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Contents
introduction ............................................................................................................ iii
Section 1: General information .............................................................................1
1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents..............................................................................3
1.2 Conversions.......................................................................................................................... .4
1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature ..........................................................................................................13
Axes of an Airplane.........................................................................................................13
Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight..............................................................................13
Types of Aircraft Structure ..............................................................................................14
Truss .........................................................................................................................14
Monocoque ...............................................................................................................14
Semimonocoque ........................................................................................................15
1.4 ATA-100 System of Identification......................................................................................... .16
1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification.............................................................................................21
1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations......................................................................... .24
1.7 Standard Taxi Signals...........................................................................................................27
1.8 Cylinder Color Code Identifiers ............................................................................................ 28
Section 2: Physical and Chemical .......................................................................29
Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................................................. 30
2 .1 Temperature Conversion ......................................................................................................... ..31
Absolute Temperature .................................................................................................. 36
2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere ..................................................................................................... ...37
2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the
Chemical Elements .........................................................................................................38
2 . 4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids ............................................................................. ..41
Density of Various Gases ........................................................................................ ..41
2.5 Hydraulic Relationships.......................................................................................................... ..42
2 . 6 Quantity of Liquid in a Drum................................................................................................. ..44
Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon Drum ..........................................................44
S e c t i o n 3 : M a t h e m a t i c s 4 5
3 .1 Measurement Systems 47 The International System of Units (SI) 47 The Metric System 48 U.S. - Metric Conversion 48
Length 48 Weight 48 Volume 49
3 . 2 Mathematical Constants 50
3 . 3 Mathematical Symbols 51
3 . 4 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers 52
3 . 5 Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle 55
3 . 6 Geometric Formulas 58
Triangle 58 Square 58 Rectangle 58 Parallelogram 58 Trapezoid 58 Regular Pentagon 59 Regular Hexagon 59 Regular Octagon 59 Circle 59 Ellipse 59 Sphere 60 Cube 60 Rectangular Solid 60 Cone 60 Cylinder 60
3 . 7 Trigonometric Functions 61
3 . 8 Powers of Ten 65
3 . 9 Number Systems 68 Binary Equivalent of Decimal 68 Octal Equivalent of Decimal 68 Binary Equivalent of Octal 68 Hexadecimal Number System 68 Binary Coded Decimal Equivalent of Decimal 69 The Gray Code 69 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) ... 69 Special Control Functions Used in ASCII: 71
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S e c t i o n 4 : A i r c r a f t D r a w i n g s 7 3
4 . 1 Types of Aircraft Drawings 75
Sketches 75 Detail Drawings 75 Assembly Drawings 75 Installation Drawings 75 Sectional Drawings 75 Cutaway Drawing 75 Exploded-View Drawing 75 Schematic Diagram 76 Block Diagram 76 Repair Drawings 76 Wiring Diagrams 76 Pictorial Diagrams 76 Orthographic Projections 76
4 . 2 Meaning of Lines 77
4 . 3 Material Symbols 78
4 . 4 Location Identification 79
Fuselage Stations 79 Water Lines 79 Butt Lines 79 Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations 79
S e c t i o n 5 : A i r c r a f t E l e c t r i c a l S y s t e m s 8 1
5 .1 Electrical Symbols 83
5 . 2 Alternating Current Terms and Values 91
5 . 3 Ohm's Law Relationships 92
5.4 Electrical Formulas 94
Formulas Involving Resistance 94 Formulas Involving Capacitance 95 Formulas Involving Inductance 97 Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance 100
Resonant Frequency 100 Total Reactance 100 Impedance 100
5 . 5 Electrical System Installation 101 Selection of Wire Size 101 Notes on Wire Installation 106 Switch Derating Factors 108 Wire and Circuit Protectors 109 MS Electrical Connectors 110 Resistor Color Code 114 Aircraft Storage Batteries 116
Lead-Acid Batteries 116 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 117
S e c t i o n 6 : A i r c r a f t M a t e r i a l s 1 1 9
6 .1 Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys 121
6 . 2 Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought Aluminum Alloys 122
6 . 3 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys 123
6 . 4 Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys 124 Heat-Treatable Alloys 124
Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys 124
6 . 5 Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys 125
6 . 6 Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet 126
6 . 7 Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets 127 Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets ... 127 Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets .. 127
6 . 8 SAE Classification of Steel 128
6 . 9 Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness 129
6 . 1 0 Color of Steel for Various Temperatures 130
6 . 1 1 Color of Oxides on Steel at Various Tempering Temperatures 131
S e c t i o n 7 : T o o l s f o r A i r c r a f t M a i n t e n a n c e 1 3 3
7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools 135 Steel Rule 135 Hook Rule 135 Combination Set 135 Vernier Calipers 136 Dividers 136 Outside Calipers 136 Inside Calipers 136 Hermaphrodite Calipers 136 Scriber 136
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How to Read the Vernier Scale 137 Micrometer Caliper 138 Dial Indicator 140 Feeler Gages 140 Small-Hole Gages 140 Telescoping Gages 140
7 . 2 Holding Tools 141 Vises 141
Bench Vise 141 Drill Press Vise 141
Pliers 141 Combination/Slip Joint Pliers 141 Water Pump Pliers 142 Vise-Grip® Pliers 142 Needle-Nose Pliers 142
7.3 Safety Wiring Tools 143 Diagonal Cutting Pliers 143 Duckbill Pliers 143 Safety Wire Twisting Tool 143
7 . 4 Bending and Forming Tools 144 Tools for Making Straight Bends and Curves 144
Cornice Brake 144 Box Brake 144 Press Brake 144 Slip Roll Former 145
Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal 145 English Wheel 145
7 . 5 Cutting Tools 145 Shears 145
Throatless Shears 145 Squaring Shears 146 Scroll Shears 146
Hand Shears 146 Tin Snips 146 Compound Shears 147
Saws 147 Band Saw 147 Hacksaw 148
Wood Saws 148 Crosscut Saw 148 Ripsaw 148 Compass, or Keyhole Saw 148 Backsaw 149
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Chisels 149 Flat Chisel 149 Cape Chisel 149 Diamond Point Chisel 149 Round Nose Chisel 149
Files 150
7 . 6 Hole Cutting Tools 151 Twist Drills 151 Twist Drill Sizes 151 Drill Gage 154 Twist Drill Sharpening 154
Drill Point Gage 155 Large Hole Cutters 156
Hole Saws 156 Fly Cutter 156
Countersink 156 Reamers 157 Drills for Wood and Composite Materials 157
Auger Bits 157 Forstner Bits 158 Flat Wood-Boring Bits 158 Brad-Point Drills 158 Spade Drill 158
7 . 7 Threads and Threading Tools 159 Unified and American Standard Thread Form 159 Thread-Cutting Tools 159 Body and Tap Drill Sizes 160 Taps 160 Screw Pitch Gage 161
7 . 8 Torque and Torque Wrenches 162 Click-Type Torque Wrench 162 Deflecting-Beam Torque Wrench 162 Torque Conversions 164 Recommended Torque Values 164
7 .9 Pounding Tools 166 Carpenter's Claw Hammer 166 Ball Peen Hammer 166 Metalworking Hammers 166
Straight Peen and Cross Peen Hammers 166 Body, or Planishing Hammer 166 Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers 167 Sledge Hammers 167
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7 . 1 0 Punches.................................................................................................................................167
Prick Punch..................................................................................................................167
Center Punch .............................................................................................................. 167
Drift, or Starting Punch................................................................................................ 167
Pin Punch ................................................................................................................... 168
Transfer Punch.............................................................................................................168
Automatic Center Punch ..............................................................................................168
7 . 1 1 Wrenches .......................................................................................................................... 169
Open End Wrench .......................................................................................................169
Adjustable Open End Wrench ................................................................................169
Ratcheting Open End Wrench................................................................................169
Box End Wrench..........................................................................................................170
Ratcheting Box Wrench ......................................................................................... 170
Combination Wrench................................................................................................... 170
Flare Nut Wrench ........................................................................................................ 170
Socket Wrenches ........................................................................................................ 171
Socket Wrench Handles......................................................................................... 171
Hand Impact Tool .................................................................................................. 171
Typical Socket Wrenches....................................................................................... 172
Extension and Adapters......................................................................................... 172
Allen Wrenches ........................................................................................................... 172
7 . 1 2 Screwdrivers ....................................................................................................................... .173
Slot Screwdrivers ........................................................................................................ 173
Offset Screwdriver....................................................................................................... 173
Recessed-Head Screwdrivers .....................................................................................173
Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws.................................................................174
S e c t i o n 8 : A i r c r a f t H a r d w a r e ...................................................................................... ..1 7 5
8 . 1 Standards.............................................................................................................................177
8 . 2 Threaded Fasteners .............................................................................................................177
Bolts ............................................................................................................ .......................177
Hex-Head Bolts...................................................................................................... 178
Flush-Head Bolts ................................................................................................... 179
Drilled-Head Bolts.................................................................................................. 179
Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts ......................................................................... 179
Internal Wrenching Bolts ....................................................................................... 179
Clevis Bolts ............................................................................................................ 180
Eye Bolts ............................................................................................................... 180
B o l t Installation......................................................................................................... 180
Bolt Fits....................................................................................................................... 181
Screws 181 Aircraft Screw Heads 182 Set Screws 183 Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal Screws 183
Nuts 184 Nonlocking Nuts 184 Self-Locking Nuts 185
Low-temperature locking nuts 185 High-temperature locking nuts 186
Wing Nuts 186 Anchor Nuts 186 Channel Nuts 187 Pressed-Steel Nuts 187 Instrument Nuts 188 Rivnuts 188
Threaded Fastener Safetying 189 Locking Washers 189 Cotter Pins 189 Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting 190
8 .3 Washers 193
8.4 Special Rivets 195 Blind Rivets 195
Friction-Lock Rivets 196 Mechanical-Lock Rivets 197 CherryMax Rivets, Olympic-Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets 198
High-Strength Pin Rivets 198 Hi-Shear Rivet 198 Hi-Lok Fasteners 200 Hi-Tigue Fasteners 201
8 . 5 Cowling Fasteners 202
8 . 6 Thread Repair Hardware 203 Helicoil Insert 203 Acres Sleeves 204
S e c t i o n 9 : M e t a l A i r c r a f t F a b r i c a t i o n 2 0 5
9 .1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming 207 Definitions 207 Layout Procedure 208
Example 208 Forming 210
9 . 2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in Aluminum Alloys 211
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S e c t i o n 1 2 : N o n d e s t r u c t i v e I n s p e c t i o n .................................................2 4 5
1 2 . 1 Visual Inspection............................................................................................................... ..247
NDI.............................................................................................................................. .247
Visual Inspection ..........................................................................................................247
Surface Visual Inspection ...................................................................................... ..247
Internal Visual Inspection ........................................................................................247
1 2 . 2 Tap Test............................................................................................................................ ..248
1 2 . 3 Penetrant Inspection........................................................................................................ ...249
1 2 . 4 Magnetic Particle Inspection ............................................................................................ ...250
1 2 . 5 Eddy Current Inspection ......................................................................................................251
How it works ............................................................................................................... .25 1
What it is suited for........................................................................................................252
Method ...................................................................................................................... ...252
Detection of corrosion...................................................................................................252
1 2 . 6 Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................253
1 2 . 7 Radiography. ..................................................................................................................... ..253
X-Rays..........................................................................................................................253
Gamma Rays ...............................................................................................................254
Inspection—Steps .........................................................................................................254
Considerations .............................................................................................................255
Safety ..........................................................................................................................255
S e c t i o n 1 3 : A i r c r a f t C o n t ro l S y s t e m s ....................................................2 5 7
1 3 . 1 Types of Control Systems....................................................................................................259
Torque Tubes.............................................................................................................. 259
Push-Pull Rods.......................................................................................................... ..259
1 3 . 2 Control Cables.....................................................................................................................260
1 3 . 3 Control Cable Terminals ......................................................................................................261
1 3 . 4 Turnbuckles ..................................................................................................................... ....262
Turnbuckle Safetying ................................................................................................. ..262
Clip-Locking Turnbuckles .......................................................................................... ..263
1 3 . 5 Control Cable Tension ..................................................................................................... ....264
S e c t i o n 1 4 : A i r c r a f t F l u i d L i n e s ................................................................2 6 7
1 4 . 1 Rigid Fluid Lines............................................................................................................... ..269
Materials recommended for rigid fluid lines.................................................................269
1 4 . 2 Flexible Fluid Lines .............................................................................................................271
Types of Flexible Fluid Lines.......................................................................................271
14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose 273
14.4 Fluid Line Identification 274
S e c t i o n 1 5 : O x y g e n S y s t e m S e r v i c i n g 2 7 7
15.1 Oxygen System Servicing 279 Filling Pressure for 1,850 PSI Oxygen Cylinders 279
S e c t i o n 1 6 : A i r c r a f t W e i g h t a n d B a l a n c e 2 8 1
16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity 283
16.2 Datum Forward of the A i rp lane—Nose Wheel Landing Gear 284
16.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Nose Wheel Landing Gear 285
16.4 Datum Forward of the Main W h e e l s — T a i l Wheel Landing Gear... 286
1 6 . 5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — T a i l Wheel Landing Gear 287
16.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord .... 288
S e c t i o n 1 7 : C o m p o s i t e s 2 9 1
1 7 . 1 Resin Sys tems—Typ ica l Properties 293
1 7 . 2 Resin Mix Ratios 294
1 7 . 3 Fiber/Resin Ratio Formulas 295
1 7 . 4 Reinforcing Fibers 296
1 7 . 5 Textile and Fiber Terminology 297
1 7 . 6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems 298
1 7 . 7 Fabric Weave Styles 299
1 7 . 8 Common Weave Style Numbers and Features 301
1 7 . 9 Ply Orientation Conventions 302
1 7 . 1 0 Damage Removal—Scar f ing and Stepping 302
1 7 . 1 1 Core Materials 304
1 7 . 1 2 Bleeder Schedules 305
A p p e n d i c e s 3 0 7
1: Hydraulic Fittings 309
2: Engines 313
3: Aircraft Lead Acid Battery Theory 315
4: Aircraft Tires 335
I n d e x 3 4 7
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