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Giant timber bamboo. Latiflorus is very hardy and easy to grow; a preferred bamboo plantation species with delicious shoots and large, strong smooth timber. Very large leaves and classic form make it also highly ornamental. Our most vigorous growing bamboo; it handles strong wind and frost, and is suited to a range of sites with enough room for a plant that grows to 26 metres.
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CHAPTER 1
1.0 Silviculture
1.0.1 General Botany
1.0.1.1 A superior bamboo for planting on rocky
mountains
Regnum: PlantaeCladus: AngiospermaeCladus: MonocotsCladus: CommelinidsOrdo: PoalesFamilia: PoaceaeSubfamilia: BambusoideaeTribus: BambuseaeGenus: DendrocalamusSpecies: Dendrocalamus latiflorus
Giant timber bamboo. Latiflorus is very hardy and
easy to grow; a preferred bamboo plantation species with delicious
shoots and large, strong smooth timber. Very large leaves and
classic form make it also highly ornamental. Our most vigorous
growing bamboo; it handles strong wind and frost, and is suited to a
range of sites with enough room for a plant that grows to 26 metres.
This giant bamboo is native to southern China. Its
dark green leaves can grow almost a foot and a half long and 3 to 4
inches wide. Bamboo is a common term for a large number of giant
grasses that include many different species and varieties.
There are two main types of bamboo. Runner types
send out underground stems to varying distances and send up
vertical shoots. These will grow in large thickets or groves if left
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alone. Runners are mainly found in temperate regions. Clump
bamboos have underground stems that sprout vertical shoots much
closer to their parent plants growing slowly outward. Clumpers tend
to be tropical or subtropical. Bamboo has many uses worldwide
from building materials to paper.
Dendrocalamus latiflorus has wide range uses. It can
be used as construction materials and woven into various
production tools and living utensils, it is also provides materials for
paper – making and plastic industries.
The shoot of Dendrocalamus latiflorus not only is full
of nutrient, but also can prevent such disease as hypertension. It is
suitable to be planted in the area with higher temperature and
concentrated rain fall of nutrient, but also can prevent such disease
as hypertension.
It is suitable to be planted in the area with higher
temperature and concentrated rain fall in summer. It grows rapidly
in stone holes and on slopes and at foot of hills, therefore is a
superior species for afforestation on rocky mountains and has the
function of fixing soils.
The suitable season for Dendrocalamus latiflorus to
groe seedlings falls in mid Feb to late March when the highest
survival rate can be obtained. One – year – old and one and half –
year – old bamboos should be selected as mother bamboo for
seedlings growing and buried with stock. Bamboo culms as well as
shoots can be harvested after 4- 5 years.
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1.0.2 Taiwanese Giant Bamboo
Common name: Taiwan giant bamboo, Mabamboo
This is a medium-sized bamboo; 14–25 m tall, internodes 20–70 cm,
8–20 cm diameter.
Thick walls, leaf 15–40 x 2.5–7.5 cm, Internodes 20–70 cm long,
wall thickness 0.5–3.0cm,
Inflorescence 80 cm long with many spikelets, Caryopsis 0.6 – 1.2
cm cylindrical to avoid.
Vegetative propagation – Culm cutting, layering, marcotting.
DISTRIBUTION: Distributed wild in Myanmar and parts of
neighboring countries,
Cultivated in South and South West China, Taiwan; it has been
introduced to the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, India, Vietnam,
Japan and Meimung in China.
CLIMATE AND SOILS: Mostly subtropical, up to 1000 m, frost
resistant, tolerates – 4°C. It grows on rich soils in the humid tropics,
with high rain fall.
CURRENT RESEARCH: Work is underway on improvement for
shoot production, Germplasm collections in Yunnan, China,
including Taiwan. Cyctology 2n=72.
UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: It can be more widely cultivated on sandy
loam soils.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Limited work done, good collection in
Xishuangbanna area. Both wild and cultivated, two cultivars
recognized
USES: Structural timber, medium quality, commercially valuable
species, shoots are
Sweet, edible, very good quality. Other uses include production of
quality furniture, chopsticks, crafts, basketry, and construction,
paper pulp, thatching and ornamental. Leaves
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Used for cooking rice. Cultivars Meimung provides strong structural
timber, suitable for good quality furniture and superior edible shoots.
Taiwan giant bamboo ( Dendrocalamus latiflorus ) is the most
important commercial and native bamboo species in Mainland China. The
vertical distribution of Taiwan giant bamboo is from sea level up to 1000
meters. The main use of these bamboo species are shoot production and
culms utilization. The properties of the culms are determined by its unique
anatomical structure in the vertical and horizontal direction of culms wall,
such length, diameter, thickness and their distribution of vascular bundle
and fiber.
The Taiwan giant bamboo is used in bamboo raft, provincial
furniture, tools for farm, fishing or pasturage and handicraft articles. The
residual materials of these bamboo culms were generally used for
religious paper making.
This giant bamboo is native to southern China. Its dark green
leaves can grow almost a foot and a half long and 3 to 4 inches wide Light
culms have dark green stripes. Latiflorus is very hardy and easy to grow; a
preferred bamboo plantation species with delicious shoots and large,
strong smooth timber.
Very large leaves and classic form make it also highly ornamental.
Our most vigorous growing bamboo; it handles strong wind and frost, and
is suited to a range of sites with enough room for a plant that grows to 26
meters.
Sympodial bamboos have higher demands for temperature and
humidity, and in China they are mainly distributed to the south of the
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Nanling Mountains and in the Sichuan basin. Different species have
different requirements for humidity and temperature. For example
Dendrocalamus latiflorus require annual average temperatures of 18-
20°C, average January temperatures of about 6-8°C and annual
precipitation of more than 1400 mm.
The plantation should be located on foothills and river banks under
200-300 meters above sea level. A relatively level site is required with
deep, loose, fertile sandy loam. Dry and barren, rocky or very clayey soil is
not suitable for sympodial bamboos.
1.0.2.1 Distribution of Dendrocalamus latiflorus
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CHAPTER 2
2.0 Anatomical Characteristic
Taiwan Giant Bamboo is the typically economical bamboo species of
pachymorph and leptomorph type rhizomes in Taiwan. The numbers of vascular
bundle per square mm decreases from the outer part to the inner part of culm
wall and maintain one to two bundles after 4 to 5 mm from the outer part. The
largest vessel diameter of Taiwan Giant Bamboo occurs in the 10th internode and
the top of culm respectively.
The shortest fiber length in the cross section is in the epidermal zone,
while in the longitudinal direction the smallest value is found between the 10 th
and 18th internode. Within one internode, the shortest one shows in the node and
longest is in the middle part of the internode. The highest percentage of fiber
displays in the outmost part of the culm and the lowest is near the innermost.
The sample culms were collected from the Experimental Forest of
National Taiwan University in central Taiwan, approx. elevation 800-1000 m.
While the age of bamboo is not related to DBH and height, the wall thickness has
significant influence on the anatomical structure. Five hundred bamboo culms of
each species were investigated to determine the mean diameter, which is 8.3
cm; one-four year old healthy bamboo was collected depending on the mean
diameter.
To studying fiber length, pieces of culm were macerated by using 1:5:4
hydrogen peroxide: acetic acid: distilled water mixture at room temperature.
Separated fibers were thoroughly mixed and stained with 5% saframin-O. Length
measurements of 50 unbroken fibers were taken from each internode. The culm
wall was microtome in transverse, tangential and radial directions in 10 to 20um
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thicknesses. The image analysis system for personal computer was used to
measure the fiber length, diameter of vessels, density of vascular bundles and
other anatomical properties.
2.1 Epidermal Tissue
The epidermal tissue is the outermost layer of cells and with some other high
molecular weight material. The main functions of the epidermis are water
retention and shielding the DNA of the cells from ultraviolet light. Cutin is
completely indigestible. No known substance can metabolize it. Thus, it provides
an excellent protection against fungi and bacteria (Mauseth, 1988).
There are two kinds of cells in the epidermis. The long shaped cells are
vertical arrangement. The diameter in radial is about 4-8 um and the length in
longitudinal of cells is 12-42 um. The short cells are interspersed among long
shaped cells. There are two kinds of short cells, the cork cells and the silica cells.
The cork cells are roughly square shaped in tangential section.
It appears triangle shaped in radial section of epidermis. The silica cells
are flat or small circle shaped in tangential view, and appear triangle shaped in
radial section. However the bottom side is on the outer wall of epidermis, just
opposite to cork cells. The silica cells contain large amounts of silicon dioxide
which serves to strengthen the epidermal layer and to prevent damage from the
environment. This layer serves the same function in bamboo that bark serves in
dicotyledons.
2.1.1 Stomata and guard cells
The stomata are distributed evenly all over the epidermis to control
inflow and outflow of water and carbon dioxide. The guard cells together
7
with the adjacent cells are distinct in size, shape or cell contents. They are
termed the subsidiary cell, and are arranged in paracytic type.
This is one of the five most common types (Mausethm 1988). The
guard cells and subsidiary cells are arranged vertically parallel to the
epidermis. Therefore the epidermis of the bamboo culm is also arranged
vertical.
The stomatal cavity on the epidermis of one year old Taiwan giant
bamboo is formed by the build up of wax. The structure of stomatal cavity
can reduce moisture losses at normal air diffusion levels, because the
interior surface area of the cavity increases the surface area available for
moisture diffusion.
The stomata are found on all parts of the plant body, especially the
leaves and stems. The ad axial surfaces of leaves typically have about
100 stomata/sq.mm; in many deciduous trees the density can be ten times
as high. Very low densities occur in certain cloud forest plant.
Opening and closing of the stomata are controlled by changing the
water potential of the cells by potassium ions. The basic type of guard
cells occurring in bamboo is dumb bell shaped. The wall adjacent to the
pore is thicker than the opposite wall.
The opening of these stomata is cause by swelling of the adjacent
guard cells which arch into a crescent shape. A more recent hypothesis
has proposed that the orientation of the micro fibrils in the ventral wall,
when the dorsal wall swell outward, the micro fibrils allow it to pull ventral
wall with it to open the stoma, (Palevitz & Hepler, 1976).
8
The guard cells and pore are together called stoma, and the stoma
together with the subsidiary cells called the stomatal complex.
Transmission between these two cell types depends on the difference of
potassium ions, hydrogen ions and sugars.
1.0 Fiber
1.0.1 Length
1.0.1.1 Radial direction
The fiber length was measured at every one
millimeter from the epidermal layer to the pith peripheral layer. The
shortest fiber length occurred in the first millimeter of the outer culm
wall.
The fiber length increases toward the middle part of
the culm wall. At the distance about 5-7 mm from the epidermal
layer, the fiber length increase from 1.619 mm to between 2.028
and 2.759 mm. the fiber length decreases from the middle part to
the inner part of the culm wall.
1.0.1.2 Axial direction
The length increases from the base of the culm and
reaches maximum at the 10-14th internode and decreases to the
top of culm. The average fiber length is 2.247 mm at the base
internode and the maximum fiber length occurs at height range
3.77- 5.60 m above ground level.
9
2.2.1.3 Single internode
The fiber length at the lower node of second internode
above the ground is 1.522 mm; the upper node of the same
internode is 1.385 mm and 1.251 mm. In the middle part of
internode, the maximum fiber length reaches to 2.491 mm.
1.1 Ground Tissue
2.3.1 Cortical parenchyma
The cortical parenchyma is located between the epidermal and the
vascular bundle, tissue layer. It contacts with the culm parenchyma
without an evident boundary. The shape of the parenchyma cells change,
especially with respect to the size, from cortical to inner culm.
The cortical parenchyma cell of this bamboo appears circle shaped
in cross section. The average diameter of outer cortical parenchyma is
about 9.1 um and average diameter of inner cortical parenchyma is about
14.3 um. The rows of cortical parenchyma differ in this bamboo.
The former has 6-8 rows and the latter has 9-11 rows. Cortical
parenchyma cells are characterized by thick walls with a polylamellate
structure. There are 5-7 lamellate. The inner part of cortical parenchyma
cell wall has 7-9 lamellate, decreasing from the outer cortical parenchyma
to the inner.
The cells showed different shapes viewed from a radial section
appearing square or short rectangular. The pits of cortical parenchyma
occur both of longitudinal wall and also in the end wall. The diameter of
10
the pit aperture is about 0.4-0.6 um; sometimes the inner aperture is larger
than the outer. There is intercellular space in cortical parenchyma.
2.3.2 Culm parenchyma
The vascular bundles are scattered in this ground tissue. The total
culm comprises about half of the culm parenchyma with some variation
according to species. The culm parenchyma is small in the outer parts of
the culm wall and become large towards the pith cavity. Diameter ranges
from about 10-65 um.
The culm parenchyma cells are almost cylindrical and mostly
vertically clongated. Another type of cell is short cylindrical ones
interspersed in between. The mean cell wall thickness is 1.2 um.
The parenchyma cell in vascular bundles and ground tissue are
characterized by a polylamellate wall, which consist of alternately wide
and narrow lamellate. The number of lamellate is about 3-11 layers
(Hsieh, 1985); some of them can reach 15 lamellate (Parameswaran &
Liese 1976). The width of the wide lamellate is about 0.1-0.45 um; the
narrow ones about 0.05 – 0.25 um.
2.3.3 Parenchyma of pith periphery
There is complete pith in the early development of bamboo shoots
consisting of thin walled parenchyma. The process of cell division and
enlargement around the pith cause the cell of pith to form a cavity. The
parenchyma of pith periphery is oriented in the tangential direction.
11
The shape from culm parenchyma to pith periphery, changes
gradually; the culm parenchyma is circle shaped and the parenchyma of
pith periphery nearly rectangular in cross section.
The radial length of parenchyma in the pith periphery is 12-30 um
and longitudinal height is about 8-22 um. The wall thickness of
parenchyma in the pith periphery is about 1.5 timers greater than that
found in ground tissue culm parenchyma.
This study showed the parenchyma of pith periphery is small but
possessed a thick wall. The percentage of cell wall is higher than the
parenchyma in the culm. Therefore, the specific gravity is also higher in
this area (Wu & Hsieh, 1990)
1.2 Membrane tissue of pith cavity
There is a thin fibrous layer inside the pith cavity, located between the pith
cavity and the parenchyma cells. The membrane layer is consists of many strips
of fibrous wall overlapping each other. The function of the membrane tissue over
the parenchyma of the pith periphery is to prevent the exposure of cells like the
function of the cuticle layer and wax over the epidermis. The environment of the
pith cavity is milder than the environment of the outside surface of bamboo, so
the structure of the membrane does not demand materials such as cutin and
wax.
2.5 The Thickness of the Culm Wall
2.5.1 Whole culm wall
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The average thickness values of the culm wall at the seconds
internode above the ground was 14.0 millimeters; the thickness
decreasing from the base to the top of the culm. In the 22th internode, the
figures were 3.8 mm. The average culm diameter of Taiwan giant bamboo
is smaller but larger for the culm wall thickness in the base of culm.
2.5.2 Epidermal layer
The epidermal layer of bamboo culms is called “Bamboo green”, it
mean the green part of bamboo at the outer part of culm wall which does
not contain the vascular bundle layer. The thickness of this layer is 38um.
The thickness decreases to 53um at the 22th internode and the trend
continues to the top of the culm wall. The ratios of decrease are 36.14%
and 42.25% at the 22th internode.
2.5.3 Parenchyma of Pith Periphery
The thickness of parenchyma of pith periphery at the inner part of
culm wall is called “Bamboo yellow”, it mean the yellow part of bamboo
culm without vascular bundle layer. The average thickness of this layer is
314um at the middle part of the second internode above the ground.
It decreases to 188um for the former and 505um for the latter at
the top part. The percentages of the epidermal layers and the pith
peripheral layers to the whole culm thickness increase from the base to
the top of the culm and the latter is significantly greater than the former,
irrespective of the epidermal layers or the pith peripheral layer.
2.6 Vascular Bundles
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2.6.1 The tangential length
The vascular bundles occur inside the cortical layers. The
tangential length is small near the outer part of the culm wall and
increases toward the inner part of the culm wall and reaches maximum
length at the inner most part of the vascular bundles layer. The size of
vascular bundles is greater at each internode, and its about two to three
fold at the inner most part of the vascular bundle layer.
The average tangential lengths of one to four year old is 547.340.6
um, 536.260.6 um, 509.943.2 um and 438.796.4 um. The average
tangential length is 517.3 um. The variation along the longitudinal direction
of the culm was increase from the base to the 6th internode and then
decreases to the top of the culm.
2.6.2 Density
The density is the number of vascular bundle occurring in one mm
unit area, and varied from the epidermal layer toward the pith peripheral
layer. At the first millimeter inside the epidermal layer, there are
significantly high densities of vascular bundles with 8-10.
The density decreases rapidly at the second millimeter, 2.5-3.5.
The size of vascular bundles at the second millimeter is larger than the
first millimeter and the rest can be deduced accordingly. From the middle
part of culm wall of the second internode above the ground, the number of
vascular bundles decreases to about 1-2 toward the inner part of the culm.
According to the average density of each height internode, one or two
vascular bundles occur at distance about 5mm from the epidermal layer.
14
2.6.3 Diameter of vessels
2.6.3.1 Radial direction
The average diameters of 6th, 14th and 22nd internodes
are 18.8 um, 15.0 um and 15.2 um respectively at the outer part.
The average diameter increases to 164.6 um, 151.4 um and 132.0
um at the middle part of the culm wall and increases further to
205.0 um, 202.4 um and 176.4 um at the inner part of the culm
wall.
2.6.3.2 Axial direction
Along the culm axis, the largest average diameter of
vessels is 124 um at the 6th internode above the ground. The
average diameter decreases from 6th internode to the top of the
culm.
2.7 Wax and Cutin
The main functions of the epidermis of the culm are water retention and
protection. Therefore, the epidermis of the culm must have water proof walls.
Bamboo achieves this effect by depositing a layer of the hydrophobic
material cutin on the outer epidermal wall. The mixture of cutin plus epidermis
wall material is called the cuticular layer. It is distributed evenly between
epidermis and waxy layer.
15
The cutin is a complex, high molecular weight lipid polyester that results
from the polymerization of certain fatty acids. The cutin can be separated into
three classed based on the nature of the fatty acids monomers in the angiosperm
(Holloway, 1982):
cutins that contain mostly fatty acid that are 16 carbons long;
cutins with mostly 18 carbons long fatty acids; and
cutin that contains more or less equal amounts of both type of fatty acids.
The cutins of the gymnosperms and the cryptogams seem to lack the 16
carbon long monomer.
The pure cutin on the outer epidermal wall is known as the cuticle proper.
It is sometimes separated from the fibril material of the epidermal wall by a larger
of pectin (Mauseth, 1988). The cuticular layer tends to have a fibrillar
proganization, due at least in part to the presence of cellulose fibrils. The cuticle
proper may be homogeneous and amorphous, lamellate or reticulate (Mauseth,
1988).
The thickness of the cuticular layer may be affected by the habitat. The
cuticular layer is usually thin but can be as much as 0.5um thick in xerophytes.
The cuticle proper can frequently be 5 um or more in thickness.
Wax is a universal adjunct to the outer wall of the epidermal wall. Wax is
not a specific compound but rather an extremely heterogeneous polymer that
results from the interaction of very long-chain fatty acid (up to 34 carbons),
aliphatic alcohols, alkaline in the presence of oxygen. There are two kinds of
wax:
epicuticular wax cover on the surface of the cuticle proper, and
intercuticular wax, which occurs as particles within the cutin matrix.
16
The intracuticular waxes are mostly composed of short chain (18 carbon)
monomers, rather than long chain monomers.
The scanning electron microscope was used in this study to investigate
the epcuticular wax on the epidermal wall. The wax on the epidermal wall
polymerizes into plates, rods, granules, or other forms. The irregular
arrangement of rods and platelets makes them effective sunscreens, most light
striking their surfaces will be reffected away from the tissues. The wax of Taiwan
giant bamboo formed stomatal cavity around the stoma, and the waxy layer over
laps irregularly all over the outer epidermal wall except the stomatal pore.
CHAPTER 3
3.0 Fertilizer
Based on earlier research (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2002) and the
response curves of percentage leaf nitrogen (% leaf N) to N application rate,
fertilizer N was added to ensure that % leaf N was maintained at close to 3%.
Application of fertilizer at these and even higher rates invariably allowed
clumps to achieve high shoot yields, consistently hastening not only the onset of
shoot production, but also the rate of emergence and number of shoots. Even
organic fertilizer showed a small, but consistently positive response.
In Australia, withholding N fertilizer led to significantly lower % leaf N than
in fertilized treatments, the latter receiving an average 700 kg N/year. Leaf N
17
declined during the shoot season, perhaps due to a within-clump dilution effect
with the rapid growth of new culms and leaves during that period.
Withholding N fertilizer also led to smaller (and unmarketable) shoots (in
Queensland), but (in NT) shoot size was not affected when N application was
reduced to one-quarter of the calculated rate, but shoot number and yield
decreased.
In the Philippines, without irrigation (in Bukidnon), withholding N fertilizer
had a depressive effect on shoot production, both number and size, but the
magnitude varied between years. Without fertilizer, shoot numbers were reduced
(in Ilocos Norte), and (in Capiz) shoot emergence and yield were reduced by lack
of N fertilizer, but mortality was significantly lower than in other treatments.
Quite clearly, the rates of N required to maintain % leaf N at c. 3% are
uneconomic for shoot production; a lower leaf N concentration is called for,
specific to species and grower expectation, although even so it is unlikely that in
the Philippines copious amounts of fertilizer will be applied simply for shoot
production.
18
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Introduction of Bamboo Shoots
Bamboo shoots are a traditional vegetable for many people, especially for
oriental peoples, and bamboo shoots are becoming more and more popular.
However, the availability of fresh edible bamboo shoots is very limited for much
of the year and in many places of the world generally lasts for only one to four
months.
In many parts of the world bamboos are not grown for shoots due to
unsuitable socio-economic and ecological environments For example, Australia
has approximately 1.5 million people, or 8% of the population, from an ethnic
Asian background. Until recently it was not realized that Australia is now 19
consuming somewhere between 4, 000 and 12, 000 tones of imported canned
bamboo shoots each year. The demand for shoots is even larger in the USA and
some other countries.
4.0.1 Preliminary study on seed selection for shoot stands
The study of excellent seed selection for shoot stand by
introduction of hybrid, tissue culture and cottage is carried out. Result
shows that the better hybrid seed of Dendrocalamus latiflorus has
changed. Tissue culture for Dendrocalamus latiflorus seedling has been
done. There is remarkable difference for individual growth.The no 17 clone
is propagation is the fastest, with and induced growth rate of 50%. The
cottage by secondary branches with artificially promoted sprouts is also
done. The survival rate is 60%.
In China Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot is a kind of high cellulose
and nourishing food, which contains sugar, protein, fat, phosphorus,
calcium and iron etc. its characteristic are long bamboo shoot period, high
– yield and delicious taste. The shoot can be eaten freshly or processed
into tinned food as well as pressed into dried shoot. Both products of the
bamboo shoot sells on domestic or foreign markets, which are the goods
in great demand on international markets at present. Bamboo culm of
Dendrocalamus latiflorus can be employed in construction.
The bamboo leaves are large and can be used to make hat, mat
roof of boat and packing materials, the sheaths of shoot can be used to
make shoes. The distribution of Dendrocalamus latiflorus, its biological
characteristic, staple species and the technical gists of bamboo cultivation,
bamboo shoot digging, regeneration and way of utilization are introduced
in this article. It is pointed out in the article.
20
It is pointed out in the article that the output of Dendrocalamus
latiflorus has been decreasing year after year and cannot meet the needs
of market at present, because Dendrocalamus latiflorusresources in China
is not cleared up, the management of bamboo forest is extensive and the
economic benefit is sought lopsidedly in bamboo shoot digging. The
above problems must be solved.
4.0.2 Shoot stand and plant sodology
There are 7000 mu of Dendrocalamus latiflorus in Yongchun
Country, but most of them are for shoot production and other are for
timber. Good management method are outlined both for shoot and wood
production. These include cultivation technique, young bamboo selection,
digging, transplanting methods, afforestation density, srand structure
( stand organization, density of stocking, thickness of stock, age, leaf area
index and distribution stock), tending management (fertilizer timely,
digging shoots and retaining bamboos, rrational cutting and insect
control).
4.1 Irrigation and Rainfall
Supply of water to bamboo just before and during the shoot season has
been recognized as an enhancing factor for the onset and continued production
of shoots from running (monopodial) species of bamboo (Kleinhenz et al. 2003),
and data from the currently reported experiments confirm this for clumping
(sympodial) bamboo species.
In the Philippines, irrigation increased the number of emerged shoots, with
the effect being greatest if combined with fertilizer application. In the Australian,
21
withholding irrigation was confounded by a complete absence of clump
management, the combined effect of which was to significantly reduce the
number and size of shoots that emerged.
However, the major irrigation factor under investigation in Australia was
that of testing the need for irrigation during the dry, winter season. In Australia,
the water-use efficiency of shoot production was raised by 28% by omitting
irrigation during winter, and in the Northern Territory (NT; the other Australian
project site) year-round irrigation was also shown not to be important for shoot
production, provided it was supplied just before the anticipated shoot season—a
‘date’ characteristic to each species for reasons that remain a mystery.
At one of the sites in the Australia, the number of shoots was even greater
in the treatment without winter irrigation than in the treatment supplied with
irrigation throughout the year.
Although irrigation rates were planned to supply water equivalent to that
used through pan evaporation, drought in Australia and in Philippines, together
with logistical difficulties at the latter site, reduced the quantities of water
supplied. In the Australia, irrigation was likewise supplied at a rate calculated to
supply that equivalent to pan evaporation which, in hindsight, may have been
less than optimal for bamboo.
At one site, in Philippines, where rainfall normally exceeds 100 mm per
month, no irrigation treatment was imposed. In 2 of the 5 years, monthly rainfall
did drop below 100 mm, but the time of shoot emergence was not markedly
affected. Shoots began to emerge annually in June in Philippines, at least 2
months after the driest months of the year.
4.2 Management of a Bamboo Plantation for Shoots
22
4.2.1 Intercropping
It has been shown that inter-cropping in newly established bamboo
stands increases productivity and economic returns from the land. The
crops suitable for intercropping in bamboo stands will depend upon local
conditions and may involve beans, watermelon, maize, cassava and green
manure crops.
Crops that are heavy feeders, such as buckwheat and sesame
seed, are not recommended. Crops should not be planted too close to the
bamboo plants otherwise their growth may be disturbed, with taller crops
planted about 1 meter away. Inter-cropping with sun-loving plants will not
be possible when the stand canopy is closed about 1 to 2 years after
planting.
4.2.2 Weeding and soil-loosening
Weeds should be controlled effectively to avoid their competition
with bamboos for soil moisture and nutrients. In young stands without
intercropping, weeding is done in June or July and repeated in August or
September of each year.
Weed control in mature stands may be achieved in a single
operation in July or August. Soil-loosening in bamboo plantations is
important, as maintaining a good soil structure in the stand will help the
growth of shoots and the root system, as well as improve water
23
conservation. Soil loosening is done once or twice a year from November
to February and involves surface tilling to a depth of 15 to 20 cm.
4.2.3 Fertilizing and earthing up
The result of soil chemical analysis shows that bamboo plants will
consume 500-700g N, 100-150 g P and 200-250 g K from the soil per 100
kg of bamboo shoots produced. Accordingly, the nutrient requirements of
plantations yielding 15, 000 kg fresh shoots per hectare per annum can be
met by applying 75-105 kg N, 15-22.5 kg P and 30-37.5 kg K per hectare
each year. Chemical fertilizers are usually applied two to four times during
the shooting stage at intervals of one or two months. It is applied in 10-15
cm deep drills that are prepared about 50-60 cm around the clump.
Alternatively, 37, 500 kg organic fertilizers such as barnyard
manure or bean cake and rape cake can be used. Application in the drill is
best done in combination with soil loosening in the winter months. When
green manure is employed as fertilizer, it can be applied at 75 tones per
hectare, and can also serve as a protective layer to reduce evaporative
moisture loss.
The edible parts of newly germinated bamboo shoots are very
tender and delicate with light yellowish sheaths, but they turn tough with
green sheaths after they emerge from the soil. This procedure can be
delayed, thus improving the quality of edible part, by earthing up the base
of the clump to a depth of 20-30 cm at the beginning of shooting. In order
to stimulate development of shoot buds, the soil cover should be removed
to expose the bud to high temperature and light in next March or early
April.
24
4.2.3.1 A study on the wilt disease of Dendrocalamus latiflorus :Identification of the pathogen , bionomics & control
The wilt disease of Dendrocalamus latiflorus is a new
disease recorded in Nanping, Fujian. The symptoms of disease,
identification, inoculation, biological characteristics of the causal
organism, bionomics and control method of the wilt disease have
been well studied. The causal organism of wilt disease ( fusarium
semitectum) formed white coloured colonies on PSA medium.
After incubation of 7 – 10 days at 25 degrees
centigrade, a great amount of macroconidia was produced and no
ascus was formed after 20 days. The conidia and asci are
produced under natural condition. The sexual phase belongs to the
Nectria ditissima of the Ascomycotina.
The optimum temperature for mycelia growth is
between 23 – 35 degrees centigrade and optimum Ph is between 5
– 6. The high relative humidity is necessary for the germination of
conidia. The results of experiments have shown that the pathogen
of wilt disease was overwintering in soil, and disseminated by winds
and rains to infect the wounded stems of D. latiflorus.
The primary infection occurred from the first ten days
of March, the peak infection and step infection occurred from the
second ten days of April and the last ten days of May respectively.
The cold injury was an important factor to induce infection. The field
efficacy test indicated that selection of plantation land and of cold
25
resistant species had a satisfactory effect in the control of the wilt
disease od D. latiflorus.
4.2.4 Shoot harvesting and culm retaining
Dendrocalamus latiflorus produce shoots from May to October with
most production in July to August. Edible shoots should be harvested
before they become tough. Any delay will result in loss of quality and
quantity. Generally, the initial shoots and most of those produced in the
summer are harvested, but those produced towards the end of the
shooting period will be selected and retained as mother culms.
The operation of shoot harvesting varies with size of shoots for
processing different products. The elongated shoot at 1.3-1.5 m in height,
which is used for processing fermented dry shoots, is simply cut down at
the ground level after removal of the soil cover. Processing of all other
shoot products requires younger shoots harvested at a height of about 30
cm.
The practice of harvesting involves removing soil around the shoot,
cutting it off from the rhizome and finally returning soil to the harvesting
hole. The basal part of the shoot can be retained intact and shoot buds on
it may develop as shoots in the present or coming year.
Shoots produced around August and September should be retained
as mother culms to maintain a reasonable culms-density in the stand.
Over-harvesting will result in a decline of both quality and quantity of
shoots in coming years and even cause serious degeneration of the stand.
Three or four shoots well distributed within the clump are normally
retained to develop per clump annually. Culms of over three years of age
26
are harvested every winter to keep the stand at reasonable age-structure
and density of culms.
4.2.5 Bamboo shoot stand and their development in Zhangzhou City
The favorable conditions and the status of shoot production and its
development in Zhangzhou are mainly described in the paper, and the
measure for bamboo shoot development in the future are also provided.
Bamboo is originally produced in tropical and subtropical zones.
The city belongs to tropical Hangzhou area in South Asia where the
natural conditions are suitable for bamboo growth. It is a good places for
bamboo shoot development. There are 21.3 thousand ha of bamboo
forest and the main species are Ph. Pubsences, Dendrocalamus latiflorus
and Bambusa oldhami.
In a long period, the farmers did not pay more attention to shoot
production, and the bamboo forest management, due to lack of unified
management of shoot products and lack of technical knowledge for shoot
protection. For this reason, not only the economic value of bamboo shoot
is reduced, but also a lot of fresh raw material has been wasted. Now, the
technologies for seedling reproduction have been greatly improved.
The main methods are: stump and rhizome transplant method for
moso, and new sowing and breeding methods are also used. Layering
and cottage methods are adopted for Dendrocalamus latiflorus and
Bambusa oldhami, those are also called branch layering method, culm
cottage and branch cottage method.
27
The breeding technology of tissue culture is also used by some
units. For developing Zhangzhou shoot production, a base for earning
foreign exchange should be established.
the potentialities of increasing output should be tapped and the per unit
area output should be increased.
Moso, Den. latiflorus, B. oldhami should be mainly developed; for the new
shoot stands, large scale intensive planting should be carried out;
the management units for shoot marketing should be established;
and new type shoot production should be carried out by steps.
4.3 Processing of Shoots
Fresh shoots contain about 90% water and 3% of the protein required by
the human body. Bamboo shoots contain 17 kinds of amino acids and are
especially rich in saccharopine, speramic acid and glutamic acid. Over 2.5% of
28
the shoot is carbohydrate that can be absorbed by the human body and shoots
also contain about 0.5% lipids.
List of main nutrient components of moso bamboo shoot in Anji county of
Zhejiang Province
Nutrient Component Winter Bamboo
Shoots
Spring Bamboo
Shoots
Moisture ( g ) 88 92
Protein ( g ) 3.07 2.15
Fat ( g ) 0.7 0.5
Carbohydrate
(mg / 100 g)
Total
carbohydrate
6.72 5.6
Oligose 0.35
Sucrose 18.36
Glucose 0.07
Fructose 0.09
Trace Elements
( mg / Kg )
Cr 0.44 – 0.12
Co 0.05 – 0.02
Cu 0.619 – 3.17
Ni 0.758 – 0.385
Zn 3.41 – 1.75
Fe 5.91 – 2.34
Mg 48.6 – 28.66
Mn 1.71 – 0.91
P ( mg / 100 g ) 64 44
Ca ( mg / 100 g ) 1.9 5.8
4.4 Shoot Production
Starting in the 1990s, bamboo in Australia was originally planted with a
view to producing bamboo shoots to offset the importation of canned produce 29
(Midmore 1998), and later to expand into rewarding export markets identified in
Asia (Collins and Keiler 2005). In contrast, in the Philippines, bamboo is
harvested mainly as a timber substitute, with only localized cultivation and use of
shoots as a vegetable—indeed; local ordinances often prohibit shoot harvests
(Virtucio and Roxas 2003).
Management factors that influence shoot production (Kleinhenz and
Midmore 2001) fall mainly under irrigation, fertilizer, mulch and thinning
regimes.Species has an overriding effect on shoot size, number and timing of
production and, although it was not studied as an experimental factor, some
tentative conclusions are drawn from the experimental data published in this
volume.
Bamboo shoots have been an important source of food since early
civilization. In China, succulent shoots of many bamboo species have been
traditionally used as a vegetable for more than 2,500 years. Although bamboo
shoots have been consumed for their delightful flavor for thousands of years,
their nutritional and medicinal values have been discovered only recently.
There are about 1,250 bamboo species around the world but only about
500 species are known to have edible shoots. Of this number, only a few
produce good-quality edible shoots. In Yunnan, China, 10 elite bamboo species
have been selected for commercial bamboo production. In a related study, Maoyi
(1998) selected and recommended the following as the highest-priority species
for edible shoot production:
D. asper (giant bamboo),
B. blumeana (kawayan tinik) and
D. latiflorus (machiku).
30
Nine selected edible shoot-producing species that grow in the Philippines and
other countries (Source: Virtucio and Roxas 2003)
Genus and species Geographical distribution (countries)
Bambusa
B. bambos
B. blumeana
B. oldhamii
B. species 1
(D. merrillianus)
Burma, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam
China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines,
Thailand, Vietnam
Australia, China, Philippines, Taiwan
Philippines (endemic)
Dendrocalamus
D. asper
D. latiflorus
Australia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand
Australia, Burma, China, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines,
Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam
Gigantochloa
G. atter
G. levis
Australia, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines
Thyrsostachys
T. siamensis Burma, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand
31
In the Philippines, the rampant practice of unrestricted shoot extraction
has long been identified as one of the major causes of depleting bamboo stands
of commercial species. This practice still remains a major problem since relevant
technologies of clump management for shoot production have yet to be
developed. Clump management regimes to allow for both culms and shoot
harvest have to be developed for selected species that produce edible shoots.
4.4.1 Fermented dry Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot noodles,
selling and its benefit
Fermented dry Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot noodles, also called
lactic dry D. latiflorus shoot noodles is well known as health food and
highly appreciated in Japanese market meanwhile In China for its huge
edible shoots which are sweet and very delicious. The vegetables fiber is
moderate and its digested after mentation, and also it has anti – cancer
early property.
Fujian Province is abound with Dendrocalamus latiflorus resources.
The Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoots are also more fully developed and
utilized. It is estimated that the whole province has 200 to 300 thousands
mu of Dendrocalamus latiflorus resources. The period from April to
October is the growth and harvest season for shoots. If the shoots can be
collected well in time, they can be made into shoot products needed in
Japanese market.
The processing procedures require to use the middle part of the
shoot, after removing the hard nodes. After boiling and fermentation
( usual fermentation time is half to one month ), the shoots are
reprocessed into 4 to 5 cm long and 2.8 mm wide dry shoot noodles. At
present, the production of fermented dry Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot
32
noodles has already been developed in the regions of Quangzhou,
Zhangzhou, and Fuzhou.
On the other hand, Bamboo forest is a part of Taiwan forest
resources. The commercial bamboo forest area is about 133,014 ha in the
province. The mixed forest with broad – leaved trees and Dendrocalamus
latiflorus is 51,489 ha, being 9.9% of the forest area in the province
(1,364,700 ha). There were 10.292 culms in 1980.
The area of forest producing bamboo shoot is 225,175 ha, that for
producing bamboo skin is about 70 ha. The export value of culms and
wares is about 401.8 thousand yuan in new Taiwan currency in the same
year, 201.5 thousand yuan for bamboo wares export (50.15%), 167.2
thousand yuan for shoot and processed product export, 22.4 thousand
yuan for bamboo stem export, 2.9 thousand yuan for root, strip and
weaving article export.
4.4.2 A study on semichemical pulp of Taiwan bamboo
With 3 – year – old bamboos (Phyllostachys makinoi,
Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa dolichoclada) as materials,
pulping by cold caustics soda, kraft process and neutral sulfite sodium
semi – chemical process is carried out, separately. The test results are :
The yield of pulp by cold soda is 72% - 86%, 55.3 – 78.5% by kraft
process, and 55.6 – 69.1% by neutral sulfate sodium process, but
the yield of the former is 45 – 50% higher than that by chemical
process.
33
The strength of pulp by cold caustic soda is lower, the strength of
pulp by kraft process and neutral sulfite sodium process is closer
and neutral sulfite sodium process is closer to kraft wood pulp.
Neutral sulfite sodium semi – chemical pulp is easier to bleach.
72 – 80% GE of pulp brightness can be reached by chloride – alkali
extraction hypochlorite bleaching. The long fibre wood pulp can be
substituted, and cultural papers can be made. But cold caustic soda
and kraft semi – chemical pulp is difficult to bleach. Corrugating
core paper, inside paper board and package papers can be made
by unbleached pulp.
4.4.3 Study on fractionating cooking of Taiwan bamboo pulp
Sample are 3 – year – old bamboos (Phyllostachys makinoi,
Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa dolichoclad, B. blumeana).
Remove non – fibrous matter with different alkali charge and temperature
by fractionating cooking treatment, reducing fiber loss and increasing yield
of pulp. The test methods is :
1. Use boiling water cook the materials by alkali solutions
2. Cook with diluted alkali solution and concentrated solution
3. When compared with common simple sequence alkali process, the
highest yield first method is 45.92% - 54.16%^, 40.5 – 53.7% by the
second methods, 39.81 – 50.06% by the third. The third stage
bleaching, the brightness of pulp by three different methods
reach80% GE. Physical strength of unbleached pulp is close to that
34
by kraft process. The pulp strength is little reduced after being
bleached, it also can be compared with that of Taiwan broad –
leaved wood by kraft method, especially high crackability. In
comparison with other two methods, the first methods gives low
alkali charge, high yield and has high strength. It is more
economics for papermaking.
4.5 Storage and Processing of Shoots
4.5.1 Principle and methods of storing and preserving of bamboo
shoots
The purpose of storage and preservation is to maintain the color,
smell and taste of the natural bamboo shoot, to reduce rotting and
increase its selling price. After harvesting, a bamboo shoot is still a living
organism. The components of the shoots will change throughout storage
and these changes are influenced by temperature, moisture,
microorganisms and the means of storage.
Maintaining moisture in the shoot is one of the vital factors for
preserving the fresh character of bamboo shoots. If significant moisture is
lost the shoot will lose its fresh, plump outward appearance and quality will
deteriorate. At the same time, enzyme activity will increase and hydrolysis
of carbohydrates will occur. As a result, the shoots will start to rot.
The carbohydrates in bamboo are mainly glucose, fructose and
sucrose and these are the basis of respiration. Carbohydrates will be
consumed gradually with increasing period of storage. Therefore, it is
necessary to decrease the respiration rate and the consumption of
carbohydrates during storage.
35
Under oxygen deficient conditions (when the oxygen content is less
than 2%) anaerobic respiration occurs. Alcohol, acetaldehyde, carbon
monoxide and a little heat are released. Due to the accompanying release
of heat energy the temperature of the stored heap of bamboo shoots will
increase during storage and the shoots will rot very easily.
Therefore, when bamboo shoots are heaped up in a processing
mill, they should be sheltered from sunlight to prevent color and quality
changes. Suitable low temperatures can control moisture transpiration of
bamboo shoots and damage by microorganisms.
Mechanical damage can induce high respiration and invasion of
microbes, and hence cause rotting of bamboo shoots. As the respiration
rate is related to moisture, temperature, humidity, and the activity of
enzymes the main ways of keeping bamboo shoots fresh during the
storage period are as follows:
1. Store bamboo shoots in a cool and moist place in order to decrease
respiration rate. The temperature in storage should be maintained
at about 5°C and the relative air humidity at about 85%. The
temperature must not be so cold such that the cells freeze.
2. Add some salt to control enzyme action.
3. Place bamboo shoots in cans and kill bacteria by high temperature
treatments.
4. Store bamboo shoots under oxygen insulation conditions to control
the activity of microorganisms.
5. Add chemical preservatives to preserve cooked shoots.
36
4.6 The Different Shoots Between Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa
blumeana, Bambusa oldhamii And Dendrocalamus latiflorus
The agronomy / silvicultural trials were conducted on four bamboo
species. These differed in their responses to the imposed treatments not only
because of their genetic make-up but also because of their relative ages. The
mature Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo) produced few shoots, on average
c. 1 shoot per standing culm, but they were large if harvested for consumption
(reaching 4.5 kg).
In contrast, the young (3–7 years old during the trial) Bambusa blumeana
(kawayan tinik) produced very few shoots, although the poor soil or some other
factor may have had an overriding effect, as average shoot number per clump
did not increase during the 5-year course of the experiment. Even older clumps
of the same species produced few shoots per culm, only 8 of 65 treatment × year
combinations produced more than 7 shoots per clump.
The commonly recognized, smaller-shoot-producing species Bambusa
oldhamii, with clumps close to 10 years of age, produced on average over 20
shoots per clump in the optimal treatments. This was unlike Dendrocalamus
latiflorus, aged 3.5 and 4 years at commencement of the experiments, which
produced many shoots early on but fewer as the clumps aged (on average c. 40
shoots per clump in the first year, c. 30 in the second and c. 10 in the third year).
However, the proportion of market able shoots increased over time.
37
CHAPTER 5
5.0 Culms Production
Culms or poles as they are commonly known are the major commercial
and subsistence bamboo product in that country. In contrast, with minor
exceptions, in Australia the culms present a logistical headache, for although
imported culms command a high price (Midmore 1998) locally produced culms
are not widely marketed because of their virtually non-existent quality control.
Indeed, when thinning bamboo clumps in order to optimize shoot
production, culms may be variously converted into mulch, burnt, or used as a
low-quality timber replacement around the farm. Quite simply, the scale of
production does not merit their entry into energy generation (Sharma 2005) or
other mainstream economic activities.
As for shoot production, species has an overriding influence on culms
production, in terms of both numbers and size. Although this was not an
experimental factor, we can draw some useful cross-species comparisons, as we
can for the other experimental factors.
The assessment of bamboo resources relative to national culms
requirements reveals that they are inadequate for sustained yield (as discussed
38
above). Given the worsening status of current timber resources, there is a need
to increase the areas planted to bamboo as potential substitutes for wood-based
products. There are available technologies for bamboo plantation development
and management of commercial species. These technologies are considered
mature and are employed in various regions in the country.
5.1 Culms Thinning Practice
In general in Australia, treatments at all sites that had high numbers of
young culms (1 and 2 years old at the time of shoot emergence) led to high shoot
numbers. Indeed, in the high rainfall site, shoots selected for culms production at
the beginning of the shoot season themselves produced edible shoots near the
end of the same shoot season.
In the drier environment of Australia, shoot production was greater when
all early shoots were removed for sale, leaving only late-season shoots for culms
production possibly minimizing the effect of apical dominance that may inhibit
later shoot emergence. Weight per harvested shoot was not affected by thinning
regime, or by the spatial arrangement of standing culms (widely spaced versus
narrow spacing within a clump).
In the Philippine, treatments with more young culms raised the productivity
index (the number of shoots produced per standing culms) and, in the rained (in
Bukidnon), the standing culms density (SCD) of 10-10 (ten 1-yearold and ten 2-
year-old culms) gave more shoots than the 6-6 treatment.
Leaving all shoots to grow into culms caused congestion in the clumps,
and constrained production of shoots in later years. For this reason, some
39
minimal annual thinning of culms or shoots is necessary if clumps are to continue
to produce shoots (and culms) on a sustained basis.
The effect of culms thinning treatment on culms biomass was closely
related to the effect of species, and was tightly linked to culms thinning practices.
With younger (3.5–7.0-year-old) clumps of D. latiflorus thinning treatments did
not affect individual weight of culms; most likely because complete canopy
closure had not occurred. Hence, culms yield was a reflection of the number of
culms harvested. Culm yield ranged from 3.5–3.7 to 6.8 t/ha/year for the
treatments with SCD of 4-2-2, 2-2-2 and 4-4-4, respectively.
5.2 Irrigation
In Australia, withholding irrigation during the dry season increased culms
water-use efficiency (WUE—weight of culms per unit of irrigation and rainfall) by
25% over the fully irrigated treatment, although culms biomass was not reduced
and the difference between full and temporal irrigation in WUE was not
significant.
Withholding irrigation altogether reduced biomass yield by 40%, but that
was confounded by also withholding fertilizer. Further north (in NT), the same
effect of withholding winter irrigation was evident at one of the sites—culms yield
was reduced by 24% compared to full irrigation.
Irrigation throughout the year at only 50% of pan evaporation reduced
culms yield by 15%, not as great as withholding all irrigation during the dry
season. At another site, on a lighter soil, the 50% irrigation treatment did not
affect culms yield, although culms WUE (this time based upon weight of culms
per unit of irrigation) was double that of the 100% irrigation treatment.
40
In the Philippines (in Capiz), neither lack of irrigation nor irrigation supplied
only just before and during the shoot season reduced culms yield compared to
the fully irrigated treatment (although both treatments had higher culms WUEs
than the irrigated control). In the other site with irrigation treatments (in Ilocos
Norte), culms that experienced the reduced irrigation treatments were thinner
and their biomass lower.
CHAPTER 6
6.0 Afforestation Techniques for Bamboo Shoot Plantations
6.0.1 Nursery site preparation
The nursery should be selected on the lee side of gently sloping
hills in a sunny location with good drainage and with water resources
nearby for ease of irrigation. The soil should be loose and fertile sandy
loam or loam, with acid, slightly acid or neutral reactions. The groundwater
level usually should be less than one meter. Rocky, sandy, clayey or
heavy saline-alkali soils should not be selected as nursery land.
Before raising seedlings, the land requires overall soil preparation
i.e. loosening soil to increase the ability of preserving fertility and humidity,
weeding, and sterilizing for eliminating soil pest. Overall soil preparation
can create favorable conditions for bamboo seedling growth and
development. The soil in the nursery should be deep ploughed and
carefully prepared before freezing in winter or after defrosting in spring.
The best time for ploughing is the beginning of winter. Remove roots and
rocks and rake the soil level.
41
After deep ploughing, the nursery soil should be made into a
seedbed. This is usually 1 metre wide and 15-20 cm high and its length
can be determined according to the terrain. It is necessary to apply
sufficient manure or plant ash as a base fertilizer for improving bamboo
seedling growth and root development.
6.0.2 Planting season
Taiwan Giant Bamboo can be planted throughout the year. But the
best time for planting is in the dormant season i.e. from January to March
or in the rainy season in the summer. Planting in high temperatures and
drought seasons requires intensive management techniques and requires
more labour.
6.0.3 Comparative experiment research for afforestation on D. latiflorus
Comparative tests of different afforestation methods for D. latiflorus
show that survival after stem and twig cutting is 100 percent. Mother
bamboo afforestation reaches 43.3 percent. The sprouting rate is different
too after 3 years of afforestation like 2.13 for sliced stem sprouts and
1.97% for mother bamboo sprouts. One sprouts of mother bamboo
afforesting costs are as high as 7 yuan, and other two kinds of sprouts
cost 0.5 yuan. Their cultivation techniques and management methods are
simple too 20-30 ft. (6-9 m)
42
6.0.4 Control text on afforestation with different seedlings of Dendrocalamus latiflorus
A test for three years bin succession showed that the survival rate
of afforestation was 100% by burying culm and using shoot cutting of
Dendrocalamus latiflorus, and it is 2.3 times higher than that of transfer of
mother bamboo. The number of germinating shoots and their average
diameter of various afforestation methods were different, but none of them
reached high level. The growing speed of the bamboos cultivated with
seedlings of buried culm and shoot cuttings was not slower than that of
transfer method of mother bamboo. However, the cost of afforestation per
mu is reduced from 280 yuan to 20 yuan.
6.1 Field Propagation and Nursery Techniques
There are two ways of propagating bamboos: sexual and asexual
propagation. Bamboos seldom flower and even when they do only a few mature
seeds are produced. Hence raising plants from seed is only possible
occasionally. Thus the most common and practical method of raising plantlets is
by asexual propagation.
This involves the use of offsets, Culm (or branch) cuttings, stumps with
rhizomes, and rhizomes themselves for direct afforestation or for plantlet
preparation in a nursery and then planting out. Culm or branch cuttings are the
most widely used method for sympodial bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiflorus).
Raising seedlings of sympodial bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiflorus) by
seeds generally involves sowing individual seeds in shallow holes dibbling in
trenches with 5-8 seeds per hole. Cover the seeds with a layer of 3-5 cm soil,
place a layer of straw on top and water them in.
43
When the seedlings are about 10 cm high they can be transplanted in
groups of two or three. One to two year old seedlings can be used for
establishing the shoots plantation. There are several methods of vegetative
propagation. Culms can be buried whole. They then develop new plantlets at
each node. Alternately one and two-noded culm cuttings can be used.
Other methods include layering and offset planting. Select healthy and
strong propagules 1-2 years old with plump buds and no diseases or pests for
propagation. Propagation should be done generally from February to April (in
China) before culms start assimilating nutrients and before the their buds have
germinated.
6.1.1 Study on rapid propagation in vitro of Dendrocalamus latiflorus
The tests with seeds of Den. latiflorus through artifical pollination
and with stems of young seedlings, using MS as essential culture medium
composed of growth – regulars in different concentration, pH 6.5 at
lightintensity about 1600 Lx, for 9 – 10 hours of daily supplementary
illumination under a temperature 22 – 30C showed that bud proliferation
increased by 2,3 times a month, rootability of tube seedlings reached
93.9%, average survival rate of buds after transplantation was over 80%,
and rootibility of seedlings out of tube reaced over 66.0%. flowering of 5
months tube seedlings was observed and its causes were discussed.
6.2 Bamboo Processing
6.2.1 Current low-level utilization
44
The agriculture sector is still the biggest user of bamboo (for fish
pens, banana props, poultry houses, and other low-value uses). Other
users include the furniture and handicraft sectors, but relatively few
businesses in these sectors choose to use bamboo for their craft because
of
Uncertainty of supply
The high cost of collection and transport of culms because of the
scattered locations of the bamboo sources.
6.2.2 Issues in promoting high-value utilization
Issues being faced by the industry in moving toward high-value
utilization of bamboo include substitution, cost, and image positioning,
distribution, and technology level. Since the bamboo industry is essentially
a substituting industry, the following strategic directions should be pursued
(FOSTER Asia 1997):
Industry positioning—in providing substitute products, the bamboo-
processing industry must
- target a critical mass of users and aim to supply popular
products that all households can use for construction, décor and
other applications
- essentially be privately led with government initiatives that will
enable it to take off and become sustainable
- approximate the extent and scope of distribution prevalent in the
wood industry and rationalize the channels of distribution
45
- Re-engineer its technology to an extent that will enable
individual enterprises to compete with wood-based products
domestically and internationally.
industry structure—there is a need to support small-to-medium-
scale enterprises producing construction-related products such as
laminated bamboo, composite and structural materials so that
these enterprises can eventually become globally competitive.
market positioning—among the emerging high value applications of
bamboo, natural fibre composites and laminated bamboo are the
most promising; it would be practical for the sector to
Target construction-related requirements.
Technology—proposed technologies for acquisition or development
include
- laminated bamboo for walls and structures
- bamboo composites such as panel boards, wafer boards
- structural bamboo such as hollow boards
- Flooring and roofing tiles.
6.3 Bamboo Production
6.3.1 Bamboo inventory
A systematic and accurate record of natural and plantation stands of
commercial bamboos at regional and national levels is lacking.
46
6.3.2 Taxonomy
Bamboo taxonomy is still a major problem in the Philippines. Local
names of many species vary with location, which often creates confusion
about the true identity of a given species. For example, the common name
‘botong’ refers to Gigantochloa levis in Iloilo province, but
Dendrocalamus latiflorus in the regions of Davao and Northern
Mindanao. In other provinces, G. levis is known as ‘bolo’ in Laguna and
‘buho’ in Batangas.
In addition, two commercial bamboo species have yet to be studied
for their scientific name at the species level. The first, ‘bayog’, was
formerly identified as Dendrocalamus merrillianus, but an international
bamboo taxonomist changed the genus Dendrocalamus to Bambusa. Its
species name has yet to be verified. In the second case, while ‘laak’ has
been tentatively named Bambusa philippinensis, the species name is still
being verified.
6.3.3 Growth and yield
Growth and yield data for some species as a function of
geographical location and site quality have yet to be generated. Species
included in this group are Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo), G. levis
(bolo), D. latiflorus (machiku) and B. oldhamii (Oldham bamboo).
6.3.4 Clump management
Stands of climbing bamboos are dwindling. These bamboos
constitute about 78% of the natural stands that are being utilized for
47
handicraft and other purposes. Propagation and management of
regeneration for clump yield sustainability have yet to be studied.
One of the major causes of depletion of commercial bamboo stands
is the rampant, unregulated harvesting of edible shoots. Clump
management regimes to allow for both culms and shoot harvest have to
be developed for selected species that produce edible shoots.
6.4 Bamboo-Processing Enterprises
There are four levels of bamboo-processing enterprise, namely: backyard;
small scale; medium scale; and large scale. Relative to their potential, these
enterprises were characterized and evaluated by FOSTER Asia (1997) as
follows:
Backyard. This level of the enterprise operates in the house with
household members as workers. It has been estimated that the average
annual sales of backyard enterprises do not exceed PHP500, 000
(equivalent to around US$11,300) per business. In terms of number, the
majority of the bamboo processing undertakings and ventures in the
Philippines belong to this category.
Small scale. The bamboo-processing ventures belonging to this category
operate in the vicinity of houses and are located mainly in urban areas.
Small-scale enterprises usually have small shops, and use both hand
tools and some equipment in production operations. The assets of these
businesses do not exceed PHP1 million, with estimated annual sales of
PHP1–2 million.
48
Medium scale. This level of bamboo processing operates with a standard
plant, usually located in an urban area. Its assets are close to PHP5
million. Usually, enterprises belonging to this category have the capability
and expertise to produce good-quality products, design their own products
and sustain volume production. They can export products directly to other
countries. There are very few business ventures in this category and most
of them are located in Metro Manila.
Large scale. This category of bamboo-processing enterprise operates with
automated plant equipment. It employs skilled workers and produces
products of export quality. Another study (Ramirez 1999) showed that the
majority of bamboo enterprises in the Philippines had very low
capitalization. Ramirez inferred that such enterprises could not afford
improved technologies and hence maximum efficiency in bamboo
processing was not being attained.
6.5 Supply And Demand
In 1997, the annual demand for bamboo was estimated at about 50 million
culms (poles) per year. The existing bamboo stands of about 46,000 ha yield
only about 36 million culms per year—hence there was a supply deficit of 14
million culms. The annual demand has been projected to increase to between
113 million and 132 million culms per year by 2015 (OIDCI 1997).
With this demand projection, and current supply rates (c. 800 culms/ha),
the supply deficit would require additional bamboo plantations of 150,000–
166,000 ha by 2015. This is in the absence of any productivity gains to be made
following research to increase yields.
49
The percentage distribution of the raw material production is distributed to
various industries/sectors as follows: furniture and handicraft (40%); fish pens,
housing and construction (25%); vegetables and fruit industries (10%); and other
uses (25%).
50
REFERENCES
- Collins R. and Keiler S. 2005. The Australian bamboo shoot industry: a supply
chain approach. RIRDC Report 05/022. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation: Canberra, 92 pp.
- Kleinhenz V. and Midmore D.J. 2001. Aspects of bamboo agronomy. Advances
in Agronomy 74, 99–153.
- Kleinhenz V. and Midmore, D.J. 2002. Improved management practices for
culinary bamboo shoots: local and export markets. RIRDC Report 02/035. Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, 64 pp.
- Midmore D.J. (ed.) 1998. Bamboo for shoots and timber. RIRDC Report 98/32.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, 66 pp.
- Midmore D.J. and Kleinhenz V. 2000. Physiological studies on edible bamboo.
Asian Foods Newsletter 6, 6–8.
- Midmore D.J., Walsh K.B., Kleinhenz V., Milne J.R., Leonardi J. and
Blackburn K. 1998. Culinary bamboo shoots in Australia: preliminary research
results. RIRDC Report 98/45. Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation: Canberra, 44 pp.
- Sharma A. 2005. Agroforestry systems for municipal effluent disposal. PhD
thesis, Central Queensland University, Australia.
- Virtucio F.D. and Roxas C.A. 2003. Bamboo production in the Philippines.
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources: College, Laguna, 202 pp.
51
- Bello E.D. and Espiloy Z.B. 1995. New products and applications of bamboo.
Paper presented at the ‘National Symposium on the Sustainability of the Bamboo
Industry, College, Laguna, 20–21 December 1995’. Ecosystems Research and
Development Bureau: College, Laguna.
- FOSTER Asia (Foundation for Sustainable Techno - Environmental
Reforms in Asia) 1997. Bamboo processing industry. Consultancy report
conducted for the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
and the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and National Resources
Research and Development (PCARRD) of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST).
- Ganapathy P.M., Zhu H.M., Zoolagud S.S., Turcke D. and Espiloy Z.B. 1996.
Bamboo panel boards: a state of the art report. International Network for Bamboo
and Rattan (INBAR): Beijing, 145 pp.
- Maoyi F. 1998. Criteria for selection of superior bamboo varieties, propagation
and plantation establishment. In ‘Bamboo—conservation, diversity,
ecogeography, germplasm, resource utilization and taxonomy: proceedings of a
training course cum workshop, Kunming and Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China,
10–17 May 1998’, ed. by A.N. Rao and V.R. Rao. International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-
APO): Serdang, Malaysia. At:<http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/
Web_version/572/>. Accessed 5 June 2008.
- OIDCI (Orient Integrated Development Consultants, Inc.) 1997. Master plan
for the development of bamboo as a renewable and sustainable resource.
Prepared for the Cottage Industry Technology Center. Department of Trade and
Industry: Metro Manila.
- Ramirez. A.R. 1999. A critical analysis of the governance system for bamboo
forests in the Philippines. PhD thesis, University of the Philippines Los Baños
(UPLB): College, Laguna.
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- Rojo J. 1999. Bamboo resources of the Philippines. Pp. 65–70 in ‘Ang kawayan.
Proceedings of the First National Conference on Bamboo, Iloilo City, 1–3 August
1996, ed. by E. Navera, S.M. Pablico and S.C. Malab. Cottage Industry
Technology Center: Marikina, Metro Manila.
- Virtucio F.D. and Roxas C.A. 2003. Bamboo production in the Philippines.
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources: College, Laguna, 202 pp.
53
APPENDIX I
The structure of wax on the epidermis was granule
The structure of stomata and guard cells.
54
The tissue arrangement and shape in the outer part of culm wall.
The tissue arrangement and shape in the middle part of culm wall.
55
The tissue arrangement and shape of pith periphery in the inner part of culm wall.
56
Three-dimensional structure of Taiwan giant bamboo.
Oblique perforation plate in the metaxylem vessel of Taiwan giant bamboo.
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Simple perforation in the metaxylem vessel of Taiwan giant bamboo.
58
Part of perforation between scalariform and reticulate type in the metaxylem vessel of
Taiwan giant bamboo.
The ring thickening formed in the protoxylem of Taiwan giant bamboo.
59
The sieve cells and companion cells of the vascular bundle near the pit periphery.
Thicked wall fiber in the inner of fiber sheat of Taiwan giant bamboo.
60
Thin wall fiber in the fiber strand of vascular bundle of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The septate fiber of Taiwan giant bamboo.
61
The structure of epidermis and cortical parenchyma of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of radial section in the outer part of culm wall of Taiwan giant bamboo.
62
The enlargement of several layers in the radial section of epidermal tissue showed
structure of stomal complex of Taiwan giant bamboo.
63
The structure of cortical cells showed the new cell wall formation after cell division of
Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of culm parenchyma cells in longitudinal section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
64
The structure of culm parenchyma cells in cross section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery in cross section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
65
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery in longitudinal section of Taiwan giant
bamboo.
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery of tangential section of Taiwan giant
bamboo.
66
The structure of thin membrane over the surface of pith cavity of Taiwan giant bamboo.
67
APPENDIX II
Recommended Afforestation Models for Bamboo Shoot Plantations
Afforestation Model for Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens) and Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot plantations
Economic Analyses of the Recommended Afforestation Models of Newly Established Bamboo Shoot Plantations
Economic Analyses of the Afforestation Models (1 USD = 8.3 CNY)
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APPENDIX III
NEW STRAITS TIMES, 2 FEBRUARY 2003
Bring on the bambooBamboo is a natural forest resource whose commercial potential in Malaysia has yet to be fully realized. Its used is still associated with traditional rural society. But there’s more to it than just raw material for fish traps or lemang container.
BAMBOO PARQUET: Dr. Azmy Mohamed with samples of bamboo floor parquet.
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DWARFED: Bamboo clusters such as this species from Myanmar can reach height of 15 meters or more
70
Recommended