Chapter 6 - 8: Skeletal System & Joints (Abbreviated)

Chapter 6 - 8:Skeletal System

& Joints (Abbreviated)

Bernard Siegfried Albinus 1697 – 1770

Famous for his drawings in the work entitled Tables of the Skeleton and Muscles

of the Human Body published in 1747.

An example of Albinus’ drawings of the skeleton.

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Figure 6.1 The bones and cartilages of the human skeleton.

Axial skeleton

Appendicular skeleton

Hyaline cartilages

Elastic cartilages

Fibrocartilages

Cartilages

Bones of skeleton

EpiglottisLarynx

TracheaCricoidcartilage Lung

Respiratory tube cartilagesin neck and thorax

ThyroidcartilageCartilage in

external earCartilages innose

ArticularCartilageof a joint

Costalcartilage

Cartilage inIntervertebraldisc

Pubicsymphysis

Articular cartilageof a joint

Meniscus (padlikecartilage inknee joint)

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Figure 6.2 Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(a) Long bone(humerus)

(b) Irregular bone(vertebra), rightlateral view

(d) Short bone(talus)

(c) Flat bone(sternum)

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Figure 6.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

Proximal epiphysis

(a)

Epiphyseal line

Articularcartilage

Periosteum

Spongy bone

Compact boneMedullarycavity (linedby endosteum)

Diaphysis

Distal epiphysis

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(b)

Articularcartilage

Spongy bone

Compact bone

Figure 6.3b The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

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(c)

Yellowbone marrow

Endosteum

Compact bone

Periosteum

Perforating(Sharpey’s) fibers

Nutrientarteries

Figure 6.3c The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

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Figure 6.4 Comparison of different types of bone cells.

(a) Osteogenic cell (b) Osteoblast (c) Osteocyte

Stem cell Mature bone cellthat maintains the

bone matrix

Matrix-synthesizingcell responsiblefor bone growth

(d) Osteoclast

Bone-resorbing cell

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Figure 6.5 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.

Compactbone

Trabeculae

Spongy bone(diploë)

Figure 6.9 Endochondral ossification in a long bone.

1 2 3 4 5 Bone collarforms aroundhyaline cartilagemodel.

Cartilage in thecenter of thediaphysis calcifiesand then developscavities.

The periostealbud invades theinternal cavitiesand spongy bonebegins to form.

The diaphysis elongatesand a medullary cavityforms as ossificationcontinues. Secondaryossification centers appearin the epiphyses inpreparation for stage 5.

The epiphysesossify. Whencompleted, hyalinecartilage remains onlyin the epiphysealplates and articularcartilages.

Hyalinecartilage

Area ofdeterioratingcartilage matrix

Epiphysealblood vessel

Spongyboneformation

Epiphysealplatecartilage

Secondaryossificationcenter

Bloodvessel ofperiostealbud

Medullarycavity

Articularcartilage

Childhood toadolescence

BirthWeek 9 Month 3

Spongybone

Bonecollar Primaryossificationcenter

Figure 6.12 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels.

Osteoclastsdegrade bonematrix and release Ca2+

into blood.

Parathyroidglands

Thyroidgland

Parathyroidglands releaseparathyroidhormone (PTH).

StimulusFalling bloodCa2+ levels

PTH

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 mlBALANCEBALANCE

Figure 6.13 Bone anatomy and bending stress.

Load here (body weight)

Head offemur

Compressionhere

Point ofno stress

Tensionhere

Figure 6.14 Vigorous exercise can lead to large increases in bone strength.

Cross-sectionaldimension of the humerusAddedbone matrixcounteractsadded stress

(b) Serving arm

(a)

Nonserving arm

Steel “Bone Cages” used to lengthen legs. These were originally developed in the Soviet Union in the 1950s to treat dwarfism.

Twelve-year-old boy with pituitary gigantism measuring 6'5" with his mother. Note the coarse facial features and prominent jaw.

An example of untreated acromegaly.

Exogenous induction of Acromegaly

Another Example of exogenous use of GH

Chelation Therapy – intravenous administration of chemicals designed to absorb toxic substances that have accumulated in the body. Most notably used for exposure to heavy metals such as lead or mercury.

Figure 6.15 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture.

Hematoma Externalcallus

Bonycallus ofspongybone

Healedfracture

Newbloodvessels

Spongybonetrabecula

Internalcallus(fibroustissue andcartilage)

1 A hematoma forms. 2 Fibrocartilaginouscallus forms.

3 Bony callus forms. 4 Boneremodelingoccurs.

Figure 6.16 The contrasting architecture of normal versus osteporotic bone.

Figure 6.17 Fetal primary ossification centers at 12 weeks.

Parietal bone

Radius

Ulna

Humerus

Femur

Occipital bone

ClavicleScapula

Ribs

Vertebra

Ilium

Tibia

Frontal boneof skull

Mandible

Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.

Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12

Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum

Coccyx4 fused vertebrae

Anterior view Right lateral view

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocesses

Intervertebraldiscs

Intervertebralforamen

C1

Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (1 of 3)

Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (2 of 3)

Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (3 of 3)

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Figure 7.11 Detailed anatomy of the mandible and the maxilla.

CoronoidprocessMandibular foramen

Mental foramen

Mandibular angle

Ramus ofmandible

Mandibularcondyle

Mandibular notch

Mandibular fossaof temporal bone

Body of mandible

Alveolar margin

(a) Mandible, right lateral view

Temporomandibularjoint

Frontal process

Articulates withfrontal bone

Anterior nasalspine

Infraorbitalforamen

Alveolarmargin

(b) Maxilla, right lateral view(c) Maxilla, photo of right lateral view

Orbitalsurface

Zygomaticprocess(cut)

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Figure 7.15 Paranasal sinuses.

Frontalsinus

Ethmoidalair cells(sinus)

Maxillarysinus

Sphenoidsinus

Frontalsinus

Ethmoidalair cells

Maxillarysinus

Sphenoidsinus

(a) Anterior aspect (b) Medial aspect

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Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.

Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12

Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum

Coccyx4 fused vertebrae

Anterior view Right lateral view

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocesses

Intervertebraldiscs

Intervertebralforamen

C1

Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (1 of 3)

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Table 7.2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (3 of 3)

i > Clicker Question #4

Looking at the image of this bone, which side of the body would you say this bone is from?

A) Right

B) Left

i > Clicker Question #5

Looking at the image of this bone, which side of the body would you say this bone is from?

A) Right

B) Left

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Figure 7.33a Bones of the right foot.

Medialcuneiform

Phalanges

Metatarsals

TarsalsNavicular

Intermediatecuneiform

Talus

Calcaneus(a) Superior view

Cuboid

Lateralcuneiform

Proximal54321

Middle

Distal

Trochleaof talus

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Figure 7.34a Arches of the foot.

Medial longitudinalarch

Transverse arch

Laterallongitudinal arch

(a) Lateral aspect of right foot

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Figure 7.38 Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions.

Sir John Charnley – doctor who pioneered the use of artificial

joints in the early 1960s.

Fibrous Joints – joints that are created via fibrous connective tissues that are going to allow virtually no movement.

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Figure 8.1a Fibrous joints.

Densefibrousconnectivetissue

Sutureline

(a) Suture

Joint held together with very short,interconnecting fibers, and bone edges

interlock. Found only in the skull.

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Figure 8.1b Fibrous joints.

Fibula

Tibia

Ligament

(b) Syndesmosis

Joint held together by a ligament.Fibrous tissue can vary in length, but

is longer than in sutures.

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Figure 8.1c Fibrous joints.

Root oftooth

Socket ofalveolarprocess

Periodontalligament

(c) Gomphosis

“Peg in socket” fibrous joint. Periodontalligament holds tooth in socket.

Cartilaginous Joints – joints that are created via cartilage these joints allow a small amount of movement.

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Figure 8.2a Cartilaginous joints.

Epiphysealplate (temporaryhyaline cartilagejoint)

Sternum(manubrium)

Joint betweenfirst rib andsternum(immovable)

(a) SynchondrosesBones united by hyaline cartilage

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Figure 8.2b Cartilaginous joints.

Fibrocartilaginousintervertebraldisc

Pubic symphysis

Body of vertebra

Hyaline cartilage

(b) SymphysesBones united by fibrocartilage

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Figure 8.3 General structure of a synovial joint.

Periosteum

Ligament

FibrouscapsuleSynovialmembrane

Joint cavity(containssynovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)cartilage

Articularcapsule

Figure 8.3

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Figure 8.4 Bursae and tendon sheaths.

Acromionof scapula

Joint cavitycontainingsynovial fluid

Synovialmembrane

Fibrouscapsule

Humerus

Hyalinecartilage

Coracoacromialligament

Subacromialbursa

Fibrousarticular capsule

Tendonsheath

Tendon oflong headof bicepsbrachii muscle

(a) Frontal section through the right shoulder joint

Coracoacromialligament

Subacromialbursa

Cavity inbursa containingsynovial fluid

Bursa rollsand lessensfriction.

Humerus headrolls medially asarm abducts.

(b) Enlargement of (a), showing how a bursa eliminates friction where a ligament (or other structure) would rub against a bone

Humerus resting

Humerus moving

Figure 8.7a–c

Figure 8.7d

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Figure 8.13a The temporomandibular (jaw) joint.

Zygomatic process

Mandibular fossaArticular tubercle

Infratemporal fossa

Externalacousticmeatus

ArticularcapsuleRamus ofmandible

Lateralligament

(a) Location of the joint in the skull

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Figure 8.13c The temporomandibular (jaw) joint.

(c) Lateral excursion: lateral (side-to-side) movements of the mandible

Outline ofthe mandibularfossa

Superior view

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Figure 8.15 X ray of a hand deformed by rheumatoid arthritis.