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Designing Roads and Parking Areas
8
139
Chapter 8—
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
Proper road and parking area design is critical
in recreation sites, especially for vehicles towing
trailers. Traffic circulation should be simple,
functional, and avoid dead ends.
Road System DesignDesigning roads is a complex process that is beyond
the scope of this guidebook. Road geometry and
components, including turning radii, sight distances,
horizontal and vertical alignments, and intersections,
must conform to AASHTO requirements and any
other applicable standards. Consult with a qualified
transportation engineer. Designers need to know not
only engineering essentials, but also basic equestrian
needs when designing recreation site roads.
Recreation Site EntrancesThe access to most recreation sites is from a State
or county highway. Any work performed within
the rights-of-way of Federal, State, or county roads
requires applicable permits. The road agencies also
may require acceleration, deceleration, or turning
lanes. During design, carefully analyze the location of
intersections. Use only one site entrance to minimize
conflicts with highway traffic. One entrance also
simplifies incoming traffic flow and makes site
management easier. Safe exits avoid steep grades and
have adequate clear sight distance for approaches and
departures. Vehicles towing heavy horse trailers need
a lot of time to merge with highway traffic, so make
sure merge lanes are long enough.
Avoid locating intersections on sharp curves or at areas
with awkward grade combinations. Carry the grade of
the main road through the intersection and adjust the
grade of the access road to it. The grade of the access
road should be 6 percent or less where it approaches
the main road. A maximum grade of 5 percent at
intersections allows vehicles pulling horse trailers to
accelerate more quickly so they can merge safely into
highway traffic. The preferred grade is 1 to 2 percent.
For roads where snow and ice may create poor
driving conditions, AASHTO (2001a) lists the
preferred grade on the approach leg as 0.5 percent
to no more than 2 percent, as practical. Avoid
intersections that are slightly offset from each other
on opposite sides of the main road. More than two
roads intersecting at one location may cause traffic
management problems.
Design VehiclesRoad design is based on vehicle dimensions and
operating characteristics. Transportation engineers
must know which design vehicle is used at the site.
In an equestrian recreation site, this is a passenger
vehicle—a pickup truck—pulling a horse trailer.
The standard design length for passenger vehicles
is 19 feet (5.8 meters). Newer model pickup trucks
range from about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long for a
standard pickup to about 22.5 feet (6.8 meters) long
for a pickup with an extended cab and long bed.
Common horse trailers vary from 16 feet (4.9 meters)
long for a two-horse, bumper-pull trailer, to about
49 feet (15 meters) long for a six-horse, gooseneck
trailer with living quarters. Roads also may need to
accommodate 32- to 46.5-foot (9.7- to 14.2-meter)
motorhomes towing horse trailers. If a commercial
waste management company services a facility,
garbage trucks may be traveling through the site.
Visit with the land management agency to determine
the size of the expected vehicles and whether the
site needs to accommodate maintenance equipment.
The Parking Area Layout section in this chapter has
more information on lengths of common vehicles and
slant-load trailers.
Some turning radii guidelines are summarized in
table 8–1. Tight curves may have to be widened
more than indicated—consult current AASHTO
requirements for exact figures.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Table 8–1—Turning radii of some common design vehicles, rounded to the nearest 6 inches.
* A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO 2001) ** Architectural Graphic Standards (American Institute of Architects 2000).
Vehicle type Minimum inside turning radius (feet)
Minimum outside turning radius (feet)
Passenger vehicle with trailer
19-foot vehicle plus 30 feet total trailer length (including tongue—49 feet combined length
17.5 34.5
Motorhome with trailer
30-foot vehicle plus 23 feet total trailer length (including tongue)—53 feet combined length
35 51.5
Garbage truck**
Gross vehicle weight (GVW) 20,000 pounds with 25-foot 5-inch wheelbase
21 33.5
are often 12 feet (3.6 meters) wide, and double-lane
recreation site roads are often 24 feet (7.3 meters)
wide (figure 8–1). Shoulder width depends on
available space—1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 meter) usually
is adequate. Curves need to be widened on single-
lane roads to accommodate trailers. In most cases,
single-lane roads are constructed no wider than
14 feet (4.3 meters). If they are wider, drivers may
mistake them for narrow two-lane roads.
In a few situations, two-way traffic may be routed
along a single-lane recreation site road. Appropriate
situations include recreation sites where traffic
volume is very low, where the distance is short, or
where minimal environmental impact is desired.
When routing two-way traffic along a single-lane
road, the Forest Service constructs turnouts. The
dimensions and locations of turnouts must follow
Trail Talkestablished guidelines. Chapter 4 of the Road
Preconstruction Handbook FSH 7709.56 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1987)
has more information on Forest Service design and
standards. The handbook is available at http://www.
fs.fed.us/cgi-bin/Directives/get_dirs/fsh?7709.56.
Recreation roads on public lands are subject to
the AASHTO guidelines for local roads with very
low traffic volume. On low-volume two-lane roads
where the maximum speed is 30 miles per hour
(48.3 kilometers per hour), AASHTO (2001b)
recommends a width of 18 feet (5.5 meters). Single-
lane roads with two-way traffic often range from
11.5 to 13 feet (3.5 to 4 meters) wide.
Forest Lanes
The number of constructed lanes appropriate
for recreation site roads depends on safety
concerns and the amount of traffic. Forest Service
recreation site roads generally are narrow enough
to minimize landscape impacts but wide enough
for safe travel at up to 30 miles per hour (48.2
kilometers per hour).
The Forest Service requires single-lane roads to
be at least 10 feet (3 meters) wide if they serve
passenger vehicles moving no faster than 25 miles
per hour (40.2 kilometers per hour). Riders often
drive pickup trucks or motorhomes towing horse
trailers. Because these vehicles require more
maneuvering space than passenger vehicles, many
Forest Service recreation site roads are wider than
10 feet (3 meters). Single-lane recreation site roads
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–1—Typical cross sections for roads at recreation sites.
Trail TalkForest Lanes (continued)
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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142Figure 8–2—Loop roads lead to the lake. The campground loop roads fit between existing vegetation and drainages.
Road AlignmentMinimize landscape alterations by allowing
recreation site roads to complement the site’s natural
landforms. Visitors prefer curves to long straight
stretches when they are driving through a recreation
site. However, roads with curves must provide
adequate stopping sight distance. Where feasible,
roads should follow the contour, avoiding areas of
steep terrain. Try not to disturb appealing vegetation
or significant natural features. In some places, new
road alignments can take advantage of abandoned
roads.
Single-lane, one-way loop roads are best for single-
party campgrounds or group sites with individual
camp units. Loop roads make it easy for visitors to
get oriented. Managers like loops because they can
be closed as needed. Fit the loops between landforms,
dense stands of vegetation, streams, or drainages.
These barriers will screen noise and provide privacy.
Reduce road and trail duplication by aligning loop
roads so they lead to site attractions, such as trail
access points or a lake (figure 8–2). Field experience
shows that to provide an adequate buffer for camp
units, the loop road should enclose an area that is at
least 300 feet (91.4 meters) across. If vegetation is
sparse, allow more distance between the roads.
In areas with restricted space, consider incorporating
a double-lane road with a loop turnaround—a cul-de-
sac—at the end (figure 8–3). Make sure the cul-de-sac’s
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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143Figure 8–3—This cul-de-sac is large enough to accommodate parking pads.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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144Figure 8–4—A campground loop road in a restricted space with a high level of development.
turning radius accommodates the expected sizes
of vehicles. Unless the cul-de-sac is large enough,
avoid locating parking pads on the turnaround,
because it is difficult to maneuver vehicles with
trailers in and out of such areas. An oval-shaped cul-
de-sac accommodates parking pads well. Consult
Chapter 9—Designing Camp and Picnic Units for
more information on parking pads. Another concept
suitable for tight spaces is shown in figure 8–4.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Table 8–2—Suggested road grades for equestrian recreation site roads.
Road element Minimum grade(percent)
Maximum grade(percent)
Preferred grade(percent)
Interior recreation site roads 0 10 2 to 5
Site entrance or exit 0 5 1 to 2
Road cross slope
(to allow adequate drainage)
1 2 1 to 2
Road GradeDesign recreation site roads with minimal grades.
Wayne Iverson (1985) suggests that the maximum
road grade be 10 percent. A grade up to 12 percent
may be allowed for no more than 100 feet (30.5
meters). When the route is considered a pedestrian
access route, accessibility requirements apply. The
Forest Service Outdoor Recreation Accessibility
Guidelines (FSORAG) define an outdoor
recreation access route (ORAR) as a continuous,
unobstructed path intended for pedestrian use that
connects constructed features within a picnic area,
campground, or trailhead. The running slope on
ORARs should be 5 percent or less. On steeper
terrain, running slopes up to 8.3 percent are permitted
for as long as 50 feet (15.2 meters). Running slopes up
to 10 percent are permitted for as long as 30 feet (9.1
meters). Additional accessibility requirements apply
and are detailed in the FSORAG. The suggested road
grades are summarized in table 8–2.
Road ProfileMaintain landscape character by fitting recreation
site roads to the natural terrain. The objectives are
to keep cuts and fills to a minimum, ease pedestrian
flow to facilities, and reduce construction costs. Keep
cuts and fills less than 3 feet (0.9 meter). Wayne
Iverson (1985) indicates it is usually possible to
raise the finished grade about 6 to 12 inches (152 to
305 millimeters) above the natural grade to provide
drainage in areas with gentle terrain.
Road DrainageAvoid site damage by incorporating unobtrusive
drainage structures to carry surface water off
recreation site roads. Use culverts, drop inlets, dips,
dikes, curbs, paved or unpaved ditches, and similar
structures where needed. Low-profile culverts and
drainage structures reduce fill requirements. After
evaluating potential adverse environmental impacts,
consider using a ford as a low-water crossing.
Resource Roundup The Green Book
Recreation site roads are subject to guidelines
published and regularly updated by AASHTO.
Be sure to use the most recent editions. A Policy
on Geometric Design of Streets and Highways
addresses special-purpose roads that serve
recreation sites. This comprehensive volume,
sometimes called The Green Book, covers
design speed, design vehicle, sight distance,
grades, alignments, lane width, cross slopes,
barriers, and related subjects.
A companion volume, Guidelines for Geometric
Design of Very Low-Volume Local Roads
(ADT ≤ 400), addresses design philosophy and
guidelines. It also shows examples of unpaved
roads and two-way single-lane roads. These
AASHTO publications are available from the
bookstore at https://bookstore.transportation.
org/item_details.aspx?ID=157.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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146Figure 8–5—Parking dimensions and patterns for standard passenger vehicles. Increase the length of parking spaces if they will be used by pickup trucks with extended cabs and long beds. Forest Service parking areas must comply with the FSORAG.
Parking Area DesignDesign parking areas to provide smoothly flowing
traffic circulation for vehicles pulling trailers. Avoid
dead ends and allow the site’s terrain and vegetation
to guide the shape of parking areas. Consult Chapter
6—Choosing Horse-Friendly Surface Materials
for information regarding surface options. The
difference between equestrian parking areas and
standard parking is the size of the parking spaces.
Because riders share most trailheads with many users,
prevent conflicts by separating equestrian parking
areas from other parking areas. Consult Chapter
7—Planning Recreation Sites for more information
regarding separation. If the trailhead accommodates
hikers, mountain bikers, or picnickers, provide
passenger-vehicle parking spaces. According to Wayne
Iverson (1985), the minimum size for passenger-vehicle
parking spaces in recreation sites is 10 feet (3 meters)
wide by 20 feet (6.1 meters) long. Make some parking
spaces longer to accommodate longer pickup trucks.
Provide accessible parking spaces. Forest Service
parking areas must comply with the FSORAG. Figure
8–5 shows parking area dimensions for standard
passenger vehicles. If nonequestrians in motorhomes
frequent the area, provide spaces for them. While
motorhomes fit into equestrian parking spaces, it is
better to separate the conflicting uses.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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147Figure 8–6—Equestrian parking in restricted spaces.
Most drivers prefer pullthrough parking spaces that
are angled 45 or 60 degrees, because the angled
space is easier to navigate. Experience shows that this
is true for both equestrian and nonequestrian drivers.
Consider parking spaces angled at 90-degrees only
for nonequestrian parking.
If space is limited, consider incorporating back-
in parking spaces angled at 45 or 60 degrees. If
angled back-in spaces are used on single-lane roads,
locate the spaces on the driver’s side of the road. As
drivers back into the spaces, they can see obstacles
on the inside of the turn more easily. The parking
configuration is more obvious when back-in parking
spaces contain wheel stops. Install the wheelstops in
the parking space, 2 feet (0.6 meter) from the end.
Parallel parking spaces, while less desirable than
pullthrough spaces, also may be incorporated. Figure
8–6 shows an equestrian parking area where space
restrictions dictated the use of back-in and parallel
parking spaces. A separate entrance and exit make
the most efficient use of space. Landscape islands
and exit and entrance signs guide parking.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–8—Adequate space in parking areas makes it easier and safer to saddle and care for horses and mules. They are more comfortable and are more apt to wait quietly.
Figure 8–7—Saddling a horse or mule requires access to all sides of the animal, and tight quarters make the job difficult. Note the difference in the horse trailers. The trailer on the left has parallel horse stalls, and the trailer on the right has slant-load—or angled—stalls with a storage area behind the partially closed door.
Parallel stalls Slant-load stalls
Parking Area GradeFor the safety and comfort of riders and their stock,
equestrian parking areas need to be somewhat level.
This makes it easier to unload stock and gear, to
saddle an animal, or to spend time in mobile living
quarters. Horses or mules tied to trailers are much
happier standing for an extended period in a level
area. The recommended grade for a parking area is 1
to 2 percent, a comfortable range that allows proper
drainage of rainwater and animal urine. Accessibility
requirements also stipulate grades within this range.
Parking Area LayoutThe appropriate parking configuration depends on
drivers’ parking preferences, the number of parking
spaces desired, and the size of the site. In a group
camp, some riders are satisfied with an open area
where they can park as they wish. Others prefer
to have individual camp units, each with its own
parking pad. Because preferences vary, visit with
local horse organizations to discover their members’
preferred configuration for group parking.
Staging Areas
Popular equestrian sites need staging areas where it
is easy and safe to unload, groom, and saddle stock.
This means providing extra length and width in
parking spaces. Extra length allows riders to unload
stock and tie them at the rear of the trailer. Extra
width allows stock to be tied at the trailer’s side.
Figure 8–7 shows a rider saddling a horse in an area
with inadequate space. The horse must stand close
to the trailer, making it difficult to saddle the animal
properly and safely. Figure 8–8 shows horses tied to a
trailer with adequate staging area.
To determine the optimum width for parking spaces,
consider the trailer width, stock requirements, and
space needed for walking behind the stock. Generally,
trailers are 8 feet (2.4 meters) wide. Stock tied to the
side of the trailer need about 12 feet (3.6 meters) at
the side of the trailer, if they stand perpendicular to
the trailer. Another 4 feet (1.2 meters) is needed for a
person to safely walk or lead an animal behind tied
stock. Where space allows, add an extra 4 feet for
open doors on neighboring vehicles, for a parking
space that is 28 feet (8.5 meters) wide. Figure 8–9
illustrates parking and staging dimensions for several
vehicle and horse trailer combinations.
Determining the length of a parking space with staging
area is similar to figuring its width. The minimum
length required for safely unloading a horse or mule
from the rear of a horse trailer with an open door or
ramp is 15 feet (4.6 meters). Table 8–3 gives lengths of
common vehicles and slant-load trailers, as provided
by several horse trailer manufacturers. A slant-load
trailer allows stock to stand diagonal to the sidewall
instead of parallel (see figure 8–7). A gooseneck trailer
is similar to a fifth-wheel trailer. An extension (the
gooseneck) extends over the pickup bed and is attached
to a ball hitch in the truck bed. Vehicle lengths range
from a standard pickup truck pulling a two-horse
trailer to a 44-foot (13.4-meter) motorhome towing a
six-horse trailer with living quarters and tack room.
Because many campgrounds use a garbage service, the
length of a standard garbage truck is provided.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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149Figure 8–9—Optimum parking and staging dimensions for vehicles towing horse trailers.
Vehicle Length(feet)
2-horse bumper-pull trailer 16*
3-horse bumper-pull trailer 19*
4-horse bumper-pull trailer 23*
6-horse bumper-pull trailer 32*
2-horse gooseneck trailer 26 to 33**
3-horse gooseneck trailer 28 to 35**
4-horse gooseneck trailer 32 to 39**
6-horse gooseneck trailer 42 to 49**
Pickup truck 15 to 22.5
Motorhome 32 to 46.5
Garbage truck 28
Table 8–3—Lengths of vehicles, trailers, and a standard garbage truck. All trailers are slant loading.
* Measurements for bumper-pull trailers include the length of the hitch.
** Measurements for gooseneck trailers do not include the overhang above the truck bed.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–10—Horse trailers come in many different sizes and configurations. Common slant-load gooseneck trailers range from about 26 to 49 feet long.
Figure 8–11—Some vehicles carry up to eight horses, contain living quarters, and include storage space.
A 19-foot (5.8-meter) pickup truck towing a bumper-
pull, two-horse trailer would need a total length of
55 feet (16.8 meters) to park and unload safely. This
includes a 15-foot (4.6-meter) unloading area plus
walking space at both ends of the vehicle. A four-
horse gooseneck trailer drawn by a 19-foot pickup
truck would need 78 feet (23.8 meters) for parking
and loading. A 78-foot-long parking space covers
most parking and loading needs. Forty-two-foot
(12.8-meter) motorhomes pulling six-horse trailers
with interior living quarters may need a space 110
feet (33.5 meters) long (figures 8–10 and 8–11). If
these long trailers are common or expected in the
facility, provide several longer spaces for them. If
local riders commonly use two-horse trailers, provide
some 55-foot- (16.8-meter-) long spaces for them.
Spatially Challenged
Designers laying out the Blue Mountain Horse
Trailhead near Missoula, MT, had very little
space to provide rider, pedestrian, and bicyclist
facilities. Local riders wanted parking areas that
were 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide to accommodate
stock tied to the sides of trailers. Doing so would
have greatly reduced the number of equestrian
parking spaces. To resolve the problem, planners
chose 18-foot- (5.5-meter-) wide parking spaces
and provided ample hitch rails nearby. For more
information about this trailhead, see Chapter
16—Learning From Others.
Trail Talk
Open Parking Areas
Some riders prefer a parking area that does not
have defined parking spaces. This allows drivers
to arrange vehicles in a manner that best suits their
needs. When space is plentiful and riders want
flexibility, an open parking area is appropriate for a
group camp or trailhead. Where possible, locate open
parking areas in a large, sparsely vegetated area with
a slope no steeper than 4 percent.
Riders want to park facing the exit as they arrive,
orienting their vehicles for an easy departure. The
parking area should be large enough for undefined
parking spaces 28 feet by 78 feet (8.5 meters by 23.8
meters) and aisles that are 15 feet (4.6 meters) wide
per lane. The generously sized parking area will
allow many parking configurations. Designers may
plan one parking configuration and riders may park
in a very different way. Figure 8–12 illustrates the
planned configuration for a group camp and how
horse groups, such as 4-H clubs, often park in the
allotted space. The impromptu arrangement opens
the center area for the club’s activities.
A variation of the open parking area concept
incorporates several small parking areas (figures
8–13 and 8–14). The small areas help break up the
expanse of a large parking area and may be more
attractive. In a group camp, having more than one
parking area provides flexibility. A few different
groups could use the site simultaneously or one large
group could occupy all the parking areas.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–12—Designed parking compared to actual parking patterns.
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Figure 8–13—A recreation site for three small groups or one large group. An activity area is located in the center.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–14—A group camp parking area that can be used by two small groups or one large group.
Small Parking Areas
Figure 8–15 shows a parking concept appropriate for
small trailheads. The circulation pattern includes a
loop turnaround to prevent vehicles from becoming
trapped when all parking spaces are full. Because
the parking area is not paved, arrows cannot mark
the direction of traffic flow. In the United States,
designers can use a counter-clockwise traffic flow
that takes advantage of the familiar right-hand
driving pattern. Landscape islands guide vehicle
traffic and determine parking orientation. Directional
signs may be a helpful addition, along with wheel
stops.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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153Figure 8–15—Loop parking at a trailhead.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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154
Figure 8–17—A concrete parking marker.Figure 8–16—Concrete markers are used to delineate unpaved parking spaces in some areas of the country.
Concrete parking markers
Resource Roundup Marking the Spot
In 2002, the San Dimas Technology and
Development Center (SDTDC) conducted a
search for ways to designate parking on unpaved
and gravel parking areas. The ideal solution
would reduce traffic and eliminate confusion and
other parking problems. The study investigated
wheel stops, striping, construction whiskers, and
a soil stabilizer. Designating Parking Areas on
Unpaved Surfaces describes the results of the
study and is available at http://www.fs.fed.us/
eng/pubs/html/02231314/02231314.html.
Trail Talk
Delineating With Concrete
In the Southwest, where plowing and grading
are uncommon, some land management agencies
use concrete delineators (figure 8–16). The
delineators are durable enough to resist chipping
or breaking when an animal steps on them.
Because they are buried in the ground, they
will be damaged if areas are graded. To reduce
tripping, they are maintained flush with the road
or parking surface (figure 8–17). When painted
with white reflective traffic paint, the markers
are easily visible.
Parking Delineation
Because paved equestrian parking areas are not
recommended, delineating the parking spaces
becomes a challenge. Many agencies don’t delineate
parking spaces. Where delineation is necessary,
striping is just one of several alternatives.
Existing Vegetation
If there is natural vegetation in a planned parking
area, consider preserving it and turning the
surrounding area into a landscape island (see figures
8–14 and 8–15). The vegetation visually breaks up
the parking area, and the landscape island can guide
motorized traffic and provide a spot for drainage
basins. Where vegetation is sparse, preserve or plant
trees and shrubs along parking area perimeters and
in islands. The plantings relieve visual monotony, and
the shade is invaluable in hot weather.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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155Figure 8–18—Pavement should not be used in equestrian areas. Paving the exterior recreation site road is an exception to this rule because stock seldom travel there.
Site host unit
Road and Parking Area SurfacesEquestrians frequently ride or stand on interior
recreation site roads, in parking areas, and on
parking pads. Many times these areas are paved with
asphalt, chip seal, or concrete—surfaces that are not
recommended for equestrian use. Pavement and stock
don’t mix well because the hard surface provides
poor traction for metal horseshoes. Aggregate is the
recommended surface for equestrian recreation areas,
because it is slip-resistant, doesn’t allow water to
pool, and is comfortable to stand or walk on.
Pavement can be used for exterior recreation site
roads, which often receive more traffic than interior
roads (figure 8–18). Major benefits to paving
exterior roads include minimizing dust and reducing
maintenance requirements. Because horses usually
don’t use exterior recreation site roads, pavement
there generally doesn’t pose a hazard. If paved
exterior roads lead to trail access points, construct an
adjacent, unpaved trail for horses and mules.
At a trailhead intended for shared use, apply aggregate
only in the section where riders unload and saddle
stock before a ride. Pave the remaining nonequestrian
sections of the parking area (figure 8–19). Consult
Chapter 6—Choosing Horse-Friendly Surface
Materials for more information regarding surfaces.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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156
Figure 8–19—When user groups are separated, surface materials can match the needs of different groups. In this illustration, the equestrian parking area is surfaced with aggregate and the nonequestrian parking area is paved.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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Figure 8–20—A horse-friendly steel barrier.
Traffic ControlAvoid placing barriers that restrict vehicles along
the perimeters of site roads and parking areas that
are traveled by stock. Barriers in these areas can
be dangerous for stock and riders. Some stock may
become nervous around barriers, such as wood
bollards. This is especially true if the passageway
between the bollards is constricted. Attempts to ride
or lead a nervous animal through the barrier may
produce a rodeo. While there are no completely
horse-safe barriers, a wood or steel railing is suitable
(figure 8–20). Make sure barriers have no sharp
edges or other potential hazards. Large boulders
appear more natural to a horse or mule and may be
an alternative to bollards.
Designing Roads and Parking Areas
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158
Recommended