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3232A Macroeconomic
Theory of the OpenEconomy
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Open Economies
An open economy is one that interacts freely
with other economies around the world.
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Basic Assumptions of a MacroeconomicModel of an Open Economy
The model takes the economys GDP as given.
The model takes the economys price level as
given.
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SUPPLY AND DEMAND FORLOANABLE FUNDS AND FOR
FOREIGN-CU
RRENCY
EXCHANGE The Market for Loanable FundsS = I + NCO
At the equilibrium interest rate, the amount that
people want to save exactly balances the desired
quantities of investment and net capital outflows.
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The Market forLoanable Funds
The supply of loanable funds comes from
national saving (S).
The demand for loanable funds comes from
domestic investment (I) and net capital
outflows (NCO).
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The Market forLoanable Funds
The supply and demand for loanable funds
depend on the real interest rate.
A higher real interest rate encourages people to
save and raises the quantity of loanable funds
supplied.
The interest rate adjusts to bring the supply and
demand for loanable funds into balance.
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Figure 1 The Market forLoanable Funds
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of
Loanable Funds
RealInterest
Rate
Supply of loanable funds
(from national saving)
Demand for loanable
funds (for domesticinvestment and net
capital outflow)
Equilibrium
quantity
Equilibrium
real interest
rate
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The Market forLoanable Funds
At the equilibrium interest rate, the amount that
people want to save exactly balances the
desired quantities of domestic investment and
net foreign investment.
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The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The two sides of the foreign-currency exchange
market are represented byNCO andNX.
NCO represents the imbalance between the
purchases and sales of capital assets.
NXrepresents the imbalance between exports
and imports of goods and services.
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The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
In the market for foreign-currency exchange,
U.S. dollars are traded for foreign currencies.
For an economy as a whole,NCO andNXmust
balance each other out, or:
NCO = NX
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The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The price that balances the supply and demand
for foreign-currency is the real exchange rate.
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The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The demand curve for foreign currency is
downward sloping because a higher exchange
rate makes domestic goods more expensive.
The supply curve is vertical because the
quantity of dollars supplied for net capital
outflow is unrelated to the real exchange rate.
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Figure 2 The Market for Foreign-CurrencyExchange
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of Dollars Exchanged
into Foreign Currency
RealExchange
RateSupply of dollars
(from net capital outflow)
Demand for dollars
(for net exports)
Equilibrium
quantity
Equilibrium
real exchange
rate
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The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The real exchange rate adjusts to balance the
supply and demand for dollars.
At the equilibrium real exchange rate, the
demand for dollars to buy net exports exactly
balances the supply of dollars to be exchanged
into foreign currency to buy assets abroad.
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EQUILIBRIUM IN THE OPENECONOMY
In the market for loanable funds, supply comes
from national saving and demand comes from
domestic investment and net capital outflow.
In the market for foreign-currency exchange,
supply comes from net capital outflow and
demand comes from net exports.
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EQUILIBRIUM IN THE OPENECONOMY
Net capital outflow links the loanable funds
market and the foreign-currency exchange
market.
The key determinant of net capital outflow is the
real interest rate.
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Figure 3 How Net Capital Outflow Depends on theInterest Rate
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
0 Net Capital
Outflow
Net capital outflow
is negative.
Net capital outflow
is positive.
RealInterest
Rate
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EQUILIBRIUM IN THE OPENECONOMY
Prices in the loanable funds market and the
foreign-currency exchange market adjust
simultaneously to balance supply and demand
in these two markets.
As they do, they determine the macroeconomic
variables of national saving, domestic
investment, net foreign investment, and netexports.
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Figure 4 The Real Equilibrium in an OpenEconomy
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) The Market for Loanable Funds (b) Net Capital Outflow
Net capitaloutflow, NCO
RealInterest
Rate
RealInterest
Rate
(c) The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
Quantity of
Dollars
Quantity of
Loanable Funds
Net Capital
Outflow
Real
Exchange
Rate
Supply
Supply
Demand
Demand
r r
E
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HOW POLICIES AND EVENTSAFFECT AN OPEN ECONOMY
The magnitude and variation in important
macroeconomic variables depend on the
following:
Government budget deficits
Trade policies
Political and economic stability
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Government Budget Deficits
In an open economy, government budget
deficits . . .
reduce the supply of loanable funds,
drive up the interest rate,
crowd out domestic investment,
cause net foreign investment to fall.
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Figure 5 The Effects of Government Budget Deficit
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) The Market for Loanable Funds (b) Net Capital Outflow
RealInterest
Rate
RealInterest
Rate
(c) The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
Quantity ofDollars
Quantity ofLoanable Funds
Net CapitalOutflow
RealExchange
Rate
Demand
Demand
r2
NCO
SS
S S
r2
B
E1
r r
A
1. A budget deficit reduces
the supply of loanable funds . . .
2. . . . whichincreases
the realinterest
rate . . .
4. The decrease
in net capitaloutflow reduces
the supply of dollarsto be exchangedinto foreign
currency . . .5. . . . which
causes thereal exchangerate to
appreciate.
3. . . . which inturn reducesnet capital
outflow.
E2
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Government Budget Deficits
Effect of Budget Deficits on the Loanable
Funds Market
A government budget deficit reduces national
saving, which . . . shifts the supply curve for loanable funds to the left,
which . . .
raises interest rates.
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Government Budget Deficits
Effect of Budget Deficits on Net Foreign
Investment
Higher interest rates reduce net foreign investment.
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Government Budget Deficits
Effect on the Foreign-Currency Exchange
Market
A decrease in net foreign investment reduces the
supply of dollars to be exchanged into foreigncurrency.
This causes the real exchange rate to appreciate.
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Trade Policy
A tradepolicyis a government policy that
directly influences the quantity of goods and
services that a country imports or exports.
Tariff: A tax on an imported good.
Import quota: A limit on the quantity of a good
produced abroad and sold domestically.
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Trade Policy
Because they do not change national saving or
domestic investment, trade policies do not
affect the trade balance.
For a given level of national saving and domestic
investment, the real exchange rate adjusts to keep
the trade balance the same.
Trade policies have a greater effect onmicroeconomic than on macroeconomic
markets.
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Trade Policy
Effect of an Import Quota
Because foreigners need dollars to buy U.S. net
exports, there is an increased demand for dollars in
the market for foreign-currency. This leads to an appreciation of the real exchange rate.
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Trade Policy
Effect of an Import Quota
There is no change in the interest rate because
nothing happens in the loanable funds market.
There will be no change in net exports.
There is no change in net foreign investment even
though an import quota reduces imports.
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Trade Policy
Effect of an Import Quota
An appreciation of the dollar in the foreign
exchange market encourages imports and
discourages exports. This offsets the initial increase in net exports due to
import quota.
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Figure 6 The Effects of an Import Quota
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) The Market for Loanable Funds (b) Net Capital Outflow
RealInterest
Rate
RealInterest
Rate
(c) The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
Quantity ofDollars
Quantity ofLoanable Funds
Net CapitalOutflow
RealExchange
Rate
r r
Supply
Supply
Demand
NCO
D
D
3. Net exports,
however, remain
the same.
2. . . . andcauses the
real exchangerate toappreciate.
E
E2
1. An importquota increases
the demand fordollars . . .
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Trade Policy
Effect of an Import Quota
Trade policies do not affect the trade balance.
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Political Instability and Capital Flight
Capitalflightis a large and sudden reduction in
the demand for assets located in a country.
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Political Instability and Capital Flight
Capital flight has its largest impact on the
country from which the capital is fleeing, but it
also affects other countries.
If investors become concerned about the safety
of their investments, capital can quickly leave
an economy.
Interest rates increase and the domesticcurrency depreciates.
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Political Instability and Capital Flight
When investors around the world observed
political problems in Mexico in 1994, they sold
some of their Mexican assets and used the
proceeds to buy assets of other countries.
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Political Instability and Capital Flight
This increased Mexican net capital outflow.
The demand for loanable funds in the loanable
funds market increased, which increased the interest
rate. This increased the supply of pesos in the foreign-
currency exchange market.
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Figure 7 The Effects of Capital Flight
Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) The Market for Loanable Funds in Mexico (b) Mexican Net Capital Outflow
RealInterest
Rate
RealInterest
Rate
(c) The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
Quantity of
Pesos
Quantity of
Loanable Funds
Net Capital
Outflow
Real
Exchange
Rate
r1 r1
D1
D2
E
Demand
S S2
Supply
NCO2NCO1
1. An increase
in net capital
outflow. . .
3. . . . which
increases
the interest
rate.
2. . . . increases the demand
for loanable funds . . .
4. At the same
time, the increase
in net capital
outflowincreases the
supply of pesos . . .5. . . . which
causes the
peso to
depreciate.
r2 r2
E
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Summary
To analyze the macroeconomics of open
economies, two markets are centralthe
market for loanable funds and the market for
foreign-currency exchange.
In the market for loanable funds, the interest
rate adjusts to balance supply for loanable funds
(from national saving) and demand for loanablefunds (from domestic investment and net
capital outflow).
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Summary
In the market for foreign-currency exchange,
the real exchange rate adjusts to balance the
supply of dollars (for net capital outflow) and
the demand for dollars (for net exports).
Net capital outflow is the variable that connects
the two markets.
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Summary
A policy that reduces national saving, such as a
government budget deficit, reduces the supply
of loanable funds and drives up the interest rate.
The higher interest rate reduces net capital
outflow, reducing the supply of dollars.
The dollar appreciates, and net exports fall.
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Summary
A trade restriction increases net exports and
increases the demand for dollars in the market
for foreign-currency exchange.
As a result, the dollar appreciates in value,
making domestic goods more expensive relative
to foreign goods.
This appreciation offsets the initial impact ofthe trade restrictions on net exports.
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C i ht 2004 S th W t
Summary
When investors change their attitudes about
holding assets of a country, the ramifications
for the countrys economy can be profound.
Political instability in a country can lead to
capital flight.
Capital flight tends to increase interest rates and
cause the countrys currency to depreciate.
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