer, conforming aspect of Confucianism

• ren– humaneness, love, kindness, benevolence, or

virtue– the inner, reforming aspect of Confucianism

Li

• Rites, ceremonies, proper behavior, and good manner

• performed in good faith, with everyone keeping to his or her proper role

• universal harmony• no need for physical sanctions, laws, or

punishment

Li• Is the principle of gain or benefit, order or

propriety. • Two main aspects of Li:

– Guide to human relationships and rules of proper action.

– Guide to social order or general ordering of life.

Li• The Five Relationships all represent the way things

should be done in a social life– Father and Son (loving and reverential)– Older Brother and Younger Brother (gentle and

respectful)– Husband and Wife (good and listening)– Older Friend and Younger Friend (considerate and

differential)– Ruler and Subject (benevolent and loyal)

Ren

• Relationship between "two persons”• extension of filial piety to all human beings• each role in the hierarchy of social relations

had clearly defined duties– reciprocity or mutual responsibility

Li --> Rite, rules, ritual decorum (Binding force of an enduring stable society)

Ren --> humaneness, benevolence, humanity

Shu --> Reciprocity, empathy Do not do unto others what you would

not want others to do unto you.

Yi --> Righteousness Xiao --> Filial Piety (Respect your elders!)

Confucian Values• Li: Politeness

– 4 basic rules of human conduct: • Courtesy• Politeness• Good manners• Respect

• Jen (Ren): Respect– Golden Rule:

• Do not do to others what you do not want done to you.” • Te: Moral action

– Strong leaders guide by example • Wen: Arts of peace:

– Music, poetry, art • harmony, order, excellence, beauty.

Families become Community

• Good families make good community

• Good communities good government

The emperor is the example of proper behavior --> “big daddy”

Social relationships are based on “rites” or “rituals.”

Even religious rituals are important for SOCIAL, not religious reasons, acc. to Confucius.

Confucius claimed to derive his teachings from “the Ancients,” whose wisdom is embodied in

“The Five Classics” (Wu Jing)

• The I Jing (“Book of Changes”)• The Shu Jing (“Book of History”) • The Shih Jing (“Book of Odes” [poetry])• The Li Ji (“Book of Rites”)• The Ch’un-ch’iu (“Spring & Autumn Annals”)

The primary sources of Confucian philosophy

Confucianism - Texts• The “Five Classics” (of the past):

– I-Ching– The Book of History (Shu Ching)– The Book of Poems (Shih Ching)– The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu)– The Book of Rituals (Li Chi)

• The “Four Books” (Confucian)– Analects (Lun Yu)– Doctrine of the Mean– The Great Learning– The Book of Mencius (Meng-Tzu)

The further expression of Confucian philosophy

• Analects (Lun-Yu)• The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong)• The Great Learning (Ta-hsueh)• The Book of Meng-Tzu

“The Four Books” (Ssu-chu)

(Mencius, 371-288 BC)

The single most important Confucian work.

In Chinese, it means “conversation.”

Focus on practicalities of interpersonal relationships and the relationship of the role of rulers and ministers to the conduct of government.

Knowing what he knows and knowing what he doesn’t know, is characteristics of the person who knows.

Making a mistake and not correcting it, is making another mistake.

The superior man blames himself; the inferior man blames others.

To go too far is as wrong as to fall short.

Belief in God?

• Originally, yes• Today, no

The Five Virtues

• Honest• Trustworthy• Hardworking• Generous• Loving

Confucius

• Stressed gentlemanly conduct (junzi)– Developed through moral cultivation rather than

noble birth

“The gentleman feels bad when his capabilities fall short of the task. He does not feel bad when people fail to recognize him.”

• Intelligent, talented people will rise in social status – Gentleman will serve the ruler.

Confucius

• Humanity (ren) – the ultimate virtue

“When you go out, treat everyone as if you were welcoming a great guest. Employ people as though you were conducting a great sacrifice. Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you. Then neither in your country nor in your family will there be complaints against you.”

Confucius

• Stressed the power and importance of studying

“I once spent a whole day without eating and a whole night without sleeping in order to think. It was of no use. It is better to study.”

Confucianism• Confucius believed that with out human

relationships, there would be no self.

• There are Five Constant relationships in life:

– Parent and Child– Husband and Wife– Elder Sibling and Junior Sibling– Elder Friend and Junior Friend

Five relationships

• father-child• ruler-subject• husband-wife• elder brother-younger brother• friend-friend

The Five Relationships• Father and son• Ruler and subject• Older and younger brother• Husband and wife• Friend and friend

1. Ruler Subject

2. Father

Son

3. Husband

Wife

4. Older Brother

YoungerBrother

5. Older Friend

YoungerFriend

Confucianism• People have to warrant the respect and power

that comes with their positions in life. • Power and respect are not a given, they must be

earned.• He believed that if everyone followed the five

ideals, even just one person the effect would be wide spread.

• Through that person’s family, community, nation, and the world.

As in BuddhismUnlike Taoism

Status

Age

Gender

Confucian VirtuesFilial Piety (Hsiao) - respect for the five

constant relationships:– Parent and child– Husband & wife– Older & younger sibling– Older & younger friend– Ruler & subject

• Human-heartedness is developed only within the context of human relationships

Confucius and Family• To Confucius, relationships involving the family are the key to

an orderly society. • One of those relationships-the relationship between father

and son-is very much like that between the ruler and the ruled.

• Like the ruler, the father must set an example for his son and look after his family.

• The father takes the credit, or the blame, for his children’s actions.

• The son, in turn, is expected to honor and obey his father.• Confucius stressed the idea of filial piety, the duty and

respect that children owe their parents.

• In all but the last relationship (friend & friend), one person has authority over another.

• In each, said Confucius, the superior person should set an example for the inferior one.

“If a ruler himself is upright, all will go well without orders. But if he himself is not upright, even though he gives orders, they will not be obeyed.”

• According to Confucius, the superior person is also responsible for the well-being of the inferior person.

Confucius

• Filial Piety – more than just obedience of children to their parents

“You can be of service to your father and mother by remonstrating with them tactfully. If you perceive that they do not wish to follow your advice, then continue to be reverent toward them without offending or disobeying them; work hard and do not murmur against them.”

Confucianism• China configured the Confucianism religion, so

that it would serve everyone.

• China still holds a great importance for the Five Constant Relationships.

• With each passing year people listen more and more to there elders.

The Influence of Confucius• Confucius created a guide to proper behavior

based on ethical, or moral, principles.• In his teachings, he placed the family and the

good of society above the interests of the individual.

• He also stressed loyalty, courtesy, hard work, and service.

• He placed great emphasis on education. He said:“By nature, men are pretty much alike. It is learning and practice that set them apart.”

During his own lifetime Confucius’ teachings were not widely accepted.

However, within a hundred years, they were being used by the emperor to help him rule, and eventually became a widely followed religion.

Confucianism would remain a powerful force in Chinese history.

Teachings Accepted by Emperor

Influence of Confucius

• The importance of education, as well as other Confucian ideas, helped shape Chinese government.

• In time, Confucian ideas came to dominate Chinese society.

• As China expanded across Asia, Confucianism influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam as well.

Confucianism• Confucius repeatedly calls for Self-examination• There are many extravagant temples and shrines

for Confucius. • Confucius focused on the individuals, the people

more than anything else.Unlike Taoism

Unlike Taoism

Main MenuMain Menu

As in Buddhism

Ceremonies and Rituals

• Birth• Maturity• Marriage• Death

Ancestor Worship

Offerings

• Food• Wine• Money• Fruit and

vegetables

Home Altar

• Ancestor worship• Photo• Plaque• Offering cups• 49 days

Ching Ming Festival

• March 31-April 1• People sweep graves• Northern people

Confucianism

• Persecuted in Qin Dynasty– 221 B.C. - 206 B.C.

• promoted by later rulers

Confucianism

• reinforced by the civil examination system– “keju”: civil examination– from 605 to 1905

Neo-Confucianism • Develops 11th – 16th century by Various Confucian philosophers• A metaphysical foundation for Confucian social ethics• Two main schools:

– School of Reason (more scientific) – through the “investigation of things” one can discover the underlying pattern (li) principle behind all reality (patterns and principles are manifest only within the material world)– School of Mind (more mystical) – microcosmic-macrocosmic parallel between the human mind and the universe, reflecting an essential unity of all that is

Confucianism as a Religion• Deification of Confucius - statues

• Confucian Temples – honoring Confucius• Veneration of the ancestors• Rituals within…

– the household– the village– the state – the nation

Duty is the path to harmony

Only virtue gives one the right to rule, not heredity.

Virtue can be acquired through

education.

Chinese ThinkersChinese Thinkers•Confucianism taught that all men with a talent for government should take part in government.

Confucius and the Mandate of Heaven

• Mandate of Heaven- The Chinese believed that heaven granted a ruler the mandate, or right, to rule.

• The people, in turn, owed the ruler complete loyalty and obedience.

• Confucius supported the Mandate of Heaven. • He said that the ruler must provide good

government for his subjects. • The rulers subjects, in turn, owed the ruler loyalty

and obedience.

Mandate of Heaven

• Confucius shifted China’s focus from heaven to earth. Though he did not remove heaven from the picture.– He saw that his country could not serve it’s people,

so how was it going to serve it’s ancestors.– He believed that somewhere in the universe there is

a power that is on the side of right.

Ming: Mandate of Heaven

• “Mandate of Heaven”, fate or destiny.• According to Confucius, Ming is simply the

way things are in the course of things. • He declared that his principles prevailed were

ming, and if they did not they were also ming. • Confucius believed that the best thing we can

do is to do what we ought to do under the circumstances.

Key Chinese Dynasties

XiaShang

2070-1600 BCE1600-1046 BCE

470 years554 years

Zhou West 1046-771 BCEEast 770-256

275 years514 years

Tang 618-907 AD 289 years

Song North 960-1127 ADSouth 1127-1279 AD

167 years152 years

Ming 1368-1644 AD 276 years

Qing 1644-1911 AD 268 years

A terra cotta officer from the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) Emperor Taizong - Tang Dynasty