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Chapters 11-12 (LeUnes):
Leadership and Group Cohesion Audience Effects on Sport
Psychology of Sport
Sep 28-Oct 5, 2009Class #14-17
Definition of a Leader...
One that leads or guides
One in charge or command of others
One who has influence, especially of a political nature
American Heritage Dictionary Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
What are the Common Traits of a Leader?What are the Common Traits of a Leader?
Can you find characteristics common Can you find characteristics common to the great leaders of both past and to the great leaders of both past and present?present?
Does every leader have to have Does every leader have to have certain traits?certain traits?
Leadership Traits - The Big 8
Self-confidenceTrustworthiness/IntegrityAssertivenessEmotional stabilitySense of Humor/SociabilitySelf-awareness and self-objectivityCognitive skillsEmotional Intelligence
What not to do:
Have an insensitive, abrasive, or bullying styleBe aloof or arrogantBetray personal trustHave self-centered ambitionFail to constructively face obvious problemsMicro-manageSelect poor subordinatesThink short-termDon’t adapt to your boss’s different styleOverly depend on a “sponsor” or mentor
Common Leadership TraitsCommon Leadership Traits
What do leadership studies have in What do leadership studies have in common?common?
Let’s look at a few in more detail…Let’s look at a few in more detail…
IntelligenceIntelligence
Definition:Definition:The capacity to acquire and apply The capacity to acquire and apply knowledgeknowledge
Application:Application:To make difficult decisionsTo make difficult decisions
To find information To find information
To synthesize and interpret dataTo synthesize and interpret data
Discussion:Discussion:Is it necessary to be intelligent to be a good Is it necessary to be intelligent to be a good leader?leader?
Self-Confidence
DefinitionConfidence in oneself or one’s abilities
Application:Willing to tackle difficult situations
Confident in own abilities
Discussion:Can self-confidence be a hindrance in certain situations and/or contexts?
IntegrityIntegrity
DefinitionDefinitionRigid adherence to a code or standard of Rigid adherence to a code or standard of valuesvalues
Application:Application:Being able to make the ‘right’ decision Being able to make the ‘right’ decision
Modelling ethical proprietyModelling ethical propriety
Discussion:Discussion:Can integrity hinder a leader from making Can integrity hinder a leader from making certain decisions?certain decisions?
SociabilitySociability
DefinitionDefinitionThe disposition or quality of being sociable.The disposition or quality of being sociable.
Application:Application:Being able to work with different groups Being able to work with different groups towards a common goaltowards a common goal
Being seen as a positive leader from a variety Being seen as a positive leader from a variety of groupsof groups
Discussion:Discussion:Is it possible to be an effective leader without Is it possible to be an effective leader without social skills?social skills?
Trait Theory:Trait Theory:“The Great Man Theory”“The Great Man Theory”
Focuses solely on the leaderFocuses solely on the leader
Emphasis on core traits for ‘success’Emphasis on core traits for ‘success’
Organizations should focus the Organizations should focus the selection process on these traitsselection process on these traits
Effective for individuals:Effective for individuals:Allows for growth/changeAllows for growth/change
ReflectionReflection
How about in How about in sports???sports??? John Wooden is always mentioned John Wooden is always mentioned
when talking about the best when talking about the best leaders in sports…leaders in sports…
Vince Lombardi: Vince Lombardi: ““Winning isn’t everything, it’s the only Winning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing…”thing…”
Behavior Theory:Behavior Theory:
But what of the situation?But what of the situation?
What of the subordinates?What of the subordinates?
What of the culmination of different What of the culmination of different events and situations?events and situations?
Situation-Contingent Leader Influence
Contingency Trait Theories
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory- Personality traits that lead to leader effectiveness in one situation may lead to failure in another- Personality traits are linked here to the specific situation
- Examples: Doug Collins; Bobby Knight
Coach Doug Collins had Coach Doug Collins had differences with his young differences with his young
star...star...
Bobby Knight: Bobby Knight: “My way or the “My way or the highway…”highway…” Discipline is his trademark…Discipline is his trademark…
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Two Factors involved:Personality of the leader
Degree to which the situation gives the leader power
Two types of motivation involved:Relationship motivation
Task motivation
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Born or not born debate…Supporters of this theory feel leadership training programs are of little to no value
They can only enhance power and influence that the leader already possesses
Path-Goal Theory
Situation Specific Leader InfluenceThis theory is concerned with the
situations under which various
leader behaviors are most
effective
Effective leadership is a function of learned behaviors that are situation specific
Path-Goal Theory
Emphasis is on the needs and goals of the athlete
Coach is viewed as more of a facilitator
Coach helps athlete to realize his or her goals
Bottom line: Guide the athlete to success
Tom Landry and Roger Staubach may be good examples of this theory...
Path-Goal Theory
Born or not born debate…Here, the view would be that individual can be taught to be a good leader
Life Cycle Theory
Emphasis in leadership behavior on the subordinates and not the leader
The type of leadership style for any specific situation depends on the maturity of the subordinate
Life Cycle Theory
Task structure behavior decreases with increased maturityRelationship behavior is low when dealing with athletes of both low and high levels of maturity but high when dealing with athletes of moderate levels
Case (1987): Sport Psychology implications
Feels young athletes who lack maturity and highly skilled and mature athletes would not respond well to high task structure
They would benefit from coaches high in relationship motivation
Moderately mature athletes need more structure
But less relationship motivation
Life Cycle Theory
Born or not born debate…Again, the view here would be that individual can be taught to be a good leader
The Ohio State/Michigan Studies
- Initiating Consideration: the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern for employees
- Initiating Structure: the degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment
The idea here is that leadership behavior ca be trained
Okay, so far we can break leadership theories down like this:
Trait – Innate Behavior – Can be Trained
Universal Trait or Great Man Theory
Michigan and OSU studies
Situation - Contingent
Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership
Path-Goal Theory
Life Cycle Theory
Other theories:
The Functional Model
Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Model
The Functional Model
Leadership does not rest with one person but rests on a set of behaviors by the group that gets things doneAny member of the group can perform these behaviorsThis model places greater emphasis on how an organization or task is being led rather than who has been formally assigned a leadership role
The Functional Model
A sport example of this model would be a group or committee that has been established to determine the club’s social activities for the season
Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Model
Proposed indicator of effective leadershipPerformance outcomesMember satisfaction
Interaction of three components of leadership are involved here:
Prescribed leader behaviorsEstablished norms
Preferred leader behaviorsAthletes prefer these in their coach
Actual leader behaviorsCoach’s actual behaviors
Best case scenario: Congruence
Congruence between all three types lead to optimal performance and satisfaction
Possible Problems…
All three leader behaviors are incongruent If actual is incongruent with both prescribed and preferred – outcome is that coach will be firedIf prescribed and actual are congruent but incongruent with preferred – outcome is good performance despite low satisfactionIf actual and preferred are congruent but prescribed is incongruent – outcome is a satisfied but low performance athlete or team
Playing Position and Leadership
Those playing the central positions are often the leaders
Example: In baseball from what position do you find go on to become managers? Catchers
Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS)
See handout
Group Cohesion
The strength of the bonds among group members
Interpersonal cohesiveness: Enjoyment of one another’s company
Task cohesiveness: Commitment to the group’s task
Factors Affecting Team Cohesion
Groups Size
Task
Team Tenure
Satisfaction
Groups Size: Social Loafing
A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled
Individuals in a group who are working below their potential
Ringelman’s (1880’s) experiments
Individual output declines on pooled tasks in all his experimentsFor example in a rope-tugging task
Units pulled in rope-tugging task:1 person 100 2 people 1863 people 2558 people 392
Social Loafing
Ingham et al (1974) Blind folded rope pulling
DV: Effort
IV: Thought people were behind them or not
Subjects pulled 18% harder when they thought they were alone
Latane, Williams, and Latane, Williams, and Harkins (1979)Harkins (1979)
Sat participant in a Sat participant in a group of 6 people…group of 6 people…– Blindfolded participant Blindfolded participant
and had them put on and had them put on headphonesheadphones
– Played clapping or Played clapping or shouting over shouting over headphones headphones
– I.V. thought they were I.V. thought they were making noise alone or making noise alone or with 5 otherswith 5 others
– Results: 1/3 less noise Results: 1/3 less noise when they thought when they thought others were also making others were also making noisenoise
Why does loafing happen ?
Diffusion of responsibility:In a group we feel able to share responsibility and this may lead to a reduction of effort
Free-rider effect: If we feel like our contribution is not essential…still benefit from the group and give little in return (low input, high output)
Sucker effect: Willing to do your share but not more than that (esp. if others are free-riding)Since everyone is benefiting and getting credit, you don’t want to be the sucker who does all the work (and no recognition), therefore do the minimum requirement
We loaf less when…
If personal efforts are identifiableIf a task is challenging, appealing, or involving
If the task is meaningful and importantIf we think our contribution is essential
If we are working with friends vs. strangers
If the group expects to be punished for poor performance
If the group is small
If the group is cohesive
Task
Interactive vs. Coactive sports
Team Tenure
Team half-life
Team Satisfaction
Martens and Peterson (1971)
Williams and hacker (1982)
Social Facilitation
If performance can be individually evaluated, the presence of others will be arousing (improve performance on simple tasks but interfere with performance on complex tasks)
Triplett (1898)
One of first sport or social psychology experiment
We mentioned this during our talk first week of semester
Zajonc (1965)
Proposed that the mere presence of others increases arousal which in turn affects our performance
Zajonc (1969)
Cockroach study Cockroach placed in a tube with a bright light at one end of the tube…
To escape the light, the cockroach had to run down the tube and into a darkened box at the other end of the tube…
DV: Speed of escape
IV: Presence or absence of other cockroaches
Results: Cockroaches were faster to escape when other cockroaches were present
Criticisms of Zajonc
Support for this model was eroded when later studies showed that the type of audience was important e.g. home or away fans
The exact mechanism behind the social facilitation has yet to be determined but all of the following have been proposed: heightened self-awareness, self-consciousness, self-presentation concern, self-monitoring and self-attention
Michaels et al. (1982)
Secretly rated pool players in a hall as above average or below average ability…
Then a group of confederates came and stood by their table as they played
The above average players' shot accuracy improved from 71 to 80% accurate, while the below average players slipped from 36 to 25% accurate
Does the Yerkes-Dodson Law applies here?
The Home Advantage
The presence of a supportive and interactive audience
Is it real?
Why might it be?
Are their other factors involved than the court/field?
HOME ADVANTAGE
The belief that a home crowd causes an advantage for the home team
It is believed that this effect is more prominent in sports such as basketball and ice hockey where the audience are located very close to the court
The Home Advantage
Functional Assertive BehaviorSuperior performance by home team
Dysfunctional Assertive behaviorInhibited performance by away team
The Hostile Crowd
Case Study: Pacers vs. Pistons
Fight started on the Fight started on the court…court…
But then players went But then players went into the stands…into the stands…
DISTRACTION EFFECT
Barron suggested that crowds cause a distraction to the performer as a performer can only attend to a small number of cue’s while performing
He therefore suggested that simple tasks were best performed in the presence of a crowd while complex tasks will be best performed in isolation
Home Disadvantage
Critical gamesDoes it cause the home team to “choke”
Self-Presentation Effects
Can sometimes hurt a home team player’s performance
Baumeister and Steinhilber (1984, 1995)
Critical games might be a home disadvantage
Self-Presentation Effects
Cottrell questioned the fact that the mere presence of others would raise arousal levelsHe suggested that audiences can have a calming effect on performers in some circumstancesHe suggested that arousal only occurred in front of an audience when the performer perceived the audience to be assessing their performance
Self-Presentation Self-Presentation EffectsEffects Too much self-attentionToo much self-attention Case Studies: Kenny Rogers; Alex Case Studies: Kenny Rogers; Alex
RodriguezRodriguez
Basking in Reflected Glory
Everyone enjoys being associated with a winner
See next slide
J-E-T-S: JETS, JETS, JETSJ-E-T-S: JETS, JETS, JETS
Credits
Several slides in this presentation prepared by the following:
http://www.lennonportal.net/index_files/leader.ppt#257,2,What is the definition of a Leader?http://web2.uwindsor.ca/faculty/busad/facpages/reavley/ID07leadership.ppt#260http://www.business.mcmaster.ca/courses/com2ba3/2BA3%20Week%2011.ppt
http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:VH460txzlnkJ:www.queens.herts.sch.uk/Pe/POWERPOINT_A-LEVEL/leadership.ppt+Chelladurai+Multidimensional+Leadership+PPT&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=5http://www.rickmansworth.herts.sch.uk/departments/PE2/staffarea_files/Resources/a2revisionpresentation.ppt
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