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Psicologia Educacional
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CHAPTER ONE:
“Learning, teaching and educational psychology”
Learning and
teaching todayCONFIDENCE IN EVERY CONTEXT
Paulina Farfán Guerrero
Instituto Cultural Mexicano
Norteamericano de Michoacán
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer
even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these
teachers believe in themselves and their students. The teachers’ sense
of efficacy is when a teacher belief that he or she can reach even
difficult students to help them learn.
HIGH EXPECTATIONS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
No childs left behind (NCLB) is an annual standardized achievement
tests on reading and mathematics.
Based on these tests scores, schools are judged to determine if their
students are making adequate yearly progress, toward becoming
proficient in the subjects tested. It includes racial and ethnic minority
students, students with disabilities, students whose first language is not
English, and students from low-income homes.
TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP
Research has shown that the quality of the teacher-student relationship
in kinder garden predicts a number of academic and behavioral
outcomes, particularly for students with behavior problems, who are
less likely to have problems later in school if their teachers are
sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback.
What is
good
teaching?MENTORS MATTER
Teaching is one of the few professions in which a new teacher must
assume all of the responsibilities of an experienced “pro” during the
first week on the job. Veteran teachers can be an excellent source of
information and support during these early weeks.
SO WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING?
Teachers must:
Be both knowledgeable and inventive
Be reflective to think back over situations to analyze what
they did and why, and to consider how they might improve
learning for their students.
Be able to use a range of strategies
Be capable of inventing new strategies
Have some basic research-based routines for managing
classes
Be willing and able to break from routines for managing
classes when the situation calls for a change.
Know the research on student development patterns
common to particular ages, culture, social class, geography
and gender.
Know their own particular students who are unique
combinations of culture, gender and geography.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
WHY DO WE NEED DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION?
The differentiated instruction is teaching that takes into account
students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction
matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs.
Many educators believe that classes should include students of diverse
needs, achievement levels, interests and learning styles and instruction
should be differentiated to take advantage of the diversity
ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENTATION
The confident teacher views these different student needs as
opportunities and work to create a curriculum and instruction for each
student that is focused, engaging, demanding and scaffold.
BEGINNING TEACHERS
There are some advices wrote by students:
Teach us as much as you can
Give us homework
Help us when we have problems with our work
Help us to do the right thing
Help us to make a family in the school
Read books to us
Teach us to read
Help us to write about faraway places
Give us lots of compliments like “Oh, that’s so beautiful”
Smile at us
Take us for walks and trips
Help us get our education
The role of
educational
psychologyWHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies
the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.
USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND AND IMPROVE LEARNING
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES:
These are studies that collect detailed information about specific
situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a
combination of these methods.
CORRELATION STUDIES:
Is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a
relationship between two events.
There are two types of correlation:
Positive correlation: Is a relationship between two variables in
which the two increase or decrease together. Ex: Calorie intake
and weight gain.
Negative correlation: A relationship between two variables in
which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the
other. Ex: height and distance from top of head to ceiling.
Correlation don’t show causation
When research shows that landscaped lawns and school
achievement are correlated, it does not show causation.
Community wealth, a third variable, may be the cause of both
school achievement and landscaped lawns
Faulty assumption
Lanscaped lawns
LEAD TO
School achievement
CORRELATION
More likely assumption
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES:
Is a research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects
recorded.
The quasi experimental studies are studies that fit most of the criteria
for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants
are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as
classes or schools participate in the experiments.
SINGLE-SUBJECT EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES:
Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by
applying and then withdrawing a treatment
Community wealth
LEAD
S TO
Landscaped lawns correlation School
achievement
LEA
DS T
O
Correlation
Correlation
MICROGENETIC STUDIES:
Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as
the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time.
TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS:
Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one classroom or
one school by action research. These are systematic observations or
test of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching
and learning for their students.
THE RESEARCH CYCLE
There are some factors that affect the learning achievement.
Among there are:
SCHOOL AND SOCIAL
CONTEXT
Classmates
Treatment from
teacher
Building
Noisy
PERSONAL FACTORS
Motivations
Family
Mood
Health
Ss with disabilities
Sex
Age
The term development in its most general psychological sense
refers to certain changes that occur in human beings between
conception and death.
The human development can be divided in:
NATURE VS NURTURE
Cognitive development:gradual orederly
changes by which mental processes
become more complex and sophisticated
Social development:Changes over time in the ways we relate to
others
Personal development:Changes in personality that takes place as one
grows
Physical development: Changes in body
structure and function over time
Maturation: Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over
time
CONTINUITY VS DISCONTINUITY
CRITICAL VS SENSITIVE PERIODS
NATURE
Maturation: Genetically
programmed, naturally occurring changes over
time
NURTURE
Coactions:Join actions of individual
biology and the environment each
shapes and influence the other
CONTINUITY
A continious process would be like gradual improvement in your
running endurance through systematic
exercise
DISCONTINUITY
A discontinious change is more like walking up
the stairs by level periods
BEWARE OF EITHER/OR
Most psychologist view human development, learning and
motivation as a set of interacting and coacting contexts from the
inner biological structures and processes that influence
development such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the
external factors of families, neighborhoods, social relationships,
educational and health institutions, public policies, time periods,
historical events, and so on.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
Although there is disagreement about exactly how development
takes place, there are a few general principles almost all theories
would support.
CRITICAL
Childhood experiences are critical, specially for emotional/social
and cognitive development.
SENSITIVE
Times when a person is specially ready for responsive to certain
experiences
The brain and
cognitive
development
People develop at different rates
Development is relatively orderly
Development takes place gradually
THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: NEURONS
The neurons are nerve cells that store and transfer information.
THALAMUS
Is involved in our ability to learn new information
HIPPOCAMPUS AND
AMYGDALA
Is critical in recalling new information and recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions
CEREBELLUM:
Coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements.
Neuron cells send out long arm and branch-like fibers called
axons and dendrites to connect with other neuron cells. The fiber
ends from different neurons don’t actually touch –there are tiny
spaces between them, about one billionth of a meter in length
called synapses.
The neurogenesis is the production of new neurons.
The glial cells are the white matter of the brain. These cells
greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions
such as fighting infections, controlling blood flows and
communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating
around axon fibers.
The Myelination is the process by which neutral fibers are coated
with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer
more efficient.
THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: CEREBRAL CORTEX
The cerebral cortex allows the greatest human accomplishments,
such as complex problem solving and language.
The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is so
believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than
other areas of the brain.
Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for
cognitive development is:
Lateralization: The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides)
of the brain cortex.
Plasticity: The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or
flexible.
NEUROSCIENCE, LEARNING AND TEACHING
INSTRUCTION BRAIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Several studies have shown differences in brain activity
associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction
and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them
regain functioning by forming new connections and using new
areas of the brain.
THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ.
Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differences among
skilled and less skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary
Reading is a complex integration of the systems in the brain that
recognize sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences, and
then connect with what the reader already knows.
Piaget’s theory of
cognitive
developmentINFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT:
According to Piaget, our thinking processes change from birth to
maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world.
Piaget identified four factors – biological maturation, activity,
social experiences and equilibration.
The most important influences are
BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING
MATURATION: The unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically
programmed
SOCIAL TRANSMISSION:Learning from
others.
ACTIVITY: Increasing ability
to act on the environment and
learn from it
FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET’S
THEORY
BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING
ORGANIZATION:Later
experiences are powerful, too,
and can change the direction of development
ADAPTATION:Adjustment to the environment
ASSIMILATION: Fitting new
information into existing schemes
ACCOMODATION:Alterning existing
schemes or creating new ones in response to new
information
SCHEMES:areMental systems or cathegories of perception and
experience
EQUILIBRIUM: Search for
mental balance between cognitive
schemes and information from the environment
DESEQUILIBRIUM:In piaget's theory ,
the "out-of-balance" state that
occurs when a person realizes that is his or her current
ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or
understand a situation
The neo-Piagetian theories are more recent theories that
integrate findings about attention, memory and strategy use with
Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of
knowledge.
An example of these theories is the Kurt Fischer’s theory. It says
that children develop skills in speaking, reading and mathematics;
their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts. In learning
a new skill, children move from actions to representations to
abstractions.
A pattern of cognitive development over 30 years
It shows the ages at which the skills develop if the individual have
quality support and the chance to practice.
Vygotsky’s
sociocultural
perspectiveLev Vygotsky elaborated the sociocultural theory of development.
His ideas about language, culture, and cognitive development
have become major influences in the fields of psychology and
education.
This theory emphasizes role in development of cooperative
dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of
society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of
thinking and behaving) through these interactions.
CULTURAL TOOLS AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cultural tools are the real tools (computers, scales, etc.); ad
symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in
society to communicate, think, solve problems and create
knowledge.
Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical and
psychological tools play very important roles in cognitive
development
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PIAGET’S AND VYGOTSKY’S
THEORIES OF EGOCENTRIC OR PRIVATE SPEECH.
THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Piaget defined development as active construction of knowledge
and learning as the passive formation of association.
In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process
that does not have to wait for readiness. He saw learning as a tool
in development.
ASSITED LEARNING AND SCAFFOLDING
Assisted learning or guided participation in the classroom
requires scaffolding –understanding the students’ needs.
Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to
students’ current levels, demonstrating skills or thought
processes.
“The self, social
and moral
development”
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Young children:
During the preschool years, there is rapid development of
children’s gross and fine-motor skills
Elementary school, years:
They become taller, leaner and stronger. Many of the girls are
likely to be as large as or larger than the boys in their classes.
Adolescent years:
The physical changes of adolescence have significant effects on
the individual’s identity. Psychologists have been particularly
interested in the academic, social, and emotional differences they
have found between adolescents who mature early and those who
maturate later.
On average, between ages 12 and 13, girls have their first
menstrual period (menarche), and boys their first sperm
ejaculation (spermarche). Boys develop facial hair over the next
several years, reaching their final beard potential by about age 18
or 19.
Girls reach their final height by the age 15 or 16.
EARLY AND LATER MATURING:
Early maturation is associated with emotional difficulties such as
depression, anxiety and eating disorders, especially in societies
that define thinness as attractive. Other problems for early
maturing girls are lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol
abuse, unplanned pregnancy, suicide, and greater risk of breast
cancer in later life.
Later maturing girls seem to have fewer problems, but they may
worry that something is wrong with them, so adult reassurance
and support is important.
Early maturity in males is associated with popularity.
Later-maturing boys may experience lower self-esteem because
they are smaller and less muscular than the ideal for men.
PLAY, RECESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY:
Maria Montessori once noted “Play is essential development
because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social and
emotional well-being of children and youth”.
Play might help in the important process of pruning brain
synapses during childhood.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE AND RECESS:
Systematic exercise programs may actually enhance the
development of specific types of mental processing known to be
important for meeting challenges encountered both in academics
and throughout the lifespan.
One study found that students who had daily recess of 15 minutes
or longer every day were better behaved in class than students
who had a little or no recess.
CHALLENGES IN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:
Physical development is public (everyone can see), so there are
psychological consequences to physical development.
CHALLENGES IN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
OBESITY
Is a growing problem in america, especially for children
The consequences are diabetes, strain on bones, and joits, respiratory problems, and
greater chance of heart nproblems as adults
EATING DISORDERS
BULIMIA:Eating disorder characterized by overeating, the getting rid
of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives
ANOREXIA:Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake.
Bronfenbrenner:
the social context
for development
THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT AND THE BIOECOLOGICAL
MODEL:
The context are internal and external circumstances and
situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions to shape development and learning.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio ecological model of development
recognizes that the physical and social contexts develop are
ecosystems because they are constantly interacting with and
influencing each other.
This theory says that every person develops within a microsystem,
inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are
a part of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced
by the time period –the chronosystem.
FAMILIES:
The first context for child development is the mother’s womb. The
influence of the family begins before birth, but many influences
follow.
FAMILY STRUCTURE:
Families can be many types:
Blended family: Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into
families through remarriages.
Extended Families: Different family members –grandparents,
aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.- living in the same household or at
least in daily contact with the children in the family.
PARENTING STYLES:
Parenting styles are the ways of interacting with and disciplining
children. There are:
Authoritative parents.
Authoritarian parents
Permissive parents
Rejecting/Neglecting/Uninvolved parents.
ATTACHMENT
It consists in forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member.
DIVORCE
The actual separation of the parent tops may have been preceded by years of conflict join the home or may come as shock to all, including
friends and children.
Children may have problems in school, or just skip school, lose or gain an unusual amount of weight, have trouble sleeping, or experience other difficulties. However, adjustment to divorce is an individual
matter; some children respond with increased responsibility, maturity and coping skills.
PEERS
Children also develop within their groups. Rubin and his colleagues distinguished between two kinds of peer groups: cliques and crowds.
Cliques are relatively small, friendship-based groups. Cliques are more evident in middle childhood
CROWDS
Adolescents are more likely to affiliate with larger crowds that provide them with an identify
PEER CULTURES
Peer cultures may set “rules” for how to dress and behave and in so doing determine which activities, music or other students are in or out
of favor.
POPULARITY
There are 4 types of popularity:
Popular children were similar to average children, except that their peers perceived them as being better students than the
average kids. The only difference teachers saw was an increased amount of helping behavior in the popular children compared to
the average children. This is only among popular-prosocial children though. There are also popular-antisocial children who
are usually poor students, cause trouble, and defy authority (often tough boys) they often have above average athletic ability, but as they grow older their peers tend to like these aggressive popular
peers less. Popular-antisocial children may bully others.
The students who fared the worst were the rejected children, especially those who were aggressive. There were two types of
rejected children either rejected-aggressive children or rejected-withdrawn children who were socially awkward. Teachers did not
prefer these students, and peers perceived them to be poor students. Both types are at risk for peer harassment. The
aggressive child is more likely to retaliate, but the withdrawn child is equally likely to desire to retaliate against attacks, but
they rarely act on these desires.
Neglected children were often quiet and socially withdrawn, some were also socially anxious. They were usually well adjusted and
content with their minimal social life. However, when they wanted to join in other groups they were usually easily able to do so. The most academically motivated students were the neglected
children. They were also preferred more by their teachers compared to average children. Teachers viewed neglected
children to be highly independent and behaviorally appropriate in the classroom. They were more likely to become rejected children
if their social skills were poor.
Controversial children were perceived by peers as similar to average children. They were likely to have as many friends as
popular children and be happy with these friendships. Teachers,
however, thought that controversial children were less independent and more unruly than average children. They display
a mix of hostile and disruptive behavior as well as positive prosocial behavior. They may bully others to maintain dominance.
REACHING EVERY STUDENT: TEACHER SUPPORT
Teachers have opportunities to play a significant role on in students’ personal and social development.
As a teacher you can be available to your students if they want to talk about personal problems without requiring them to do.
ACADEMICAL AND PERSONAL CARING
Good teachers… Have positive interpersonal relationships
Keep the classroom organized and maintain authority without being rigid or “mean”.
Are good motivators –they can make learning fun by being creative and innovative so students learn something.
Students define caring in two ways. One is academic caring –setting high but reasonable expectations and helping students
reach those goals. The second is personal caring –being patient, respectful, humorous, willing to listen interested on students’
issues and personal problems.
TEACHERS AND CHILD ABUSE
As a teacher, you must alert your principal, school psychologist, or school social worker if you suspect abuse.
Even children who survive abuse pay a great price. In school alone, physically abused children are more likely to be aggressive in the classroom and retained in grades and referred for special
education services more often than children who were not abused.
SOCIETY AND MEDIA
All of students you will teach grew up in a world of media, mobility and machines. The different technologies that children
use daily to keep in touch with friends are text messages, cellphone, social network and e-mail.
Identity and self-concept
ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erikson believed that people go through eight life stage, each of which involves a central crisis.
In the first two stages, an infant must develop a sense of trust over mistrust and a sense of autonomy over shame and doubt. In early childhood, the focus of the third stage is on developing initiate and avoiding feeling of guilt. In the child’s elementary
school, the fourth stage involves achieving a sense of industry and avoiding feelings of inferiority.
In the fifth stage, identity versus role confusion, adolescents consciously attempt to solidify their identity.
HOW DOES SELF-CONCEPT CHANGE AS CHILDREN DEVELOP?
Self-concept becomes increasingly complex, differentiated, and abstract
as we mature.
It evolves self-reflection, social interaction and experiences in and out
of school. Students develop a self-concept by comparing themselves
internal and external standards. High self-esteem is related to better
overall school experience, both academically and socially.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEL-CONCEPT AND SELF-STEEM
Self-concept is our attempt to build a scheme that organizes our
impressions. Self-esteem is an evaluation of your self-worth.
Self-concept is a cognitive structure and self-esteem is an affective
evaluation.
DIFFERENCES IN SELF-CONCEPT FOR GIRLS AND BOYS
By high school, boys and girls express about the same competence in
math, girls are higher in language arts, and boys are higher in sports.
Self-esteem for boys and girls report declines in the transition to middle
school, but boys’ self-esteem goes up in high school while girls’ self-
esteem stays down.
Understanding
others and moral
developmentWHAT IS THE THEORY OF MIND AND WHY IS IMPORTANT?
Is an understanding that other people are people too, with their own
minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires and perceptions.
As children develop a theory of mind, they also are able to understand
that other people have intentions of their own.
HOW DO PERSPECTIVE-TAKING SKILLS CHANGE AS STUDENTS
MATURE?
Young children believe that everyone has the same thoughts and
feelings they do. Later, they learn that others have separate identities
and therefore separate feelings and perspectives on events.
WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENCES AMONG THE
PRECONVENTIONAL, CONVENTIONAL, AND POSTCONVENTIONAL
LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING?
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development includes three levels:
1. Preconventional level, where judgments are based on self-interest
2. A conventional level, where judgments are based on traditional
family values and social expectations.
3. A post conventional level, where judgments are based on more
abstract and personal ethical principles.
GILLIGAN’S LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING
Gilligan has suggested that, because Kohlberg’s stage theory was
based on a longitudinal study of men only, and the stages of
women’s development were not adequately represented. Gilligan
believes that individuals move from a focus on self-interest to
moral reasoning based on commitment to specific individual and
relationships, and then to the highest level of morality based on
the principles of responsibility and care for all people.
HOE DOES THINKING IN THE MORAL AND CONVENTIONAL
DOMAIN CHANGE OVER TIME?
Beliefs about morality move from the young child’s sense that
justice means equal treatment for all.
Children being by believing that the regularities they see are real
and right.
After going through several stages, adults realize that
conventions are useful in coordinating social life, but changeable
too.
WHAT INGLUENCES MORAL BEHAVIOR?
Adults first control young children’s moral behavior through
direct instruction, supervision, rewards and punishments, and
correction. A second important influence on the development of
the moral behavior is modeling.
Children who have been consistently exposed to caring, generous
adult models will tend to be more concerned for the rights and
feelings of others.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENTS TYPES OF AGRESSION?
Today, the many social media applications and sites provide other
avenues for relational aggression.
Peer agression
Instrumental Intended to gain an object or privilege.
Hostile agression:Intended to inflict
harm
Overt threats:physical attacks
Relational agression:Damaging social
relationships
HOW DOES EVER-PRESENT MEDIA AFFECT AGRESSION AND
EMPHATY?
The world and the media provide many negative models of behavior. If
children are given reasons, they can understand when they are
corrected and then they are more likely to internalize moral principles.
WHY DO STUDENTS CHEAT?
Cheating is caused by both individual and situational factors, but if the
pressure is great enough and the chance of getting caught is slim, many
students will cheat.
CHAPTER FOUR:
“Learner
differences and
learning needs”
IntelligenceADVANTAGES OF AND PROBLEMS WITH LABELS:
Labels and diagnostic classifications can easily become both stigmas
and self-fulfilling prophecies, but they can also open doors to special
programs and help teachers to develop the appropriate instructional
strategies.
WHAT IS PERSON-FIRST LANGUAGE?
“Person-first” language is an alternative to labels that describe a
complex person with one or two words, implying that the condition
labeled is the most important aspect of the person.
DISABILITIES AND HANDICAPS:
WHAT DOES INTELLIGENCE MEAN?
The intelligence is an ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge
for solving problems and adapting to the world.
INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY?
General ability: A general factor in cognitive ability that is related
in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests.
Fluid intelligence: Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded
in brain development.
Disabilities
The inability to do something specific, such as walk or hear
Handicaps
A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability
Crystallized intelligence: Ability to apply culturally approved
problem-solving methods.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner was a developmental psychologist who researched
with two different groups.
He observed brain-injured patients who were lost spacially but could do
all kinds of verbal tasks, and other patients who had the opposite set of
abilities and problems.
Garner concluded that there are several separate mental abilities, and
developed his now famous theory of multiple intelligences.
In Gardner’s theory of intelligence, a person’s eight separate abilities:
Logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal and natural.
WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES?
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS IN STERNBERG’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE?
Analytic/componential intelligence involves mental processes that are defined in terms of components: metacomponents, performance
components, and knowledge-acquisition components. Creative/experimental intelligence involves coping with new
experiences through insight and automaticity. Practical/contextual intelligence involves choosing to live and work in context and reshaping
it if necessary. Practical intelligence is made up mostly of action-oriented tacit knowledge learned during everyday life.
HOW IS INTELLIGENCE MEASURED AND WHAT DOES AN IQ SCORE MEAN?
Intelligence is measured through individual tests and group tests.
The average score is 100. About 68%of the general population will earn IQ scores between 85-115. Only about 16% of the population will
receive scores below 85 or above 115.
Intelligence predicts success in school, but is less predictive of success in life when level of education is taken into account.
WHAT IS THE FLYNN EFFECT AND WHAT ARE ITS IMPLICATIONS?
Since early 1900s, IQ scores have been rising.
Students who where not identified as having learning problems a generation ago, might be identified as having intellectual disabilities
now, because the questions are harder.
ARE THERE SEX DEFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE ABILITIES?
Girls seem to be better on verbal tests, especially when writing is involved. Males seem to de superior on tasks that require mental
rotation of objects. The scores of males tend to be more variable on general. Research on the causes of these differences has been
inconclusive, except to indicate that academic socialization and teachers’ treatment of male and female students in mathematics classes
may play a role.
Learning and thinking stylesLEARNING STYLES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES
Learning styles are the characteristic ways a person approaches learning and studying.
Learning preferences are individual preferences for particular learning modes and environment.
SHOULD TEACHERS MATCH INSTRUCTION TO INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES?
Results of some research indicate that students learn more when they study in their preferred setting and manner.
WHAT LEARNING STYLE DISTINCTIONS ARE THE MOST WLL SUPPORTED BY RESEARCH?
Students who take a surface-processing approach focus on memorizing the learning materials, not understanding them. A second is Mayer’s
visualizer-verbalizer dimensions that has three facets: cognitive spatial ability (low or high), cognitive style (a visualizer versus a verbalizer),
and learning preference (a verbal learner versus a visual learner).
Individual differences and
the lawDESCRIBE THE MAIN LEGAL REQUIREMENTS THAT PERTAIN
TO STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
The laws protect rights of students with special needs and their parents. In addition, the vocational rehabilitation act prevents
discrimination against people with disabilities in any program that receives federal money, such as public schools
Students with learning
challengesWHAT DOES RESEARCH IN NEUROSCIENCE TELL US ABOUT
LEARNING PROBLEMS?
Students with learning disabilities have problems in using the system of working memory that holds verbal and auditory information while you
work with it.
WHAT IS A LEARNING DISABILITY?
Disorders in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding using spoken or written language.
These are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be the result of central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span.
Students with learning disabilities may become victims of learned helplessness when they come to believe that they cannot control or
improve their own learning and therefore cannot succeed.
WHAT IS ADHD AND HOW IS IT HANDLED IN SCHOOL?
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), is the term used to describe individuals of any age with hyperactivity and attention
difficulties.
Approaches that combine motivational training with instruction in learning and memory strategies and behavior modification seem
effective. The SMART approach that focuses on the abilities of children is another possibility.
WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON COMMUNICATION DISORDERS?
Common communication disorders include speech impairments (articulation disorders, stuttering and voicing problems) and oral
language disorders.
SUICIDE.
Students at risk of suicide may shows changes in eating or sleeping habits, weight, grades, disposition, activity level, or interest in friends.
They may seem depressed or hyperactive, and may start missing school or quit doing work.
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
Before age 18, students must score below about 70 on standard measure of intelligence and must have problems with adaptive behavior, day-to-day independent living and social functioning.
Support varies from intermittent to extensive to pervasive.
HOW CAN SCHOOL ACCOMMODATE THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES?
If the school has the necessary architectural features, such as ramps, elevators and accessible rest rooms, and if teachers allow for the
physical limitations of students, little needs to be done to alter the usual educational program.
HOW WOULD YOU HANDLE A SEIZURE IN CLASS?
Move hard objects away. Turn the child’s head gently to the side, put a soft coat or blanket under the student’s head, and loosen any tight clothing. Never put anything in the student’s mouth. If one seizure allows another and the student does not regain consciousness in
between, if the student is pregnant, or if the seizure goes on for more than 5 minutes, get medical help right away
VISUAL AND HEARING IMPAIRMENTS:
Some signs of these problems are holding book very close or far away, squinting, rubbing eyes, misreading the chalkboard, and holding the
head at an odd angle.
Other indications include not following directions, seeming distracted or confused at times, frequently asking people to repeat what they have
said, mispronouncing new words or names, and being reluctant to participate in class discussions.
AUTISM AND ASPERGER SYNDROME
Asperger syndrome is one of the autism spectrum disorders. Asperger syndrome usually have average-to-above average intelligence and
better language abilities than other children with autism.
WHAT IS RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION?
RTI is an approach to supporting students with learning problems as early as possible.
Students who are gifted and
talented CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED STUDENTS:
They learn easily and rapidly and retain what they have learned; use common sense and practical knowledge; know about many things that
other children don’t; use large number of words and accurately; recognize relations and comprehend meaning; are alert and keenly
observant and respond quickly, are persistent and highly motivated on some tasks; and are creative or make interesting connections.
IS ACCELERATION A USEFUL APPROACH WITH GIFTED STUDENTS?
Gifted students tend to prefer the company of older playmates and may be bored if kept with children their own age.
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