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Chapter17-AimsoftheCriminalJusticeSystemDueProcess:referstothevalues,rulesandpracticeswithintheCJSthatupholdthelegalrightsofapersonsuspectedoraccusedofcommittingacriminaloffenceExample:therighttoconsultwithalawyerbeforequestioningortherighttoafairhearingincourtDiscretion:thedecision-makingpoweroflegalandcriminaljusticeofficialstointerpretlawandadministrativerules(theabilitytochoosebetweenoptionsinaparticularsituation)Accountability:thecapacitytobeheldresponsibleforone’sactionsorstatementsThefunnellingeffect-Ateachstageofthecriminalprocess,thenumberofcasesinvolvedintheCJSbecomesmallerandsmaller-Thisisaresultofcumberofdiscretionarydecisionsonthepartofthepolice,theprosecutorsandthecourts
Chapter18-PolicingandLawEnforcementHistory:
• Policinginitiallyperformedbyarangeofgroupsincludingthemilitary,convictnight-watchmen,indigenous‘nativepolice’
• Controlwaslocalisedupuntilcentralisationofpoweroverpolice• SydneyPoliceAct(1833)–firstprofessionalcitypoliceforce• Otherstatesfollowedinsuccession
Image vs. Reality - are police a force or a service?
• There is considerably a stronger federal presence in policing Police safety and use of force decisions during critical occurrences are an ongoing source of concern for both police and the public. With the recent increasing amounts of weaponry given to police officers, the public perceives the police as more of a force than a service. PoliceCulture:
• Cultureconcernstheinformaloccupationalnormsandvalues,acceptedpractices,rulesandprinciplesofbehaviourwhichhavebeencharacterisedasconsistingofasenseof“mission”asawayoflifethatisseenasavaluedcontributiontomaintainingsocialrelationsandprotectingvictims;
• Anactionorientation• Isolationfromthegeneralcommunity• Andselfportrayalasattheborderinbetweenorderandanarchy
PoliceAccountability:
• Equallyaccountabletothelaw • Oftenunaccountableasmuchpoliceworkisunobserved � • Internaloversight–ProfessionalStandardsCommand • Media �
TheJurySystem: � • Operatesaccordingtothe
JuriesAct(2000) • Comprisescitizens
randomlychosenfromelectoralroll
• Criminaltrialshave12jurormembers,exceptinlongtrialswheretheremaybe 15jurors.
Peoplemaybe:-ineligible -excused-disqualified ThePurposeofSentencing: �Thereare5purposestosentencing(SentencingAct1991),
1. JustPunishment:topunishtheoffendertoanextentandinamannerwhichisjustinallofthecircumstances
2. Deterrence(GeneralandSpecific):todetertheoffender(specific)orotherperson(general)fromcommittingoffencesofthesameorsimilarnature.
3. Rehabilitation: �toestablishconditionswithinwhichitisconsideredbythecourtthatthe�rehabilitationoftheoffendermaybefacilitated.
4. Denunciation:�todenouncethetypeofconductengagedinbytheoffender. �5. CommunityProtection: �toprotectthecommunityfromtheoffender. �
TheVictimsroleinSentencing: Thecourt‘must’considertheimpactofthecrimeonthevictim/sinsentencing.Thisincludes: • Theimpactoftheoffenceonthevictim/s � • Thepersonalcircumstancesofthevictim/s � • Anyinjury,lossordamageresultingdirectlyfromtheoffence. � • Onewaythecourtdeterminestheimpactofthecrimeonthevictimisthrough �Victim
ImpactStatements. • Sentencingmustbalancejusticeforthevictimandthecircumstancesoftheoffence
andtheoffender.Forvictimsandmembersofthepublicsentencingisthemomentwherejusticeisseen(ornotseen)tobedone. �
EnvironmentalCrimePrevention:
Focusesonpreventingcrimethroughmanagingtheenvironmentinwhichcrimetakesplace-thetargetandguardianshipaspects.CPTED-‘CrimePreventionThroughEnvironmentalDesign’
• Preventionthroughbroad-basedurbanplanning&architecture1)Planningand‘naturalsurveillance’(Jacobs)2)Territorialreinforcementof‘defensiblespace’(Newman)3)Accesscontrol4)Activitysupportandimagemanagement
SitCP–SituationalCrimePrevention• MoreFocused/Sitespecific• Targethardening• BasedonRationalChoiceTheoryandRoutineActivityTheory• Thereforefocusesonincreasingeffortsandrisks,andreducingtherewards,as
wellasremovingprovocationsandexcuses.LimitationsofEnvironmentalCrimePrevention:
• Doesnotaddressunderlyingcausesofcrime(e.g.poverty,homelessness)• Canfocusonparticulargroupsdisproportionately(e.g.youth)• PoliticaloverrelianceonCCTVbutweakevidenceofeffectiveness• Onlyfocusesonparticularcrimes–e.g.streetcrimeandpropertycrime,not
domesticviolenceandsexualassault• Displacement–mayjustmovecrimetoanotherarea
SocialCrimePrevention
• ‘Criminalityprevention’• Crimereductionthroughprosocialactivitiesandbehaviour.• Technicaldefinition:‘Approachestocrimepreventionwhichfocus
onunderlyingproblemsinvaluesandsocialdisciplinesperceivedasmakingsomepeoplemorelikelytoincorporatethecommissionofcrime(s)aspartoftheirrepertoireofbehaviours’.
Limitation:Opportunitiesforlabelling’1. DevelopmentalCrimePrevention
o Basedondelinquencystudieso Identificationandminimisationofriskfactorse.g.impulsiveness,earlyanti-
socialbehaviour,abuse/neglecto Strengtheningofprotectivefactorse.g.education,strongparentalbonds,
communityinvolvemento Problemswith‘labelling’
2. Agency-BasedPreventiono Onusandresponsibilityonschoolsandotherinstitutionstobemoreinclusive.o Researchintomainstreamsociallinksandtheissueof‘losingcontact’(Matza
1964).o Schools,‘injustice’andmarginalisationo Recognitionoftheroleofschoolsandotheragenciesinidentifyingandassisting
the‘at-risk’.
Approaches1. Developmental2. Agency-based3. Community
Development4. Diversion5. Education
Chapter25–Experts,LayPeopleandForensicsWhatisforensicScience?
• ForensicshasnowbecomeandintegralpartoftheCJS.• Forensicscienceis“theapplicationofsciencetothosecriminalandcivillaws
thatareenforcedbypoliceagenciesinacriminaljusticesystem”(Safterstein1998:2).
Functionsofforensicscience1. Informslawenforcementduringinvestigationsaboutthenatureofcrimes.2. Assistinthedetectionandprosecutionofknownoffenders.• Informdecisionaboutthelegalguilt,prospectivelegalguilt,orinnocenceofan
offender.ForensicsintheCJprocess:
• “Pre-crime”:crimeisunderstoodintermsofriskorpotentialloss(Zedner2007).Discoursesofsafetyareoftenprominent.
• Investigationasameanstodetect,identify,andintervenebeforecrimesoccur.• Closelinkbetweenforensicsandintelligenceanalysis,data-retention,etc.• “Post-crime”:crimehasalreadyoccurredandisinneedofinvestigationpost
hoc.• Forensicsusedasameanstoretroactivelyidentifyandinvestigateacriminal
event.• e.g.Traditionalcrimesceneinvestigation,orcyberforensics.
TypesofForensicsciences:DNAForensics:
• Bothpre-andpost-crimefunctionsIthasbeennotedthatDNAsamplesrecoveredfromcrimescenes:“…canbederivedfrommanydifferentmaterialsandareas.ItispossibletoobtainsamplesofDNAfromfabrics,cigarettes,toolsandutensilsaswellasfromminuteamountsofbiologicalmaterial,evenwherethismaterialhasbeendepositedmanyyearsearlier,hasbeendegradedorisnotevenvisibletothenakedeye”(DRP,2010:10-11).
Fingerprinting:(‘Dactyloscopy’)• Types
§ Plastic§ Visible§ Latent
• Primaryinvestigativepractice• Pre-crimevspost-crime
Handwriting:• Oftenusedtoconveylegitimacy/powertoinvestigations• Examplesofcase:fraud,suicide,ransom/extortion• Lesspreciseandaffectedbynumerousfactors• Pre-crimevspost-crime
TraceForensicsandBiologicalTraceForensics:• Usedtoidentifywhowasthereandwhathappened• Roleofcontext–wastraceleftasaresultofcriminalact,orsimplyeveryday
behaviour(e.g.hair-brush).• Pre-crimevspost-crime
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