Argument Forms Ioan Despi - University of New...

Propositional LogicArgument Forms

Ioan Despi

despi@turing.une.edu.au

University of New England

July 19, 2013

Outline

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Order of Precedence

1 connectives within parentheses, innermost parentheses first

2 ∼3 ∧, ∨4 →5 ↔

Some people actually place a higher precedence for ∧ than for ∨.

To avoid possible confusion we shall always insert the parentheses at theappropriate places.

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Basic concepts

A logical argument is built from propositions, also called statements.

A proposition is a sentence which is either true or false,e.g.,

”The first computer was built by Babbage.””Dogs cannot see blue colour.””Berlin is the capital of Albania.”

Propositions may be eitherI asserted (said to be true) orI denied (said to be false).

The proposition is the meaning of the statement, not the particulararrangement of words used:

I ”beauty exists” and ”there exists beauty” both express the sameproposition.

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Basic concepts

An argument is ”a connected series of statements to establish a definiteproposition” (Monty Python).There are three stages to an argument:

1 premises – assertions,often introduced by ”because”, ”since”, ”obviously” and so on.

2 inference – deriving new propositions from premises3 conclusion – the final stage of inference,

introduced by “therefore”, ”it follows that”, ”we conclude”, etc.

Typically an argument form will take the form

𝑝1, 𝑝2, ..., 𝑝𝑛, ∴ 𝑞

where propositions 𝑝1, ..., 𝑝𝑛 are the premises and proposition 𝑞 is theconclusion.The above argument form can also be represented vertically by

𝑝1𝑝2...𝑝𝑛

∴ 𝑞

or by

𝑝1𝑝2...𝑝𝑛

∴ 𝑞

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Argument

Definition. (Argument)

An argument form (argument) is a finite set of statements called premises,together with a single statement, called the conclusion, which the premisesare taken to support.

Here is an example of a (deductive) argument:I Every event has a cause. (premise)I The universe has a beginning. (premise)I All beginnings involve an event. (premise)I This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event.

(inference)I Therefore the universe has a cause. (inference and conclusion)

The symbol ∴ is used to indicate an argument’s conclusion. It ispronounced “therefore“.

Symbolic logic does not care about the contents of arguments.

Symbolic logic studies the forms of arguments.

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Validity and invalidity

Definition. (Validity and Invalidity)

An argument is valid if and only if its conclusion must be true when itspremises are true. Otherwise, it is invalid.

The argument (𝑝1, 𝑝2, . . . , 𝑝𝑛,∴ 𝑞) is valid if and only if

the proposition (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ . . . ∧ 𝑝𝑛) → 𝑞) is a tautology.

The fact that an argument is valid does not imply that its conclusionholds.

I This is because of the slightly counter-intuitive nature of implication.

Obviously a valid argument can consist of true propositions.However, an argument may be entirely valid even if it contains only falsepropositions (no contradiction of the definition), e.g.,

All insects have wings. (premise)Woodlice are insects. (premise)Therefore woodlice have wings. (conclusion)

The conclusion is not true because the premises are false. If theargument’s premises were true, however, the conclusion would be true.The argument is thus entirely valid.

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Validity and invalidity (cont.)

One can reach a true conclusion from one or more false premises, as in:

All fish live in the sea. (premise)Dolphins are fish. (premise)Therefore dolphins live in the sea. (conclusion)

If the premises are false and the inference valid, the conclusion can betrue or false.

If the premises are true and the conclusion false, the inference must beinvalid.

If the premises are true and the inference valid, the conclusion must betrue.

To say that an argument is valid is not to say that the conclusion is true ,andTo say that an argument’s conclusion is true is not to say that the argument is valid.

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Validity and invalidity (cont.)

Notice that a valid argument may have false premises and a falseconclusion.

Practical MethodThe validity of an argument can be tested through the use of the truth tableby checking if critical rows (the ones where all premises are true)will correspond to the value true for the conclusion.

An invalid argument is an argument which is not valid.I In other words, it has true premises but a false conclusion.

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Examples

Example

1. Show that (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟,∴ 𝑟) is a valid argument.

There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.

p q r0 0 00 0 10 1 00 1 11 0 01 0 11 1 01 1 1

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Examples

Example

1. Show that (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟,∴ 𝑟) is a valid argument.

There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.

p q r 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑟0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 01 1 1 1 1 1

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Examples

Example

1. Show that (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟,∴ 𝑟) is a valid argument.

There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.

p q r 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑟0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 ←1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 01 1 1 1 1 1 ←

critical rows

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Examples

Example

1. Show that (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟,∴ 𝑟) is a valid argument.

There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.

p q r 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑟0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 ←1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 0 01 1 1 1 1 1 ←

critical rows correspond to 1 for 𝑟

Valid arguments can have false conclusions.But a valid argument with a false conclusion must have a false premise.

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Examples

Example

2. Show that (𝑝→ 𝑞 ∴ ¬𝑝→ ¬𝑞) is an invalid argument.

p q ¬𝑝 ¬𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞 ¬𝑝→ ¬𝑞0 0 1 1 1 10 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 1

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Examples

Example

2. Show that (𝑝→ 𝑞 ∴ ¬𝑝→ ¬𝑞) is an invalid argument.

p q ¬𝑝 ¬𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞 ¬𝑝→ ¬𝑞0 0 1 1 1 10 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 1

← this critical row fails

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Examples

Example

3. Show that (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑞) is a valid argument.

Example

4. Show that (𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∴ 𝑞) (Modus Ponens) is a valid argument.

You can tell modus ponens is valid from the truth table for →:p q 𝑝→ 𝑞T T TT F FF T TF F T

In only one row (the first) are both premises (𝑝→ 𝑞) and 𝑝 true. And, inthis row, 𝑞 is also true.

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Other Simple Argument Forms

Which of the following are valid?

1 (𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝)invalid

2 (𝑝→ 𝑞, ∼ 𝑞 ∴∼ 𝑝)valid

3 (𝑝→ 𝑞, ∼ 𝑝 ∴ 𝑞)invalid

4 (𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∴∼ 𝑞)invalid

5 (𝑝→ 𝑞, ∴∼ 𝑝→∼ 𝑞)invalid

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More Examples

An argument form with contradictory premises is valid.

(𝑝∧ ∼ 𝑝, ∴ 𝑞)

The premise formula is a contradiction! Always false. So there is no rowon which the premise is true but the conclusion is false. Hence theargument form is valid, by our definition.

An argument whose conclusion is a tautology is valid.

(𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞, ∴ 𝑠∨ ∼ 𝑠)

There is no row on which (𝑠∨ ∼ 𝑠) is false, so it is a tautology. Hencethere is no row on which the premise formulas are true but the conclusionformula is false. Therefore the argument form is valid, by our definition.

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More Examples

Argument A has five premises and one conclusion.

All five premises are true, and the conclusion is true.

Is argument A valid?

Answer. Not enough information to tell. Whether an argument is validdoes not depend on the fact that the premises and conclusion are true.Rather, it depends on whether its possible for the premises to be true andthe conclusion false.

Argument B has two premises and one conclusion.

All two premises are true, and the conclusion is false.

Is argument B valid?

Answer. No. An argument is valid only if its impossible for the conclusionto be false when all the premises are true. Since you have been told thatthe premises are true and the conclusion is false, this is not impossible.So the argument is invalid.

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Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Given the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞

𝑝 is called the premise (or hypothesis) and 𝑞 is called the conclusion.

For any such a proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞, we also have

I 𝑞 → 𝑝 the converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞

I ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞 the inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞

I ∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝 the contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞

The inverse and the converse of an implication are not necesarily true.

The contrapositive of an implication is always true.

The following argument forms are invalid (aka fallacies):

𝑝→ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑞 → 𝑝 invalid!

𝑝→ 𝑞 ∴∼ 𝑝→∼ 𝑞 invalid!

Fallacies are mistakes of reasoning, as opposed to those that are of afactual nature.

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Examples

Write like if p then q

Maths teachers love their job.I let p = “teaching maths”I let q = “loving your job”I “If you teach maths, then you love your job“I its converse:

“If you love your job, then you teach maths“ (false)I its inverse:

”If you don’t teach maths, then you don’t love your job“ (false)I its contrapositive:

”If you don’t love your job, then you don’t teach maths“(true)

Try yourself: Students hate homework.

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To sum up

∙ conditional: if p then q if true then

∙ converse: if q then p false

∙ inverse: if ∼ 𝑝 then ∼ 𝑞 false

∙ contrapositive: if ∼ 𝑞 then ∼ 𝑝 true

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Rules of Inference(Just another name for valid arguments)

modus ponens: 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∴ 𝑞

modus tollens: 𝑝→ 𝑞, ∼ 𝑞 ∴∼ 𝑝

disjunctive addition: 𝑝 ∴ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

conjunctive addition: 𝑝, 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

conjunctive simplification: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝

Modus (ponendo) ponens [Latin] – the way that affirms by affirming

Modus (tollendo) tollens [Latin] – the way that denies by denying

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Rules of Inference(Just another name for valid arguments)

disjunctive syllogism: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞,∼ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝

hypothetical syllogism: 𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟 ∴ 𝑝→ 𝑟

division into cases: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝→ 𝑟, 𝑞 → 𝑟 ∴ 𝑟

rule of contradiction: ∼ 𝑝→ ⊥ ∴ 𝑝

contrapositive equivalence: 𝑝→ 𝑞 ∴∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝

Syllogism – a deductive scheme of a formal argument consisting of amajor (M) and a minor (m) premises, and a conclusion (C).

Example

All men are human; M

All humans are mortal; m

Therefore all men are mortal. C

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𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑠→ 𝑡,∼ 𝑟,∼ 𝑞 → 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠,∴ 𝑡

1 I 𝑞 → 𝑟 premiseI ∼ 𝑟 premiseI ∴∼ 𝑞 by modus tollens

2 I 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 premiseI ∼ 𝑞 by (1)I ∴ 𝑝 by disjunctive syllogism

3 I ∼ 𝑞 → 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠 premiseI ∼ 𝑞 by (1)I ∴ 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠 by modus ponens

4 I 𝑢 ∧ 𝑠 by (3)I ∴ 𝑠 by conjunctive simplification

5 I 𝑝 by (2)I 𝑠 by (4)I ∴ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑠 by conjunctive addition

6 I 𝑝 ∧ 𝑠 → 𝑡 premiseI 𝑝 ∧ 𝑠 by (5)I ∴ 𝑡 by modus ponens

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𝑝→ 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

We use a truth table to prove it𝑝 𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 𝑝→ 𝑞0 0 1 1 10 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 01 1 0 1 1

We see that the last two columns (of interest!) are exactly the same,which means the two formulae are equivalent.

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𝑝→ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟,∴ 𝑟

We use a truth table to see if this argument is validp q r 𝑝→ 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑟 𝑟0 0 0 1 1 00 0 1 1 1 10 1 0 1 0 00 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 1 01 0 1 0 1 11 1 0 1 0 01 1 1 1 1 1

The conclusion 𝑟 fails at the first critical row, so the argument form is notvalid.

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𝑟 → 𝑝,∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑠→ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑟,∼ 𝑝∧ ∼ 𝑟 → 𝑠 ∨ 𝑡,∼ 𝑞, ∴ 𝑡

We use the basic inference rules to prove that this argument is valid:1 ∼ 𝑞,∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ∴∼ 𝑝 (disjunctive syllogism)2 ∼ 𝑝, 𝑟 → 𝑝, ∴∼ 𝑟 (modus tollens)3 ∼ 𝑝,∼ 𝑟, ∴∼ 𝑝∧ ∼ 𝑟 (conjunctive addition)4 ∼ 𝑝∧ ∼ 𝑟,∼ ∧ ∼ 𝑟 → 𝑠 ∨ 𝑡, ∴ 𝑠 ∨ 𝑡 (modus ponens)5 ∼ 𝑟, ∴∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑝 (disjunctive addition)6 𝑠 →∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑟, ∴ 𝑠 →∼ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑝) (De Morgan’s law)7 ∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑝, 𝑠 →∼ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑝), ∴∼ 𝑠 (modus tollens)8 𝑠 ∨ 𝑡,∼ 𝑠, ∴ 𝑡 (disjunctive syllogism)

hence the argument form is valid.

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A Problem

Can you decide who killed E?

One person in a gang comprised of four members (say, A, B, C, and D) killeda person named E. A detective obtained the following statements from thegang members (let’s say 𝑆𝑥 denotes the statement made by 𝑥, where𝑥 ∈ {𝐴,𝐵,𝐶,𝐷}):

1 𝑆𝐴: B killed E.

2 𝑆𝐵 : C was playing with A when E was knocked off.

3 𝑆𝐶 : B didn’t kill E.

4 𝑆𝐷: C didn’t kill E.

The detective was then able to conclude that all but one were lying. Whokilled E?

Let us consider the following four statements denoted (1) to (4).The first two are true due to the detective’s work:

(1) Only one of the statements 𝑆𝐴, 𝑆𝐵 , 𝑆𝐶 , 𝑆𝐷 is true.

(2) One of A, B, C, D killed E.

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A Problem (cont.)

From statements 𝑆𝐴 and 𝑆𝐶 we know that(3) 𝑆𝐴 → 𝑆𝐷 is true because if 𝑆𝐴 is true, then B killed E

which implies C did not kill E [due to (2)], implying 𝑆𝐷 isalso true.

From (1), if 𝑆𝐴 is true, then all other three sentences (𝑆𝐴, 𝑆𝐶 ,𝑆𝐷) arefalse

(4) 𝑆𝐴 →∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐶∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷 is true.Let us examine the following sequence of statements:

(a) 𝑆𝐴 → 𝑆𝐷 (𝑆𝐴,∴ 𝑆𝐷) from (3)(b) 𝑆𝐴 →∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐶∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷 from (4)(c) ∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐶∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷 →∼ 𝑆𝐷 conjunctive simplificant(d) 𝑆𝐴 →∼ 𝑆𝐷 hypothetical syllogism from (b), (c)(e) ∼ 𝑆𝐷 →∼ 𝑆𝐴 modus tollens from (a)(f) 𝑆𝐴 →∼ 𝑆𝐴 hypothetical syllogism from (d), (e)

Notice that (a) and (b) are premises, (c) - (e) were obtained fromprevious ones.We call a sequence of this type a proof sequence, with the last entrycalled a theorem.

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A Problem (cont.)

The sequence (a) – (f) can be seen as special valid argument form, inwhich the truth of the first two statements will ensure the truth of therest of them.

We conclude that 𝑆𝐴 →∼ 𝑆𝐴 is true, hence 𝑆𝐴 must be flase from therule of contradiction: if 𝑆𝐴 were true, then ∼ 𝑆𝐴 would be true, implying𝑆𝐴 is false: contradiction.

From the definition of 𝑆𝐶 we see that ∼ 𝑆𝐴 → 𝑆𝐶

From modus ponens ∼ 𝑆𝐴 → 𝑆𝐶 ,∼ 𝑆𝐴,∴ 𝑆𝐶 we conclude 𝑆𝐶 is true.

Since (1) gives 𝑆𝐶 →∼ 𝑆𝐴∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷 we obtain by using conjuctivesimplification(𝑆𝐶 →∼ 𝑆𝐴∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷,∼ 𝑆𝐴∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐵∧ ∼ 𝑆𝐷 →∼ 𝑆𝐷,∴ 𝑆𝐶 →∼ 𝑆𝐷)that is 𝑆𝐶 → 𝑆𝐷

Finally, from modus ponens (𝑆𝐶 →∼ 𝑆𝐷, 𝑆𝐶 ,∴∼ 𝑆𝐷) we conclude ∼ 𝑆𝐷

is true, that is C killed E.

Verbal arguments in this case are more concise. Can you find them?

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