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C H A P T E RC H A P T E R 1515
Standardized Tests and Teaching
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Learning Goals
1.Discuss the nature of standardized tests.
2.Compare aptitude and achievement testing and describe current uses of achievement tests.
3. Identify the teacher’s role in standardized testing.
4.Evaluate some key issues in standardized testing.
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
15.2
Standardized Tests and Teaching
Criteria for Evaluating
Standardized Tests
15.3
What Is a Standardized
Test?
The Nature of Standardized
Tests
The Purposes of
StandardizedTests
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Nature of Standardized Tests
Standardized Tests
• Have uniform procedures for administration and scoring.
• Allow comparison of student scores by age, grade level, local and national norms.
• Attempt to include material common across most classrooms.
15.4
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Enter the DebateShould students have to pass a test to earn a high school diploma?
YES NO
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
15.5
Contribute to accountability
Provide information about student progress andprogram placement
Diagnose students’strengths and weaknesses
Provide information for planning
and instruction
Help in program evaluation
15.6
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Purposes of Standardized Tests
The Nature of Standardized Tests
15.7
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Standards-based tests assess skills that students are expected to have
mastered before they can be permitted to move to the next grade or be
permitted to graduate.
High-stakes testing is using tests in a way that will have important
consequences for the student, affecting major educational decisions.
Evaluating Standardized Tests
Norms – Does the normative group represent all students who may take the test?
Reliability – Are test scores stable, dependable and relatively free from error?
Validity – Does the test measure what it is purported to measure?
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
15.8
9
Correlation
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of
relationship between two variables.
Pearson correlation coefficient• r = the Pearson coefficient
• r measures the amount that the two variables (X and Y) vary together (i.e., covary) taking into account how much they vary apart
• Pearson’s r is the most common correlation coefficient; there are others.
Computing the Pearson correlation coefficient
• To put it another way:
• Or
separately vary Y and X which todegree
ther vary togeY and X which todegreer
separately Y and X ofy variabilit
Y and X ofity covariabilr
Sum of Products of Deviations• Measuring X and Y individually (the denominator):
– compute the sums of squares for each variable• Measuring X and Y together: Sum of Products
– Definitional formula
– Computational formula
• n is the number of (X, Y) pairs
))(( YYXXSP
n
YXXYSP
Correlation Coefficent:
• the equation for Pearson’s r:
• expanded form:
YX SSSS
SPr
nY
YnX
X
nYX
XYr
22
22
Correlation Coefficient Interpretation
Coefficient
Range
Strength of
Relationship
0.00 - 0.20 Practically None
0.20 - 0.40 Low
0.40 - 0.60 Moderate
0.60 - 0.80 High Moderate
0.80 - 1.00 Very High
ReliabilityTest-retest: The extent to which a test yields the
same score when given to a student on two different occasions
Alternate-forms: Two different forms of the same test on two different occasions to determine the consistency of the scores
Split-half: Divide the test items into two halves; scores are compared to determine test score consistency
Test-retest: The extent to which a test yields the same score when given to a student on two different occasions
Alternate-forms: Two different forms of the same test on two different occasions to determine the consistency of the scores
Split-half: Divide the test items into two halves; scores are compared to determine test score consistency
15.19
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Methods of Studying Reliability
Interrater Reliability- The consistency of a test to measure a skill, trait, or domain across examiners.
This type of reliability is most important whenresponses are subjective or open-ended.
Terry OvertonAssessing Learners with Special Needs, 5e
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Types of Validity…
Content: Test’s ability to sample the content that is being measured
Criterion-related:
1. Concurrent: The relation between a test’s score and other available criteria
2. Predictive: The relationship between test’s score and future performance
Construct: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct
Content: Test’s ability to sample the content that is being measured
Criterion-related:
1. Concurrent: The relation between a test’s score and other available criteria
2. Predictive: The relationship between test’s score and future performance
Construct: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct
15.21
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
statistical technique which uses the correlations between observed variables to estimate common factors and the
structural relationships linking factors to observed variables. The diagram below illustrates how two observed variables can correlate because of their
relationships with a common factor.
Factor Analysis
Standardized Tests and Teaching
Aptitude and Achievement
Tests
15.23
Comparing Aptitude and Achievement
Tests
Types of StandardizedAchievement
Tests
High-StakesState-Mandated
Tests
District andNational
Tests
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests
Aptitude TestsAptitude TestsPredict a student’s ability to
learn a skillor accomplish a task.
(Stanford Binet, Wechsler, SAT when
used to predict success)
Achievement TestsAchievement TestsMeasure what the
student has learnedor mastered.
(California Achievement,IOWA Basic Skills,SAT when used to
determine what has been learned)
15.24
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
High-Stakes State-Mandated Tests
PossibleAdvantages
Criticisms
- Improved student performance- More teaching time- Higher student expectations- Identification of poor-performing schools/teachers- Improved confidence in schools
- “Dumbing down” and more emphasis on rote memorization
- Less time for problem-solving and critical thinking skills
- Teachers “teaching to the test”- Discrimination against low-SES
and ethnic minority children
National Assessment of Educational ProgressA federal “census-like” exam of students’ knowledge,
skills, understanding, and attitudes
Reading 1992–2000 4th grade no improvement1992–1998 8th and 12th no improvement
Math 1990–2000 4th and 8th improvement1990–2000 12th decline
Science 1996–2000 4th and 8th no change1996–2000 12th decline
15.26
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Standardized Tests and Teaching
The Teacher’s Role
Preparing Studentsto Take
StandardizedTests
Administering Standardized
Tests
Using Standardized
Test Scores to Plan
and ImproveInstruction
Understanding and
InterpretingTest Results
15.27
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Don’ts of Standardized Testing
DON’TDON’T•Teach to the test
• Use the standardized test format for classroom tests
• Describe tests as a burden
• Tell students that important decisions will be made solely on the results of a single test
• Use previous forms of the test to prepare students
• Convey a negative attitude about the test
15.28
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Counting the Data-Frequency
Look at the set of data that follows on the next slide.
A tally mark was made to count each time a score occurred
Which number most likely represents the average score?
Which number is the most frequently occurring score?
Descriptive statistics are the mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize data.
Frequency Distribution
Scores1009998949089888275746860
Tally11
1111
11111111 11
1111 11111111 1
11111
Frequency112257
1062111
AverageScore?
Most88
88
Most FrequentScore?
Tal
ly 1 1 11 11 1111
1111
11
1111
111
111
11 1
11 1 1 1
This frequency count represents data that closely represent a normal distribution.
Descriptive Statistics
15.32
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Frequency Polygons
Data100 89
99 8998 8998 8994 88 94 8890 7590 7590 7490 6890 60
5
4
3
2
1
60 68 74 75 88 89 90 94 98 99 100
Scores
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency provide information about the average or typical score in a data set
Mean: The numerical average of a group of scores
Median: The score that falls exactly in the middle of a data set
Mode: The score that occurs most often
15.34
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Mean- To find the mean, simply add the scores and divide by the number of scores
in the set of data.
98 + 94 + 88 + 75 = 355Divide by the number of scores: 355/4 = 88.75
Central tendency = representative or typical value in a distribution
MeanSame thing as an average
Computed bySumming all the scores (sigma, )
Dividing by the number of scores (N)
M
XN
Aron, Aron, & Coups, Statistics for the Behavioral and Social Sciences: A Brief Course (3e), © 2005 Prentice Hall
Measures of Central Tendency• Steps to computing the median
1. Line up scores from highest to lowest
2. Count up to middle score• If there is 1 middle score, that’s the
median• If there are 2 middle scores, median
is their average
Median-The Middlemost point in a set of data
Data Set 110099999897969088858079
Data Set 2
100999897868278727068
Median96
The median is 84 for this set.84 represents
the middlemost point in
this set of data.
Mode-The most frequently occurring score in a set of data.
Find the modes for the following sets of data:
Data Set 3998989898975
Mode:89
Data set 499888887877270
88 and 87 are bothmodes for this
set of data. This iscalled a bimodal
distribution.
Measures of Variability (Dispersion)
Range- Distance between the highest and lowest scores in a set of data.
100 - 65 = 35
35 is the range in this set of scores.
Variance - Describes the total amount that a set of scores varies from the
mean.
1. Subtract the mean from each score.
When the mean for a set of data is87, subtract 87 from each score.
100 - 87 = 13 98- 87 = 11 95- 87 = 8 91- 87 = 4 85- 87 = -2 80- 87 = -7 60- 87 = -27
2. Next-Square each difference-multiply each difference by itself.
13 x 13 = 16911 x 11 = 1218 x 8 = 649 x 4 = 16
-2 x -2 = 4-7 x -7 = 49
-27x -27= + 729
3. Sum thesedifferences
1,152Sum of squares
4. Divide the sum of squares by the number of scores.
1,152 divided by 7 =164.5714
This number represents the variance for this set of data .
5. To find the standard deviation, find the square root of the variance. For this set of data, find the square root of
164.5714.
The standard deviation for this set of data is 12.82 or 13.
Standard Deviation-Represents the typical amount that a score is expected to vary
from the mean in a set of data.
Ceiling and Floor Effects• Ceiling effects
– Occur when scores can go no higher than an upper limit and “pile up” at the top
– e.g., scores on an easy exam, as shown on the right
– Causes negative skew• Floor effects
– Occur when scores can go no lower than a lower limit and pile up at the bottom
– e.g., household income– Causes positive skew
Skewed Frequency Distributions• Normal distribution (a)• Skewed right (b)
– Fewer scores right of the peak– Positively skewed– Can be caused by a floor effect
• Skewed left (c)– Fewer scores left of the peak– Negatively skewed– Can be caused by a ceiling effect
Understanding Descriptive Statistics
The Normal Distribution: A “bell-shaped” curve in which most of the scores are clustered around the mean; the farther from the mean, the less frequently the score occurs.
15.52
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Commonly Reported Test Scores Based on the Normal Curve
15.54
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Aron, Aron, & Coups, Statistics for the Behavioral and Social Sciences: A Brief Course (3e), © 2005 Prentice Hall
Z Scores• When values in a distribution are converted
to Z scores, the distribution will have – Mean of 0
– Standard deviation of 1
• Useful– Allows variables to be compared to one another
even when they are measured on different scales, have very different distributions, etc.
– Provides a generalized standard of comparison
Aron, Aron, & Coups, Statistics for the Behavioral and Social Sciences: A Brief Course (3e), © 2005 Prentice Hall
Z Scores• To compute a Z
score, subtract the mean from a raw score and divide by the SD
• To convert a Z score back to a raw score, multiply the Z score by the SD and then add the mean
SD
MXZ
)(
MSDZX ))((
Standardized Tests and Teaching
Issues in Standardized
Testing
Standardized Tests,Alternative
Assessments,High-Stakes Testing
Diversity andStandardized
Testing
15.57
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Issues in Standardized Testing
Alternative Assessments• Assessments of oral presentations• Real-world problems• Projects• Portfolios
Diversity and Standardized Tests• Gaps on standardized tests have been
attributed to environmental rather than hereditary factors
• Special concern in creating culturally unbiased tests
15.58
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Crack the CaseStandardized Tests
1. What are the issues involved in this situation?
2. Examine Ms. Carter’s testing procedures. What does she do incorrectly? How might this reduce the validity of the students’ scores?
3. How would you answer each of the parents’ questions?
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
15.59
Reflection & ObservationReflection:
What standardized tests have you taken?
How have these tests affected your perceptions of competence?
Observation:
What are some of the mother’s concerns regarding her son’s standardized test scores?
What error does the teacher make in interpreting one of the test scores? How would you explain this score?
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
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