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Cognitive ProcessesPSY 334
Chapter 10 – Reasoning & Decision-Making
May 28, 2003
Set Effects
Set effect – when previous experience biases a subject toward a particular operator. Can prevent finding the solution to a new
problem. Luchins water jug problem.
Addition solution: 2A + C Subtraction solution: B – A – 2C New addition problems solved quicker and
subtraction problems solved more slowly.
Einstellung Effect
Mechanization of thought – a set effect in which subjects get used to using a particular solution strategy. After using B – 2C – A, subjects cannot
find the easier solution A – C to problem 8. 64% of whole setup group failed 8 & 79%
used less efficient solution to 9 & 10. 1 % of controls used B-2C-A & 95% solved
question 8;
Incubation Effects
Some kinds of problems tend to benefit from interruption (incubation). 55% without break, 64% 1 hr, 85% 4 hr. Delay may disrupt set effects.
Problems depending on a set of steps or procedures do not benefit from interruption. Subjects forget their plan and must review
what was previously done.
Insight
There is no magical “aha” moment where everything falls into place, even though it feels that way. People let go of poor ways of solving the
problem during incubation. Subjects do not know when they are
close to a solution, so it seems like insight – but they were working all along.
Research on Logic
Logic – a subdiscipline of philosophy and mathematics that formally specifies what it means for an argument to be correct.
Human deviations from logic were thought to be malfunctions of the mind.
Recent comparisons of human thinking show that logic is not an appropriate prescriptive norm.
Two Kinds of Reasoning
Reasoning – the process of inferring new knowledge from what we already know.
Deductive reasoning – conclusions follow with certainty from their premises. Reasoning from the general to the specific.
Inductive reasoning – conclusions are probable rather than certain. Reasoning from the specific to the general. Probabilistic – based on likelihoods.
Conditionals
If-then statements. Antecedent – the “if” part. Consequent – the “then” part.
Rules of inferences using conditionals: Modus ponens -- If A then B, A, conclude
B Modus tollens – If A then B, not-B,
conclude not-A Notation: negation, implication, therefore.
Logical Fallacies
Denial of the antecedent: If P then Q, not-P, conclude not-Q If P then Q, not-P, conclude Q
Affirmation of the consequent: If P then Q, Q, conclude P If P then Q, Q, conclude not-P
Subjects seem to interpret the conditional as a biconditional – if means “if and only if”
How People Reason
People may be reasoning in terms of conditional probabilities. Conditional probabilities can be found that
correspond to acceptance rates for fallacies.
Wason selection task – can be explained in terms of probabilities. Also explained by a permission schema
Quantifiers
Categorical syllogism – analyzes propositions with quantifiers “all,” “no,” and “some.”
Fallacies: Some A’s are B’s Some B’s are C’s Conclude: Some A’s are C’s Substitute women for A, lawyers for B, men
for C to see what is wrong.
Atmosphere Hypothesis
People commit fallacies because they tend to accept conclusions with the same quantifiers as the premises. No A’s are B’s All B’s are C’s Conclude No A’s are C’s.
Universal premises go with universal conclusions, particular with particular.
Does not fully explain behavior.
Process Explanations
People construct a mental model to think concretely about the situation.
Correct conclusions depend upon choosing the correct mental model.
Errors occur because people overlook possible explanations of the premises: All the squares are striped Some striped objects have bold borders. Some of the squares have bold borders.
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