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“Judaism’sEmbraceofIslam:AnHistoricalInquiryintotheRoleofIslaminModernJewishThought”SusannahHeschelDartmouthCollege
Duringthecourseofthenineteenthcentury,aJewishOrientalStudiesarose
thatsoughtnotadenigrationofIslam,butitselevationasarationalreligionwithan
intimaterelationshiptoJudaism.Startinginthe1830s,Jewsflockedtothestudyof
IslaminGermany,afieldthatwasovershadowedatthattimebyamuchstronger
GermaninterestinSanskrit.Indeed,thepublicationin1833ofAbrahamGeiger’s
doctoraldissertation,WashatMuhammadausdemJudenthumeaufgenommen?,a
comparisonoftheQur’anwithrabbinicliterature,isconsidereduntiltodaytohave
inauguratedthescholarlystudyofIslam.
JewishmenwerejustbeinggrantedpermissiontoenterGermanuniversities
inthe1820sand1830sasstudents,butnotasprofessors,andtheirstudyofIslam
didnothaveconventionalcareergoals.LetmenotethatthesewereJewishmen
fromreligioushomeswhoacquiredfluencyinHebrew,Bible,andTalmudintheir
childhood,andmostofwhomhadconsideredacareerintherabbinate.In1840,
LudwigUllmannpublishedhisGermantranslationoftheQur’anwhileworkingasa
rabbiinasmalltown,AlbindeBiberstein,aPolishJew,translatedtheQur’aninto
French,andHebrewtranslationsundertakenbyMoritzSteinschneiderand
HermannReckendorffafewyearslatersimilarlywereundertakenforpersonal
pleasureratherthancareeradvancement,monetarygain,ortheologicalpolemics.
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ThesewerenottranslationscommissionedbyMuslims,butseemrathertohave
beenforthesakeofJewishinterests.
Whatwerethoseinterests?HowdoweunderstandtherapidJewish
dominanceofthefieldofIslamicStudies,atleastinthegreaterGermanicscholarly
worldbythe1920s?WhatdoesitsuggestforthefieldofIslamicStudies,formodern
Jewishthought,forourunderstandingsofOrientalism?WhywouldIslamhavebeen
exaltedandalignedwithJudaismduringanerawhenhistoriansconventionally
insistthatJudaismwasundergoinga“Christianization”?Furthermore,whatwasthe
impactofcolonialism,Zionism,andNationalSocialismonthisJewishfascination
withIslam?Finally,shouldwespeakofaJewishscholarshiponIslam,ora
distinctiveJewishOrientalismwithauniqueknowledge-powerrelationship?What
werethevaryingpoliticsatstakeintheJewishacquisitionofknowledgeabout
Islam?
Thetopicisvast,andmyresearchisnotyetcompleted.WhatIwillpresent
todayisjustaforetastethatwilltouchonthreeperiods:fromthe1830stothe
1860s,duringtheinitialoutpouringofJewishwritingsonIslam;fromthe1870sto
WWI,asJewsfinallycouldattainprofessorshipsatGermanuniversities,andtheir
scholarshiponIslamgrewmorecomplex;fromthe1920suntiltheend,whenJews
wereexpelledfromtheirprofessorshipsandthefieldofIslamicStudiesinGermany
almostentirelyshutdown.Whatinterestsmeisnotonlytheirscholarship,butthe
footprinttheyleftonIslamicatesocieties.Iwillthenconcludewithsome
observationsregardingtheJewishembraceofIslam,thevariedpoliticsthat
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influencedtheirwork,includingcolonialismandZionism,andsuggestsome
revisionsofourwritingofmodernJewishhistoryimpliedbythistrajectory.
PartOne:1830s-1860s:
ThemodernJewishfascinationwithIslambeginsinthe1830swithasmall
groupofJewishstudentsattheUniversityofBonn,studyingunderGeorgFreytag,
professorofArabicstudiesatBonnsince1819andastudentofAntoinedeSacy.1
Thesestudents,allmale(Jewishwomenhadtowaituntilthe1890s),camefrom
OrthodoxJewishfamiliesandhadastrongtraininginHebrew,Talmud,and
medievalJewishcommentaries.2SeveralofGeiger’sfellowJewishstudentsatBonn
thoughtofbecomingrabbis;inthosedays,Bonn"seemedtobetrulyaHochschule
forJewishtheologians."3Instead,mostofthembecamescholars:LudwigUllmann
translatedtheQur’anintomodernGerman,publishedin1840;SalomonMunk
becametheleadingscholarofmedievalArabicJewishphilosophy;Joseph
Derenbourg,initiallyascholarofSecondTemple-eraJudaism,laterturnedtoJewish
historyunderIslam;andAbrahamGeiger.
Freytag,whowelcomedtheJewishstudentswarmly,wasalinguistic
philologistwhoalsotaughtcoursesinHebrewBibleatBonn;atthattime,therewas
noseparateprofessorshipforIslamicStudies.Heformulatedthetopicofaprize
essayoutofdeferencetoGeiger(atdeSacy’ssuggestion?),WashatMuhammadaus
demJudenthumeaufgenommen?,submittedinLatinin1832,butthenpublishedin
Germanin1833.Whileworkingonthetopic,Geigerrecordedinhisdiarythe
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genuinepleasureheexperiencedindiscoveringtheparallelsbetweenthetwo
religions.
GeigerwasremarkablysympathetictoIslam:Muhammadwasagenuine
religiousenthusiast,notaseducerorfraudorepileptic.HewrotetheQur’an,
recognizedthePentateuchasabookoflawandMosesasalawgiver;headopted
manyJewishteachings,butalsoinvertedsomeofthem.Hedidnotseektobe
originalnortofoundanewreligion,buttoestablishonefoundedonancient
traditions.GeigernotedparallelswiththeMishnah,whichheacknowledgedmight
havealsopassedtoIslamviaChristianity:Thesevenheavens,mentionedinthe
Qur’aninafewplaces,comesfromMishnahHagigah9:2;sevenhellsfromEruvin
19:1;thosewhobuiltthetowerofBabelwillbeabsolutelyannihilatedbya
poisonouswind,Sura11:63,orwillhavenoplaceinthenextworld,Mishnah
Sanhedrin10:3;tosavealifeistosavethewholepeople,MishnahSanhedrin4:5,
Qur’anSura5:32,andsoforth.Legalreasoningalsoshowsparallels:all
commandmentsareofequalvalue,butifaparent,whomwearecommandedto
honor,tellsustoviolateacommandment,whomdoweobey?BoththeTalmud
(Yebamot6)andMuhammad(Sura29:7)posetheproblemandrespondsimilarly.
Purificationbeforeprayerisrequiredbyboth,andhowtopray–“Pronouncenot
thyprayeraloud,neitherpronounceitwithtoolowavoice,butfollowamiddleway
betweenthese,”Muhammadenjoins(Sura17:110);theTalmudsays,“Fromthe
behaviorofHannahwhoinprayermovedherlipswelearnthathewhopraysmust
pronouncethewords,and….notraisehisvoiceloudly”(Berachot31:2).
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Inhisbook,GeigerusedthetextoftheQur’ananditsborrowingsand
deviationsfromrabbinicliteratureasgristtoarguethatreligionistheproductof
historicalandsocialforces,notofthesoul,consciousness,weather,orrevelation.
TheQur’anisasourceforhimnotonlyoftheoriginsofIslam,butofdevelopments
withinJudaismintheseventhcentury.HisbookreconstructsthehistoryofJudaism
inArabiabutmostimportant,claimsIslamastheoffspringofJudaism.
DemonstratingtheparallelsbetweenQur’anicpassagesandtextsfromtheMidrash
andMishnah(eg,Sura5:35parallelsMishnaSanhedrin4:5),Geigerarguedthat
MuhammadknewmoreofJewishlawthanheadopted,andthathehadlittle
intentionofimposinganewcodeoflaws,butratherwantedtospreadnewand
purifiedreligious(thatis,Jewish)views(muchasGeigerlaterarguesaboutJesus);
andasanArab,Muhammaddidn’twanttodeviatetoofarfromestablishedcustom.
Throughoutthebook,Muhammadisportrayedinlanguagefarmoresympathetic
thanwascommonatthetime.Hewasnotanimposterorseducer,butaproductof
hissocialcontext,withacleverpoliticalskillandadesirenottocreateanew
religionbuttospreadmonotheism.TheargumentGeigerdevelopedconcernednot
onlythewaysMuhammadcomposedtheQur’antosolidifyhisownpositionof
leadership,butalsoconcernedthetransmissionofJewishlearning.Hereiswhere
Geigershowshimselfaheadofhistime:hearguesthatMuhammad,inwritingthe
Qur’an,deliberatelyconstructedAbrahamasaprototypeofhimself,asapublic
preacherwhowonconverts,wasamodelofpiety,establishedamonotheistic
religion,andsoforth.(98-9)Atthesametime,heimpliesthattherabbisofantiquity
didnotkeeptheirteachingsexclusivelyforJews,butwerehappytosharetheir
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teachingwithArabpagans.ForGeiger,thesignificanceofScripturewasnotasthe
wordofGod,butasanenormousreligiousinfluence.
Geiger’sbookwashailedalloverEuropeasinauguratinganewwayof
understandingtheoriginsofIslamwithinJudaism.4AntoinedeSacy,Heinrich
Ewald,ReinhardDozy,TheodorNoeldeke,HeinrichFleischer,IgnazGoldziher,were
amongthemanyscholarswhopraiseditas“epoch-making”(Noeldeke).Geiger’s
worklaunchedalongtraditionofJewsoutliningparallelsbetweenrabbinic
literatureandearlyIslamictexts.Letmementionafew:theworkofIsaac
Gastfreund,MohammednachTalmudundMidrasch,1875,andHartwigHirschfeld,
JüdischeElementeimKoran,1878,andIsraelSchapiro,DiehaggadischenElemente
imerzaehlendenTeildesKorans,1907,HeinrichSpeyer,DiebiblischeErzaehlungen
imQoran,1931,amongothers,suchasJosefHorovitz,VictorAptowitzer,David
Sidersky,EugenMittwoch.Theseworkswereunderstoodnotonlyascontributions
toIslamicStudies,butalsototheWissenschaftdesJudentums,thescholarlystudyof
Judaism,inasmuchastheyarguedfortheimportantcontributionofJewishtextsto
theshapingofearlyIslam;indeed,Schapiro’sdissertationwaspublishedbythe
GesellschaftzurFoerderungderWissenschaftdesJudentums.Theiroverallpurpose
wastodemonstraterabbinicparallelswithearlyIslamictextsandJudaism’s
influenceinshapingIslamicbelief,ritualpractice,andlaw.Thenarrativeplotwas
repeatedfromthe1830stothe1930s,buttherewerechangesintone,andthevery
repetitivequalityofthenarrativetookonadifferentnuancebytheearlytwentieth
century,asIhopetodemonstrate.
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AnotherJewishstudentofthatgenerationwhobecameascholarofIslam
wasGustavWeil,whostudiedinHeidelbergandParis,thenspentfiveyearsin
Algiers,CairoandIstanbul,studyingandteaching,beforereturningtoHeidelberg,
wherehecompletedhisHabilitationin1836andbecameanassistantlibrarian.
Afteryearsofscholarlypublicationsandrequestsforaprofessorshipatthe
UniversityofHeidelberg,heultimatelyreceivedachairinOrientalStudiesin1861.5
Weil,aprolificscholar,publishedin1843thefirstEuropeanbiographyofthe
prophetMuhammadbasedonIslamicsources–thesiraofibnIshaq,aspreserved
byibnHisham.WeilworkedprimarilywithArabicmanuscriptsthathadbeen
gatheredfortheDucallibraryinGothabyanadventurer,UlrichJasperSeetzen
(1767-1811);acatalogueofthelibrary’scollectionofArabmanuscriptswas
publishedin1826byJohannMoeller.WeilalsowroteabookonArabicpoetry
(1837),afive-volumehistoryofthecaliphates(1846-51),andastudyofbiblical
legendsasinterpretedinMidrashandTafsir,publishedin1845.Hismostimportant
work,however,washischronologyoftheQur’anicsuras,publishedin1844,which
becamethebasisforTheodorNoeldeke’s1858bookonthesametopic.Weil’swork
waswell-knownalloverEurope,andheevenappearsasacharacterinoneof
Disraeli’snovels,Connigsby.Nonetheless,Weilwasforcedtospendmostofhislife
workingasanassistantlibrarianattheUniversityofHeidelberg,despiteconstant
appealsforaprofessorship,whichwasdeniedbythefacultyonthegroundsthathe
wasaJew,butfinallyoverriddenbytheministryofeducationofBaden-
Wuerttembergin1861,whenhewasalready58yearsold.
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Duringthisperiod,fromthe1830stothe1860s,Islamtookholdinthe
popularJewishimaginationaswellastheWissenschaftdesJudentums.Letme
mentionafewexamplesquickly:thetranslationsoftheQur’anincludedHermann
Reckendorff’sHebrewversionthatusesthelanguageofprayerbookandmidrash,
easilyaccessibletoanytraditionalJew.SynagoguearchitectureinCentraland
WesternEurope,Britian,andtheUnitedStateswaspredominantlyinMoorishstyle,
despitetheexpresseddesireofJewstowinacceptanceintoaChristiansocietythat
disparagedMuslims–hardlythepathtoassimilation.PopularnarrativesofJewish
historystressedtheGoldenAgeofMuslimSpain,incontrasttothepersecutions
sufferedbyJewsinmedievalChristianEurope.Shortlybeforehisconversionto
Christianity,HeinrichHeineemphasizedpreciselythatpointinhis1824play,
Almansor,whichdescribesalovebetweenaJewandaMuslimthatwasforbidden
andpersecutedbythenewChristianrulersofmedievalSpainwhoconqueredthe
priorMuslimrulers.6HeinrichGraetz,whoseeleven-volumeHistoryoftheJews
popularizedthekindofargumentGeigerputforth.GraetzwrotethatIslam“was
inspiredbyJudaismtobringintotheworldanewreligiousformwithpolitical
foundations,whichonecallsIslam,anditinturnexertedapowerfulimpacton
JewishhistoryandthedevelopmentofJudaism.”7OtherpopularizersofJewish
historywroteinasimilarvein,claimingIslamastheproductofJudaism,evenas
theydistinguish(asdidGeigerhimself)betweenthereligionofIslam,ontheone
hand,andthewarfareandviolentconquestscarriedoutbyMuslims,especiallyby
OttomanTurks,overthecenturies.YetEurope’sbattlewiththeOttomansdidnot
representthereligion,norundermineitsrelationshiptoJudaism,inJewisheyes.
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PartTwo:1870s-WWI
Letmeturntoamorecomplexera,asthescholarshipbecamemore
sophisticated,Jewsreceivedprofessorships,Germanybecameacolonialpower,
Zionismarose,andracialtheoryinvadedthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.During
thissecondphaseofJewishscholarshiponIslam,Iwanttocallattentiontoseveral
newdevelopments.
First,IgnazGoldziherwasoneofseveralEuropeanJewswhosetravelsto
Islamicateregionsbroughtthemintolong-term,significantrelationships.Gustav
WeilseemstohavebeentheonlyoneoftheJewishscholarsoftheearliererawho
travelledtotheMiddleEast.Butthelastdecadesofthecenturyshowanew
development.TheHungarianJewMaxHerz,whostudiedarchitectureatthe
UniversityofVienna,becameaconsultantinCairoattheturnofthecenturyfor
restoringtheal-Azharandal-Rifai’imosques,andestablishedthecollectionthat
ultimatebecametheMuseumofIslamicArtinCairo;8theHungarianJewGottlieb
Leitner,whospentpartofhischildhoodinTurkey,helpedcreatetheUniversityof
thePunjabandlaterbuiltthefirstmosqueinEngland,openedin1889inthe
LondonsuburbofWoking;theGermanJewJosefHorovitz,whocompletedhis
doctorateattheUniversityofBerlinunderEduardSachau,tookaprofessorshipof
ArabicattheAligarhMuslimUniversityfrom1907-1914.Oneofhiscolleaguesat
AligarhwhostudiedHebrewtextswithhimwasHamiduddinFarahi,oneofthe
mostdistinguishedQur’anscholarsofhisdayknownforhisworkonthecoherence
oftheQur’an.Farahi’sstudent,AminAhsanIslahi,aneminentscholarofQur’anand
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ofIslamiclaw,andoneofthefounders,withMawdudi,ofthereligiouspartyJamaat
e-Islami,citesHebrewtextsinhistafsir,explicatingQur’anpassages,nodoubtasa
resultofHorovitz’steaching.JustafootnoteonHorovitz:forcedtoleaveArligarh
withtheoutbreakofWWI,hetookaprofessorshipattheUniversityofFrankfurt,
wherehetrainedseveralsignificantscholars,includingShlomoDovGoitein.Inthe
1920s,HorovitzwasaskedbyJudahMagnestodeviseaplanforaninstitutefor
OrientalStudiesattheHebrewUniversityinJerusalem,whichheenvisionedasdual
language,HebrewandArabic,withprofessorsofEuropeanphilologybutalsoimams
teachingcontemporaryIslamictheology.Hisplannevercametofruition,and
Horovitzdiedatayoungagein1931.
Goldziherestablishedpersonalrelationshipswithscholars,religious
reformers,andpoliticalleadersduringhistripstoCairoandDamascusinthe1870s,
atripcutshortduetothedeathofhisfatherbackinHungary.WhileinCairo,
GoldziheralsocametoknowJamalal-Dinal-Afghaniandhisgroupofstudents,and
usedtomeetiwhtthematacoffeehouse,discussingtopicsthathesaidwere“free-
thinkingandheretical,”justthesortofapproachGoldziherwantedinrelationto
Judaismaswell.Thatrelationshipbroughtforthnotonlycorrespondencewithal-
Afghani,butalsowritingsbyGoldziheragainstBritishcolonialism,andasharp
defenseofal-AfghaniagainstErnestRenan’sracistattacks.Goldziherwasnotan
opponentofreligion,butanadvocateofreform,startingwithhisfirstpublication,at
age12,in1862,ofSeferYitzchak,adiatribeagainsttheOrthodoxJudaismthat
dominatedHungary.
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Goldziher’sstudyofHadith,thetraditionsabouttheprophetMuhammad,
MuhammadanischeStudien,arguesthatfewHadithareauthenticteachingsof
Muhammad,butinsteadtheyofferafullhistoryoftheargumentsofcentral
importancetoMuslims:“Minutestudysoonrevealsthepresenceofthetendencies
andaspirationsofalaterday,theworkingofaspiritwhichwreststherecordin
favourofoneortheotheroftheopposingthesesincertaindisputedquestions.”9
isnadswereusedtolegitimatelaterteachingsbyprojectingthemintothepast.
Goldziher’sMuslimswereliketherabbisoftheJudaism’srabbinictradition,who
attributedtheirteachingstonotedrabbisofearliereras,andwhomodifiedtheir
rulingsinaccordancewiththepoliticalandsocialandeconomicenvironmentofthe
Jews:GoldziheremphasizedthatevenMuhammadhadtoadapthisteachingstothe
circumstancesoftheArabstowhomhewaspreaching.Religiouspracticewas
malleable,andinterpretationsoftheQur’anwereboundtovaryindifferenteras,a
signofthereligion’svitality–thesameargumentGoldzihermadewithregardto
JudaisminhisearlierstudyofMidrash,HebrewMyths.
Goldziher’sworkcombinedaradicalsuspicionofthehistoricalclaimsof
religioustextswithasensitivitytothereligiousexperienceunderlyingthetexts.
Thesearemethodshelearned,sohetellsusinhisdiary,fromGeiger,who
transmittedtohimthemethodsofthefamedNewTestamentscholarshipknownas
theTuebingenSchool,foundedbyF.C.Baur.InturningtoIslam,wefindinGoldziher
bothaprofoundappreciationandwhatseemstobeadisparagementofits
originality.DuringhistravelsintheMiddleEast,forinstance,Goldziherprayedin
mosquesinDamascusandCairo,writingthat…..
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Atthesametime,GoldziherechoedJewishdenialsofIslamicoriginality:
Islamcontains“practicallynothingoriginal”;“Muhammaddidnotproclaimnew
ideas”(5);“Muhammad’steachingwasnottheoriginalcreationofhisgenius…but
allhisdoctrinesaretakenfromJudaismandChristianity”;Islam“wasthemost
importantmanifestationoftheSemiticgeniusevermade.”10SuchdenialsofIslamic
originalitywerenotintendedbyGoldzihertodisparageIslam,buttodemonstrate
itsvitality–andalsothatofJudaism.WritingagainsttheSemiticphilologistErnst
Renan,whoviewedbothIslamandJudaismasstagnantSemiticreligions,incapable
ofdevelopment,andlackingmythology,GoldziherarguedthatIslam,likeJudaism,
hasareceptivenature,acapacitytoassimilateforeignideasandritualsandadapt
itselftochangingcircumstances.Freedofthematrixofmythology,Judaismand
Islamraisedthemselvestomonotheism,whichallowedthemtoinaugurateahistory
ofscientificunderstanding.11
MorethananalliancebetweenJudaismandIslam,weseeinGoldziher’s
IslamatemplateforpresentingJudaismtotheEuropeanChristianaudience.Like
Islam’sHadith,JudaismhasAggadah;likefiqh,Judaismhashalakha.Bothare
religionsofmonotheism,rejectionofanthropomorphism,andemphasizeethical
behavior.AfterjoiningFridayprayersatamosqueinDamascus,Goldziherwrote:“I
becameinwardlyconvincedthatImyselfwasaMuslim.”InCairo,atamosque,“In
themidstofthethousandsofthepious,Irubbedmyforeheadagainstthefloorof
themosque.NeverinmylifewasImoredevout,moretrulydevout,thanonthat
exaltedFriday.”“IonlywishIcouldelevatemyJudaismtothesamerationallevelas
Islam.”SuchcommentsarenotheardfromJewishscholarswhovisitachurch.With
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Judaism’salliancewithIslam,Christianityistheologicallymarginalized;itisthe
religionthatrestsondogmacontrarytoreason,miracles,andthesupernatural.
Goldziher’sscholarshipcontinuestoinformcontemporaryscholars,buthis
appraisalofIslamwasnottypicalofhisera.Bythelate19thcentury,thefieldof
OrientalistikhadestablisheditselfatGermanuniversities,studyingallreligions,
ancientandmodern,exceptJudaism.Jews,however,continuedtheirinterestin
Islam,asacademicsandalsointhepopularsphere–synagoguescontinuedtobe
builtinMoorisharchitecture(Oranienburgerstrasse,completelyin1872),and
studentsatEuropeanrabbinicalschoolslearnedArabic–evenattheOrthodox
yeshivaofWuerzburg,evenatJewishhighschoolsinGermany,wherechildrenwere
sometimestaughtQur’an.
HereisthevoiceoftheGerman-Jewishphilosopheroftheturnofthecentury,
HermannCohen:"TheJewishphilosophyoftheMiddleAgesdoesnotgrowsomuch
outofIslamasoutoftheoriginalmonotheism.Themoreintimaterelationship
betweenJudaismandIslam--moreintimatethanwithothermonotheisticreligions--
canbeexplainedbythekinshipthatexistsbetweenthemotheranddaughter
religion."12Asharpcontrast,ofcourse,fromCohen’swell-knownpolemicsagainst
Christianity.Muslimsocietypermittedtheemergenceoftheso-called"creative
symbiosis"thatemergedbetweenmedievalJewishandMuslimcultures;S.D.Goitein
writes,“ItwasIslamwhichsavedtheJewishPeople.”13Indeed,Goiteinexpresses
explicitlywhatothersonlyimplied,thatIslamisareligionof“ethicalmonotheism.”
NotallJewishtheologiansfollowedsuit;LeoStraussforgedanalliancebetween
JudaismandIslam,inoppositiontoChristianity,whereasFranzRosenzweigisthe
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famousexceptiontotheJewishembraceofIslam,andthereisvirtuallyno
significantattentiontoIslaminthewritingsofpost-WWIIAmericanJewsuntilthe
recentriseofJewish-sponsoredIslamophobicpropaganda,whichparallelstheshift
inIsraelipropagandafrompresentingArabsastheenemytopresentingIslamasthe
enemy.
WhatwasthereactiontotheEuropeanJewishembraceofIslambyEuropean
scholarswhowerenotJewishbegantoenterthefieldofIslamicoriginswitha
denialofJewishinfluence?JuliusWellhausen,forexample,transferredtraditional
ChristiantheologicaldenigrationsofJudaismtohisevaluationofIslam,andbothhe
andC.H.BeckertransferredtheoriginsofIslamtoHellenism,notJudaism.14
Wellhausen,inswitchinghisscholarshipfromtheOldTestamenttoIslam,intended,
hewrote,“tolearnaboutthewildstockuponwhichtheshootofYahwe’sTorawas
graftedbythepriestsandtheprophets.”15Whathehopedtofind,JosefvanEss
explains,“wasreligiositywithoutpriestsandprophets,thatis,withouttheLawand
withoutinstitutions.”16WellhausenwaslookingforliberalProtestantism,purgedof
Judaism.ForWellhausen,theeraofclassicalprophecywasthehighpointofancient
Israel;thepriesthoodandreligiouslawwereviewedbyhimaslaterdevelopments
markingadegenerationofbiblicalIsrael’sreligiosityintoJudaism.Similarly,Becker
assumedadichotomybetweensubjectivereligiosityandinstitutionalizedreligion–
animplieddichotomybetweenProtestantismandJudaism.VanEsswrites,“Inhis
[Wellhausen’s]view,theshari’afostersconservatismandmakesprogress
impossible;itsidealisticcharactermakesthosewhoaresubjecttoitdespairof
adequateaccomplishmentandthusfavorstheirindolence.”17
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Bythelate19thandearly20thcentury,someJewishscholars,too,changed
theirtone,initiallybygrowingEuropeancolonialinterests.TheGerman-bornand
trainedHartwigHirschfeld,forexample,writesthattheQur’anis“monotonousto
read,inspiteofitsbombasticrhetoric,”andits“manifolddifficultiesrepelrather
thanencouragethestudyoftheQur’an.”18Elsewherehewritesthatthe“Qur’an,the
textbookofIslam,isinrealitynothingbutacounterfeitoftheBible.”19Histoneis
echoedbyIsraelSchapiro,whospokeintheintroductiontohisstudyofaggadic
influencesontheQur’an,publishedin1907,oftheQur’an’s“dependenceonJewish
texts.”TheQur’anelaboratedonJewishtextsasakindof“bejeweling”ofthe
original,Schapirowrote.20Hirschfeld’stone,expressedinhisbookonThe
CompositionandExegesisoftheQur’an,mayreflecthismovetoEngland,wherehe
becamePrincipalofJews’College;thetoneofBritishscholarshiponIslamwasfar
moredenigratingandhostilethanthatoftheircounterpartsinGermany.Eugen
Mittwoch,whoeventuallyreplacedEduardSachauasprofessorofOrientalStudies
anddirectoroftheOrientalStudiesInstituteattheUniversityofBerlin,continuedin
Geiger’spathregardingparallelsbetweenJudaismandIslam,buthistone,too,is
negative.HisstudyofliturgyandritualinIslam,publishedin1913,insistsonits
derivationfromJudaism,eveninitsrulingoffiveprayersperday,incontrastto
Judaism’sprayersthreetimesaday,withanunderlyingtoneto“prove”Islam’slack
oforiginality.21HerethemotivationisnotlikeGoldziher’sefforttorefuteRenan’s
racism,butratherstemsfromMittwoch’ssemi-governmentalengagementin
Germancolonialprojects.MittwochwasapropagandistfortheGermangovernment
duringWWI,disseminatingliteratureandinducingMuslimPOWstojointhe
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Ottomanarmy.HealsoreportedonthedeportedArmeniancommunityinBerlin,
gavesupporttotheTurkish-languagepolicy,andalsosupportedtheeliminationof
ArmeniansfromtheeconomiclifeofTurkeyasbeneficialtoGermanbusiness.
HilmarKaiserhasnamedMittwochoneoftheGermanscholarsimplicatedin
propagandisticsupportforpoliciesthatultimatelyfacilitatedtheArmenian
genocide.In1920,MittwochbecamedirectoroftheSeminarforOrientalLanguages
attheUniversityofBerlin,andoversawtheinstructionofawiderangeoflanguages
ofChina,Africa,andtheMiddleEast.Instructioninvolvedbothphilologyand
modernspokendialects,andstudentsreceivedcertificatesofqualificationthat
enabledthemtoreceivepositionsinGermanbusinessesdoinginternationaltrade,
andalsointheGermandiplomaticcorps.
LudmillaHanischfindsthatthefieldofOrientalStudies,especially
scholarshiponIslam,wasdominatedbyJewsbythe1920s,andsheestimatesthat
in1933about25%ofthechairsinOrientalistikwereoccupiedbyJews,withmany
moreJews(andafewwomen!)occupyinglowerpositionsontheacademictotem
pole.22Theresult,however,wasthatthefieldofIslamicStudieswasdecimatedonce
theNaziscametopowerandJewslosttheiracademicpositions.EugenMittwoch,
forexample,wasexpelledfromhisprofessorshipandemigratedtoEngland,
GottholdWeil,whohadreplacedJosefHorovitzinFrankfurt,leftforPalestineand
tookwithhimGoldziher’sextensivelibrary.TheIslamicStudiesdiasporatookona
verydifferentcharacterinthecountriesanduniversitieswhereittookrootafter
WWIIandaftertheestablishmentoftheStateofIsrael.
17
17
DuringtheNaziera,SemiticphilologyattheUniversityofBerlin,for
example,wassupposedtobechangedtoAryanphilology.23Many–butnotall–of
theJewishscholarswhowentintoexilere-establishedtheirscholarlyworkat
universitiesinIsrael,theUnitedStates,andelsewhere,butthenatureandtoneof
theirscholarshipinevitablyshiftedinthepost-WorldWarIIera,asitdidin
Germanyaswell.DuringtheThirdReich,Jewishscholarshipwasneithercitednor
recognized,andfollowingthewar,theworkofJewishscholars,especiallyinthe
fieldofQur’anstudies,wasnotcontinueuntilveryrecently,primarilyunderthe
effortsofAngelikaNeuwirth.24Jewishcontributionswereerased,forexample,from
JohannesFueck’ssurveyofIslamicStudies,publishedin1955.YetIalsofindit
strikingthatthemanyJewishbookspublishedinGermanyduringtheThirdReich,
especiallyaroundthe800thanniversaryofMaimonides’sbirthin1935,emphasize
approvinglyIslam’srejectionofanthropomorphism,asifsymbolicallyrepudiating
thedeificationofHitlerbycontemporaryChristiantheologians.
NowletmesayawordaboutZionismbeforeIconclude.Judaism,Sidra
Ezrahiwrites,isamimeticreligion.Acultureofsubstitutioninallthelandsoftheir
dispersion,suchasZionism,impliedareconnectionwiththeoriginalspacethatwas
“perceivedasthebedrockofthecollectiveself.”25WhatislongedforinZionismis
supposedtobewhatisremembered:thespacesandmomentsofbiblicalhistory.
Yet,asEzrahiwrites,memoryisimagined,“asmimesistakesontheauthorityand
licenseofmemoryandmemorybecomesanarticleoffaith.”26
TheroleofmimesisintheJewishfascinationwithIslamand,especially,Arab
MuslimsandtheBedouinofPalestine,intensifiedintheearlyZionistmovement.As
18
18
GilEyalwrites,earlyZionists,arrivinginPalestineattheturnofthecentury,
requireda“mythofautochthony,aprojectofinventinganewHebrewculture,
almostoutofwholecloth,andforthisveryreasonitrequiredthemaskofthe
Arab.”27Zionismmeantanegationofexile,butalsotheJews’romantic
appropriationofEuropeanOrientalism;theJewwasnowtheArab.Inapamphlet
publishedin1946,ShlomoDovGoitein,whotrainedinIslamicStudiesunderJosef
HorovitzattheUniversityofFrankfurt,wrotethatZionists,childrenoftheOrient,”
shouldlearnArabicaspartoftheir“returntotheHebrewlanguageandtothe
SemiticOrient.”28ZionistsinPalestine,recentlyarrivedfromEurope,rodecamels
andworekeffiyahs,hopingtoreclaimanauthenticbiblicalidentitypreserved
throughthecenturiesbyArabsandBedouin.JosephKlausnergivesusacynical
descriptionofthephenomenon:“IfaJewhappenstoadoptBedouincustoms;ifhe
managestorideahorseandshootagunandwearanArabrobe–rightawayour
Hebrewwritersgetexcited….IftheestablishmentofaJewishYishuv[settlement]in
EretsIsrael[thelandofIsrael][means]…assimilationintoArabbackwardness,itis
bettertostayintheDiasporaandassimilateintotheenlightenedWestern
culture.”29
Theirswasareverseconversion.JewstraveledtotheHolyLandnotas
missionaries,toconvertnativeArabChristiansandMuslimstoJudaism,tobere-
convertedbyinteractingwiththemandappropriatingelementsoftheiridentityin
ordertopurgethemselvesofEuropeanJewishidentityandrestoreanIsraelite
Jewishidentity.ThisisnottodenythecolonialistnatureoftheZionistaliyah;even
ChristianmissionarieswereseekingnotonlytoconvertthenativestoChristianity,
19
19
buttoexperienceatasteofbiblicallifeintheHolyLand,adualmixtureofpietyand
modernization,asUsamaMakdisipointsout.30
EarlyZionistwritersembracedtheOrientastheoriginal,authenticJewish
identity,evenwhilerenderingtheArabpopulationobsoleteandholdingthe
Mizrahim,JewsfromMuslimandArabcountries,incontempt.“Fromtheoutset,”
writesAmnonRaz-Krakotzkin,“Zionistdiscoursewaspremisedupontheadoption
oforientalistattitudes,andorientalismwasessentialtothenationalizationofthe
Jewishcollectivityandthewaysinwhichthenationwasimagined.”31Bythis,Raz-
Krakotzkinmeanstheconventional,SaidianEuropeanorientalism.Jewish
orientalism,bycontrast,channeleditselevatedviewofIslamasarational,idealized
religionintothesmallbinationalBritShalommovement,inauguratedin1925by
JosefHorovitzduringhisvisittoPalestine.
Performanceandmimicrywere,ofcourse,essentialcomponentsof
Orientalism.TheOrientwasanidentitytobeassumedandperformed;its
authenticitylayinitsappropriationbyWesterners,andtheOrient’snegationlay
withArabsandMizrahiJews,muchlikeChristianswhocelebrateHebrewbutvilify
theJew.TheadoptionofBedouincustomsandtheencouragementofArabic
languagestudybyJewsseemedtobetoolstofashionanewJewishidentity.Who,
then,wastobetherealoriental,theJewortheArab?Wasauthenticityrootedinthe
mimeticeffortsoftheEuropeanJewsadoptingorientaldress,orinthelivesof
JewishimmigrantsfromArablands?Atadeeperlevel,itisabouttheeroticsof
racism,notjustthefearofmiscegenationthatAnnStolerhassobrilliantly
20
20
described,butaboutraceasthedisciplinarytoolofimperialism,andtheerotic
incestuousdesirethatripensinracistcultures.
Initially,ZionisthistoriographywasdevotedtoJewsoftheArabworld;the
firstseriesofthejournalZionwasdevotedtoorientalandPalestinianJewry.Yetin
thatsameyear,1936,thedenialofMizrahihistorybeganandhistoriansshiftedto
thestudyofEuropeanJews,whileanthropologistswereassignedtostudy
orientals.32Thoseshiftswereaccompaniedbyagrowingambivalencetowardthe
orientalistnatureoftheZionistproject.ArabiclanguagestudyinJewishschoolsin
Palestinefellintodisfavor,Mizrahiimmigrantswereviewedasuncultured,andthe
HebrewUniversitydidnotimplementthecurricularplanformulatedbyHorovitzin
themid-1920sforitsInstituteforOrientalStudies.Horovitzhadcalledfordual
languagesattheInstitute,inHebrewandArabic,and,inadditiontotheEuropean
philologicalmethodsofIslamicStudies,classestaughtbyIslamicimamson
contemporarytheologicalandlegaldebatesintheMuslimworld.33Foravarietyof
reasons,includingHorovitz’ssuddendeathin1931,hisvisionwasnotrealized.
Nonetheless,thestudyofIslambecameanimportantfieldinIsraeliuniversities,and
afieldminedbypoliticalinterests.
Conclusion
Letmenowturntosomegeneralconclusionsandcomparisonsand
questions,totrytounderstandtheattractionofJewstoOrientalStudies,especially
inlightofthefrequentorientalizingofJewishnessinGermany.Afterall,Jewswere
called“deutschredendeOrientalen”(Treitschke);“orientalischeFremdlinge”
21
21
(orientalaliens,Marr);“WuestenvolkundWandervolk”(Sombart).The
historicizationofbiblicalstudiesbyGermanProtestantsinthenineteenthcentury
createdanorientalizationofJudaism,inthesenseoftheorientasashelterfromthe
vicissitudesofprogress.FriedrichMaxMuellerandErnestRenanspokeofSemitic
monotheismastheproductofdesertnomadsforeigntoEuropeanAryans.The
conceptoftheSemiticlinkedJewsandArabsandparticipatedintheracializationof
philologyandofthestudyofreligion.
Islamhasbeendraftedintoanumberofdifferentrolesintheimperial
nation-statesofEurope:asaguarantorofEuropeanChristiansuperiorityandan
excuseforitsoverseasadventures;asthematerialonwhichphilologyhonedits
skills;asthefoundationforanorientalistimaginarythatencouraged(male)erotic
adventures;andasJudaism’stemplateforself-presentationtotheChristianworld.
WestillmustaskhowMuslimsrespondedwhenencounteredsuchJewishmirrors
ofIslam.
IncontrasttotheorientalismdescribedbyEdwardSaidandahostofothers,
JewishwritingsonIslamaremoststrikingfortheabsenceoferoticmaterial.The
imaginedharemasasiteoferoticfantasies,orIslamicateculturesasofferingsexual
adventuresaresimplynotexploredinJewish-authoredtextsofthemodernperiod.
Asecondcontrastistheshiftindirection.AsSuzanneMarchandhasargued,
orientalistshopedtofindanalternativecontextintheEastforChristianorigins,or
perhapsfortheAryansoul,andtheyworkedtodethroneClassicsfromitsposition
ofpreeminenceintheGermanacademy.ForJews,however,thesearchwasfor
Judaism’sinfluenceincreatingIslam(aswellasChristianity,modernity).Yetthis
22
22
emphasisalsocallsourattentiontotheexaggeratedimportanceofautochthonyin
thecreationofmodernJewishthought.
TheJewishembraceofIslam,bothasanobjectofscholarshipandasa
templatethroughwhichtopresentJudaismtotheEuropeanworld,whether
symbolicallyviasynagoguearchitectureortheologicallyasaunitedfrontagainst
Christianity,givesusalensthroughwhichtoreconsideraspectsofmodernJudaism.
IslamwasimaginedbyJewsasareligionofstrictmonotheism,rejectionof
anthropomorphism,adherencetoanethicalreligiouslaw–akindofpurified,
rationalJudaism.Thus,onemotivationwasthelarger,nineteenth-centuryGerman-
JewishagendaofpurifyingJudaism,notsimplyliberalizingit–purgingitofreligious
excess,thatis,pietismandmessianism,exoticismanderoticism,internationalism.
ModernityshouldnotbeunderstoodasamomentorplacethatJewsentered,butas
arhetoricaldevice,onerequiringaninventedarchaic,savage,orprimitivetobe
repudiated–mostoften,EastEuropeanJewishpietism.
Theeffortto“rationalize”Judaismhasbeendescribedinthehistoriesof
nineteenth-centuryJewishthoughtandsocialhistory.Yettheroleplayedbythe
imaginedrationalIslamofJewishscholarshasneverbeenincluded.Jewishattitudes
shifted,ofcourse,withtheriseofZionism,andwiththetwentiethcentury’snew
possibilitiesofJewishallianceswithChristianity.WorldWarIIandthe
establishmentoftheStateofIsraelcreatedentirelynewconditions,politicaland
theological,inJewishself-understandingandrelationswithIslamaswellas
Christianity.Butinitially,identifyingJudaismwithIslambecameatoolto
deorientalizeJudaism.
23
23
ThereisanadditionalfeatureoftheJewishhistoriographythatdeserves
mention:theroleofimperialism.ThestandardnarrativeofmodernJewishhistory
inEuropetellsusthattheemergenceofnation-statesinEuropeexcludedJewsfrom
membershipintherespectivenationalidentities,leadingtotheriseofZionismas
thenationalismoftheJewsprotectedbytheirownstate,thenation-stateasthe
allegedbestguarantorofsecurityandculturalflourishing.34YettheseEuropean
nation-stateswerealsoempires,openingquestionsoftherolesplayedbyEuropean
Jewsincolonialisteconomics,butalsotheinfluencesofimperialistmotifsonJewish
culture.Indeed,seenfromtheperspectiveofthenewimperialturn,Jewishthought
ofthenineteenthcenturyseemslessconcernedwithanidentificationwithnation-
stateGermanyaswithJudaism’simaginedimperialroleasaworldpowerwithinthe
realmofreligions.Jewspossessareligiousgenius,wroteAbrahamGeiger,andgave
theworldmonotheism,givingbirthtobothChristianityandIslam.Inthis
scholarship,Judaismfunctionsasthe“empire”andChristianityandIslamasthe
vassalstates,metaphoricallyspeaking,actingonbehalfofJudaisminbringingits
monotheismtothepaganworld,GreekandArab,witheschatologicalconsequences.
ThepoliticsoftheJewishdiscourseonIslamdiffersfromtheorientalism
prevalentinEuropeduringthesameera.Itreflectsadouble-naturedpolitical
sensibility:arevoltofJewsagainsttheirpositionasEurope’sinternalcolony,andan
assertionofJudaismasanimperialtheologicalpowerintheWesternmonotheistic
context.JohnKucich,inhisbook,ImperialMasochism,speaksofnineteenth-century
Britishfictionasasitefornegotiatingclassidentitiesthroughsadmasochistic
fantasiesof“conquestanddefeat,egotisticalself-aggrandizementandmelancholic
24
24
abjection.”Jewishhistoricismismarkedbysimilarconflicts:Judaismisboththe
progenitorofWesterncivilizationthroughitsdaughterreligions,Christianityand
Islam,andtheabjectvictimofpersecutionbyboth.Theimperialistimpulseisthus
notsimplyoneofconquestanddomination,denigratingandcontrollingthe
colonizedother,butaconflictingself-imageruledbyfantasiesofsupremacyand
superioritymatchedbyhistoricaldescriptionsofpersecution,suffering,and
victimization.Thetwophasesofsupremacyandvictimizationcoexistinapolitics
thateasilyrepudiatesliberaldemocracyforthesakeofahystericalclaimtoself-
preservationatallcosts.
InGermany,theorientwassimultaneouslyprimitiveanddegraded,andan
objectofdesireandidentification.AsAugustSchlegelputit:“iftheregenerationof
theHumanspeciesstartedintheEast,GermanymustbeconsideredtheOrientof
Europe.”35GermannationalismwasambivalentaboutidentifyingGermanyas
WesternorCentralEuropean,asLiahGreenfeldpointsout,andthatencouragedthe
Germanfantasiesofidentificationwiththeabject,colonizedothersthatZantop
calledtoourattention.36Thosefantasiesofidentification,indeed,wereapivotfor
theshiftfromnationalismtoimperialism.
YetJewsandJudaismneverbecamethoseobjectsofGermans’fantasized
identification,asdidAryanIndians,NativeAmericans,orpre-IslamicPersians.In
whatways,wemightask,didJudaismparticipateinthecreationandgrowthofan
OrientalistalliancewiththeEastagainsttheWestthatToddKontjeidentifiesasthe
resultofGermany’s“lackofaunifiednation-stateandtheabsenceofempire”?37As
SheldonPollockhasargued,Orientalismservedtobolsternationalculturein
25
25
Germany.WasMoorisharchitecture,forexample,usedforsynagoguesnotonlyin
identificationwiththeSepharditradition,butalsoaspartofaJewisheffortatan
assimilatoryalliancewithGermany’sfantasizedEast?
InhisstudyofOrientalisminIreland,JosephLennonwritesthat“Imperial
BritishtextshadlongcomparedIrelandwithotherOrientalcultures,atfirstinorder
totextuallybarbarizeIrelandandlaterinordertodiscoverintra-imperialstrategies
forgoverningitscolonies.”38TheresponseoftheIrish,however,wasnot
withdrawal.TheIrishstudiedtheOrienttoknowthemselves.IrishOrientalism
developed,Lennonwrites,“bothimperialandanticolonialstrains,mirroringthe
IrishpopulationintheirparticipationinandresistancetotheBritishEmpire,”even
as“IrishconnectionswiththeOrient…wereusedtobothdistinguishanddenigrate
Ireland.”39Indeed,theturntomysticismbyW.B.Yeatshasbeeninterpretedby
SeamusDeanenotasaturnawayfrompolitics,butasanativistornegritude
phenomenon,aninterpretiveapproachwemightfindusefulwhenconsideringthe
renewedinterestinJewishmysticismandHasidismamongCentralEuropeanJews
attheturnofthecentury.40RatherthanviewMartinBuber’spopularreclamationof
HasidismasarepudiationoftheorientalismdevelopedfromGeigertoCohen,we
mightinterpretitsunderlyingpoliticsasSaidinterpretedYeats:“Inaworldfrom
whichtheharshstrainsofcapitalismhaveremovedthoughtandreflection,apoet
whocanstimulateasenseoftheeternalandofdeathintoconsciousnessisthetrue
rebel,afigurewhosecolonialdiminishmentsspurhimtoanegativeapprehensionof
hissocietyandof“civilized”modernity.”41
26
26
Similarly,JewsinhabitedGermannationalism,withitscolonialfantasies
aboutMuslims,butalsoattemptedtoexpandandredirectit,withaninsistenceon
historicism,arejectionofracialexplanationsforreligiousorigins,andanidealized
projectionofIslamthatpointstoJudaism,thereligionofethicalmonotheismbest
suited,asJewishthinkersfromGeigertoHermannCohenargued,tomodernity,
reason,andaEuropeancontinentrevelinginitsimperialconquests.
27
27
1OnFreytag'scareerattheUniversityofBonn,seeChristianRenger,DieGründungundEinrichtungderUniversitätBonnunddieBerufungspolitikdesKultusministersAltenstein(Bonn:LudwigRöhrscheidVerlag,1982),237-9.Duetolossofuniversityrecords,itisnolongerpossibletodetermineinwhichseminarsandlecturesGeigerenrolled.2MonikaRicharz,"Juden,WissenschaftundUniversitäten.ZurSozialgeschichtederjüdischenIntelligenzundderakademischenJudenfeindschaft,1780-1848,"JahrbuchdesInstitutsfürdeutscheGeschichte,Beiheft4,TelAviv1982,55-72.3LudwigGeiger,"Introduction,"AbrahamGeigersBriefeanJ.Derenbourg,AllgemeineZeitungdesJudentums(1896),52.Foradiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenthetwomen,seeMichaelGraetz,"TheHistoryofanEstrangementbetweenTwoJewishCommunities:GermanyandFranceduringthe19thCentury,"inTowardModernity:TheEuropeanJewishModel,ed.JacobKatz(NewBrunswickandOxford:TransactionBooks,1987),159-169.4AbrahamGeiger,WashatMohammedausdemJudenthumeaufgenommen?EinevonderKönigl.PreussischenRheinuniversitätgekröntePreisschrift.(Bonn,1833;reprintedLeipzig:M.W.Kaufmann,1902;Osnabruck:BiblioVerlag,1971).ForfurtherdetailsonGeiger’sstudiesinBonnandthereceptionofhisbook,seeSusannahHeschel,AbrahamGeigerandtheJewishJesus(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),50-62.5AlfredIvry,“SalomonMunkandtheMelangesdePhilosophiejuiveetarabe,”JewishStudiesQuarterly7(2000),120-126.6HeinrichHeine,“Almansor,”SaemmtlicheWerke,ed.HansKaufmann(Munich:KindlerVerlag,1964,volume4.7HeinrichGraetz,GeschichtederJuden11volumes(Berlin1920-28),vol.5,page101.8IstvanOrmos,“PreservationandRestoration:TheMethodsofMaxHerzPasha,ChiefArchitectoftheComitedeConservationdesMonumentsdel’ArtArabe,1890-1914”in:HistoriansinCairo:EssaysinHonorofGeorgeScanlon,ed.JillEdwards(Cairo:AmericanUniversityofCairoPress,2002),123ff).9IgnazGoldziher,“ThePrinciplesofLawinIslam,”MuslimStudiesvol.2,302.NotethatD.S.Margoliouth,acontemporaryofGoldziher’sandprofessorofArabicatOxfordUniversity,tooktheargumentevenfurther,asdidHenriLammensandJosephSchacht.10Fortheseandothersuchcomments,seeRobertSimon,IgnacGoldziher:HisLifeandScholarshipasReflectedinHisWorksandCorrespondence(LeidenandBudapest:HungarianAcademyofSciences,1986),pp.11-156.11IgnazGoldziher,TheDogmaandLawofIslam(Heidelberg,1910),16.12HermannCohen,ReligionofReasonoutoftheSourcesofJudaism,trans.SimonKaplan(NewYork:F.Ungar,1972),92;"DiejüdischePhilosophiedesMittelalterserwächstnichtsowohlausdemMonotheismusdesIslam,alsvielmehrausdem
28
28
ursprünglichenMonotheismus,undhöchstenskanndieVerwandtschaft,diezwischendieserTochterreligionundderderMutterbesteht,dieinnigeBeziehungverständlichmachen,welcheintimeralssonstwozwischenJudentumundIslamsichanbahnt.”ReligionderVernunft,107-08.13S.D.Goitein,“Muhammad’sInspirationbyJudaism,”JournalofJewishStudies9(1958),144-162;162.14C.H.Becker,“DerIslamalsProblem,”DerIslam1(1910),1-21.15JuliusWellhausen,MuhammedinMedina(Berlin,1882),5.SeePeterMachinist,“TheRoadNotTaken:WellhausenandAssyriology,”in:HomelandandExile:StudiesinHonorofBustenayOded,ed.GershonGalil,MarkGeller,andAlanMillard(Leiden,Boston:Brill,2009).16JosefvanEss,“FromWellhausentoBecker:TheEmergenceofKulturgeschichteinIslamicStudies,”in:MalcolmH.Kerr,ed.,IslamicStudies:ATraditionandItsProblems(UndenaPublications,1980),27-51;p.42.17JosefvanEss,op.cit.,43.18HartwigHirschfeld,NewResearchesintotheCompositionandExegesisoftheQoran(London:RoyalAsiaticSociety,1902),5.19HartwigHirschfeld,Preface,ComopositionandExegesisoftheQur’an(London:RoyalAsiaticSociety,1902),pageii.20IsraelSchapiro,DiehaggadischenElementeimerzaehlendenTeildesKorans,TeilI.(Berlin:H.Itzkowski,1907),5.21EugenMittwoch,ZurEntstehungsgeschichtedesislamischenGebetsundKultus(Berlin:VerlagderkoeniglichenAkademiederWissenschaften,1913).22Hanisch,“Akzentverschiebung,”218.
23“DerLehrstuhlfuerSemitischePhilologiewirdkuenftigfuerArischenPhilologieinAnspruchgenommenwerden.”From:DerReichs-undPreussischeMinisterfuerWissenschaft,ErziehungundVolksbildung,datedDecember6,1935,totheUniversityofBerlinrectorandtoEugenMittwoch.EugenMittwochPersonalaktenUKM225,page25.HumboldtUniversityarchives,consultedonJanuary26,2012.24“itisimportanttoemphasizetheachievementsoftheGeigerproject.Perhapsforthefirsttime,theQur’anictextsarereintegratedintotheiroriginalculturalcontextandseenforwhattheywerebeforetheywerecanonizedintothefoundationaldocumentofanewreligion–namely,answerstopressingcontemporaryquestionsandproblems,answersthatengaged,modified,adapted,andre-interpretednarrativesandmotiveswithwhichtheiraudiencemustalreadytosomedegreehavebeenfamiliar.ForGeiger,Horovitz,andSpeyer,theQur’anpresenteditselfnotmerelyasthestartingpointofIslamichistorybutratherasatransitionaltextthatneededtoberelocatedwithinacomplex,religiouslyandlinguisticallypluralisticmilieuoforigin.”TheQur'aninContext:HistoricalandLiteraryInvestigationsIntotheQur'anicMilieu,ed.AngelikaNeuwirth,NicolaiSinai,MichaelMarx(Leiden:Brill,2009),5.25SidraEzrahi,BookingPassage:ExileandHomecomingintheModernJewishImagination(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000),4.26Ezrahi,BookingPassage,9.
29
29
27GilEyal,TheDisenchantmentoftheOrient:ExpertiseinArabAffairsandtheIsraeliState(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2006),2.28CitedbyLioraR.Halperin,“OrientingLanguage:ReflectionsontheStudyofArabicintheYishuv,”JewishQuarterlyReview96:4(2006),481.29JosephKlausner,“Fear,”HaShiloah(1905);citedbyYaronPeleg,OrientalismandtheHebrewImagination(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2005).30UsamaMakdisi,“ReclaimingtheLandoftheBible:Missionaries,Secularism,andEvangelicalModernity,”AmericanHistoricalReview102:3(1997),680-713.31AmnonRaz-Krakotzkin,“TheZionistReturntotheWestandtheMizrahiJewishPerspective,”in:OrientalismandtheJews,ed.IvanDavidsonKalmarandDerekJ.Penslar(Waltham,MA:BrandeisUniversityPress2005),162-181;164.32Ibid.33MenahemMilson,“TheBeginningsofArabicandIslamicStudiesattheHebrewUniversityinJerusalem,”Judaism45:2(Spring1996),169-183.34SeeinterviewwithZygmuntBaumaninHaaretzMarch201335AugustSchlegel,GeschichtederromantischenLiteratur,37.36LiahGreenfeld,Nationalism:FiveRoadstoModernity(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1992).37ToddKontje,GermanOrientalisms(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2004).38JosephLennon,IrishOrientalism:ALiteraryandIntellectualHistory(Syracuse,N.Y.:SyracuseUniversityPress,2004),xviii.39JosephLennon,116.40SeamusDeane,CelticRevivals:EssaysinModernIrishLiterature1880-1980(London:FaberandFaber,1985).41TerryEagleton,FredricJameson,EdwardW.Said,eds.,Nationalism,Colonialism,andLiterature.(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1990),81.
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