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Fats
and
Oils
Tech
nolo
gyLe
ctur
e2
Pro
f. D
r. A
rtem
is K
araa
li
Tech
nolo
gyof
Edi
ble
Oils
and
Fats
Tria
cylg
lyce
rolT
rans
form
atio
ns
Hyd
roge
natio
n
Inth
epr
esen
ce o
f hyd
roge
nan
da
suita
ble
cata
lyst
the
doub
lebo
nds
of u
nsat
urat
edfa
ttyac
ids
are
read
ilyhy
drog
enat
ed, a
reac
tion
at m
oder
n m
arga
rine
man
ufac
ture
. Thi
sis
don
e w
ithhy
drog
enga
sun
der
pres
sure
with
a m
etal
cat
alys
tat h
igh
tem
pera
ture
s.
The
The
obje
ctiv
esob
ject
ives
of
of h
dyro
gena
tion
hdyr
ogen
atio
nar
ear
e : :
•• ToTo
impa
rtim
part
oxid
ativ
eox
idat
ive
stab
ility
stab
ility
tototh
eth
eoi
loi
l
•• ToTo
conv
ert
conv
ert a
a liq
uid
liqui
dve
geta
ble
vege
tabl
eoror
fish
fish
oil
oil
totoa a
fat
fat w
ithw
ith““ b
utte
rbu
tter
––lik
elik
e ” ” co
nsis
tenc
yco
nsis
tenc
ybyby
redu
cing
redu
cing
the
the
degr
eede
gree
of
of u
nsat
urat
ion
unsa
tura
tion
of
of it
sitsco
mpo
nent
com
pone
ntfa
ttyfa
ttyac
ids
acid
s ..
Hyd
roge
nate
d oi
ls o
r fat
s ha
ve a
con
sist
ency
that
H
ydro
gena
ted
oils
or f
ats
have
a c
onsi
sten
cy th
at
is id
eal f
or u
se a
s m
arga
rine
or s
hort
enin
g is
idea
l for
use
as
mar
garin
e or
sho
rten
ing
com
pone
nts
com
pone
nts ..
HO
W IT
IS D
ON
E:
•The
oils
are
expo
sed
tohy
drog
enga
sat
hig
hpr
essu
rean
dte
mpe
ratu
res
(2-1
0 at
m, 1
40-2
25°C
) in
the
pres
ence
of 0
.01-
0.2%
fine
lydi
vide
dni
ckel
, and
agita
ted.
•The
redu
ctio
nof
dou
ble
bond
sis
“se
lect
ive”
. The
ones
furt
hest
from
este
r lin
ksof
trig
lyce
rides
and
thos
ebe
long
ing
toth
em
ore
unsa
tura
ted
fatty
acid
sar
em
ostr
eact
ive.
•Firs
ttrie
noic
acid
s(w
ith3
doub
lebo
nds)
are
conv
erte
dto
dien
oic
acid
s; a
ndth
endi
enoi
cac
ids(
2 do
uble
bond
s)to
enoi
c(1d
oubl
e bo
nd)a
cids
.
Hyd
roge
natio
nSe
lect
ivity
of
Cat
alys
tsD
efin
ition
sof
“H
ydro
gena
tionS
elec
tivity
”:
1.“P
refe
rent
ialh
ydro
gena
tion
of m
ore
unsa
tura
ted
acid
sw
ithm
inim
um
form
atio
nof
com
plet
ely
satu
rate
dfa
ttyac
ids”
2.“T
hera
tioof
the
rate
of h
ydro
gena
tion
of li
nole
icac
idto
that
of o
leic
acid
” C
omm
only
obse
rved
sele
ctiv
ities
rang
efr
om4:
1 to
50:1
. In
Very
sele
ctiv
ehy
drog
enat
ion:
Lino
leic
acid
: Ole
icac
idra
tiois
(50
: 1)
Hig
hly
sele
ctiv
eca
taly
sts
are
mor
ede
sira
ble
in th
ein
dust
ry.
HHyd
roge
natio
nyd
roge
natio
npr
oces
s pr
oces
s re
quire
sre
quire
sth
eth
efo
llow
ing
follo
win
g : :
1. H
igh
1. H
igh
tem
pera
ture
ste
mpe
ratu
res
2. A
met
al c
atal
yst s
uch
as n
icke
l, zi
nc,
2. A
met
al c
atal
yst s
uch
as n
icke
l, zi
nc,
copp
er, o
r oth
er re
activ
e m
etal
sco
pper
, or o
ther
reac
tive
met
als
3. H
ydro
gen
gas
3. H
ydro
gen
gas
•• TThe
hyd
roge
n ga
s w
hich
is b
ubbl
ed u
p he
hyd
roge
n ga
s w
hich
is b
ubbl
ed u
p th
roug
h th
eth
roug
h th
eoi
loi
l•• T
heThe
cata
lyst
cata
lyst
mix
ture
mix
ture
reac
tsre
acts
with
with
carb
on
carb
on
atom
sat
oms
of
of th
eth
eun
satu
rate
dun
satu
rate
dfa
ttyfa
ttyac
ids
acid
san
d an
d co
nver
ts th
eco
nver
ts th
e m
m in
toin
tosa
tura
ted
satu
rate
dfa
ttyfa
ttyac
ids
acid
sby
by
fli
ppin
g on
e of
the
atta
ched
hyd
roge
n fli
ppin
g on
e of
the
atta
ched
hyd
roge
n m
olec
ules
and
rota
ting
it ha
lf th
e di
amet
er
mol
ecul
es a
nd ro
tatin
g it
half
the
diam
eter
of
the
carb
on c
hain
. of
the
carb
on c
hain
.
•Thi
s ef
fect
ivel
y cr
eate
s a
new
mol
ecul
ar s
hape
re
sulti
ng in
a s
tiffe
r or m
ore
rigid
mat
eria
l, he
nce
the
chan
ge fr
om a
liqu
id to
a s
emi-s
olid
or
sol
id s
ubst
ance
. Thi
s ne
w s
hape
stif
fens
w
ith th
e hy
drog
enat
ion
proc
ess
mak
ing
the
oil
beha
ve m
ore
like
a fu
llysa
tura
ted
fat (
such
as
coco
nut f
at w
hich
is 9
2% s
atur
atio
n an
d so
lid
at ro
om te
mpe
ratu
re).
SUM
MA
RY:
The
effe
cts
of h
ydro
gena
tion:
Incr
ease
dO
xida
tive
Stab
ility
, Dec
reas
edC
olor
; D
ecre
ased
Vita
min
A;
Isom
eriz
atio
n(tr
ans
f.a.)
Hyd
roge
natio
nan
dTr
ans
fats
Tran
s fa
ts a
refo
rmed
as a
res
ult o
f hyd
roge
natio
nre
actio
n•
Hyd
roge
natio
n ra
ises
the
mel
ting
poin
t of t
he fa
t an
d re
tard
s ra
ncid
ity. B
ut a
s re
cent
hea
lth s
tudi
es
have
foun
d, o
ther
pro
blem
s ca
n en
sue
whe
n co
nsum
ing
larg
e am
ount
s of
tran
s fa
ts fr
om
hydr
ogen
ated
pro
duct
s.
•Tr
ans
Fatty
Aci
d Th
e hy
drog
en m
olec
ules
atta
ched
at t
he c
ente
r of
the
fatty
aci
d ca
rbon
cha
in fl
ips
180
degr
ees,
whi
ch
stra
ight
ens
the
natu
ral c
urve
or k
ink
in th
e ty
pica
l ci
s-co
nfig
ured
fat.
•W
hen
hydr
ogen
ated
, the
cis
-sh
ape
chem
ical
ly a
lters
to a
tr
ans
conf
igur
atio
n an
d he
nce
is c
alle
d a
“tra
ns”
fat.
Mos
t mar
garin
e an
d ve
geta
ble
shor
teni
ng h
ave
been
tran
s fa
t con
vert
ed
thro
ugh
full
or p
artia
l hy
drog
enat
ion
proc
ess.
Tr
ans
fats
inte
rfer
e w
ith
met
abol
ic a
bsor
ptio
n ef
ficie
ncie
s an
d te
nd to
co
ngre
gate
at a
dipo
se ti
ssue
si
tes.
•
On
July
23, 2
003:
A d
ecre
ew
aspa
ssed
whi
chst
ates
that
, as
of J
anua
ry1,
200
6, fo
odm
anuf
actu
rers
will
be
requ
ired
tola
belt
hetr
ans-
fat
cont
ento
f the
irfo
ods
on a
llnu
triti
onal
fact
labe
ls.
Hyd
roge
natio
n
Mar
garin
e P
rodu
ctio
n•
Mar
garin
e is
a “w
ater
in o
il” e
mul
sion
prep
ared
from
suita
ble
“mar
garin
e oi
l” st
ocks
and
a “m
ilkph
ase”
. •
The
emul
sion
is m
odifi
edby
the
addi
tion
of
suita
ble
surfa
ceac
tive
agen
ts(e
mul
sifie
rs)
incl
udin
gm
ono
ordi
glyc
erid
esan
d/or
leci
thin
.•
Sal
t and
othe
radd
itive
ssu
chas
ant
i-oxi
dant
s,
vita
min
s, c
olor
, fla
vor,
etc.
are
incl
uded
. •
Mar
garin
e pr
oces
sing
invo
lves
basi
cally
prem
ixin
gof
ingr
edie
nts
follo
wed
byra
pid
chill
ing
(sol
idifi
catio
n) a
ndho
mog
eniz
atio
n.
MA
RGA
RIN
E PR
OD
UCT
ION
Mix
ing
the
oils
and
fats
for
fat
phas
e.O
ilso
lubl
ead
diti
ves(
β-ca
rote
ne, v
itA
, D,
emul
sifi
ers
leci
thin
, M
DG)
Milk
phas
em
ilkst
arte
rcu
ltur
e( S
trep
toco
ccus
lact
isSt
rept
ococ
cus
crem
oris
-pr
oduc
ing
arom
a)N
aCl
Pres
erva
tive
s
Nbd
* oi
ls
Hyd
roge
nati
on
Emul
sifi
cati
on*N
BD: N
eutr
alis
ed,b
leac
hed,
deo
dori
sed)
MA
RGA
RIN
E PR
OD
UCT
ION
Emul
sifi
cati
on
Cool
ing
+ cr
ysta
lliza
tion
(vot
ator
)
Prod
uct
text
ure
is h
omog
eniz
edth
roug
hre
peat
edcr
ysta
lliza
tion
s
Knea
ding
Pack
agin
g
Poly
mor
phis
m•
Poly
mor
phic
form
sar
eso
lidph
ases
of th
esa
me
chem
ical
com
posi
tion
that
diffe
rin
crys
talli
nest
ruct
ure,
but
yie
ldid
entic
alliq
uid
phas
esup
onm
eltin
g.
Cry
stal
Stab
ility
:•
Mon
otro
pic
-one
stab
lecr
ysta
lfor
m a
ndon
em
eta
stab
lefo
rm
rega
rdle
ssof
tem
pera
ture
chan
ge
•O
nesi
ngle
“trig
lyce
ride”
is “m
onot
ropi
c”, b
ut fa
tsar
eno
t: th
eyco
ntai
nm
any
diffe
rent
trigl
ycer
ides
and
ther
efor
em
aypo
sses
s“p
olym
orph
ism
”.In
form
ulat
ing
mar
garin
es, i
ncor
pora
tion
of a
ir, p
last
icity
, con
sist
ency
and
solid
-liqu
idra
tioar
eim
porta
ntch
arac
teris
tics
that
depe
nd, i
n pa
rt, o
n th
ispo
lym
orph
ism
(i.e.
α, β
and
β' t
ypes
of c
ryst
alfo
rmat
ion)
.
Pol
ymor
phic
Form
sH
owth
eyar
efo
rmed
:
•α
form
of c
ryst
als
form
upo
nco
olin
gfro
mth
ehy
drog
enat
edm
elt:
low
estM
.P. D
ensi
tyLe
ast
(cry
stal
size
: 5µ)
, Tra
nslu
cent
•U
pon
furth
erco
olin
g, β
form
of c
ryst
als
form
: H
ighe
stM
.P.,
Hig
hD
ensi
ty(c
ryst
alsi
ze: 2
5-50
µ)
Opa
que
•H
eatin
gba
ckα
toits
mel
ting
tem
pera
ture
yiel
dsβ'
form
of c
ryst
als:
med
ium
M.P
., m
ediu
mD
ensi
ty, (
crys
tals
ize:
1µ)
Int
erm
edia
te
Pol
ymor
phic
Form
s•
β' C
ryst
als
-lar
geam
ount
sof
sm
alla
irce
lls-
Yiel
dsw
hite
r, cr
eam
ierp
rodu
ctth
atis
tend
er
and
has
a sm
ooth
text
ure
•β
Cry
stal
s-s
mal
lam
ount
sof
larg
eai
rcel
ls-
Yiel
dsla
rge
clus
tere
dcr
ysta
lsw
itha
wax
yor
grai
nyte
xtur
e
•S
o, β
' Cry
stal
form
sar
epr
efer
red
in m
arga
rines
sinc
e th
eyin
corp
orat
em
ore
air.
Inte
rest
erifi
catio
n•
Def
initi
on: A
bas
ictr
eatm
entf
orth
epr
epar
atio
nof
tailo
r-m
ade
fats
peci
altie
sto
chan
geth
eph
ysic
alpr
oper
ties
of
the
oils
and
fats
byst
atis
tical
lyre
dist
ribut
ing
the
fatty
acid
sin
the
resp
ectiv
eth
ree
avai
labl
epo
sitio
nsof
the
trig
lyce
rides
(inte
rcha
nge
of fa
ttyac
ids
betw
een
and
insi
deth
edi
ffere
nttr
igly
cerid
es)
with
outa
lterin
gth
efa
ttyac
idco
mpo
sitio
nof
the
orig
inal
oils
and
fats
•Th
ispr
oces
sre
arra
nges
the
fatty
acid
son
the
trig
lyce
ride
back
bone
with
a ca
taly
stor
enzy
me
toch
ange
the
fat’s
prop
ertie
s. T
helo
wer
cost
and
broa
dfu
nctio
nalit
ies
prod
uced
with
hydr
ogen
atio
nm
ade
this
met
hod
less
desi
rabl
e, b
ut s
ince
it d
oesn
’tcr
eate
tran
s is
omer
s,
com
mer
cial
inte
rest
in in
tere
ster
ifica
tion
has
incr
ease
dsi
gnifi
cant
ly•
Opt
ions
: Ani
mal
orve
geta
ble?
Sol
idor
plas
ticor
liqui
d?
Stee
por
broa
dm
eltin
gcu
rve?
To
tran
sor
not t
otr
ans?
Inte
rest
erifi
catio
nw
ithin
a tri
glyc
erid
eO
rbet
wee
ntri
glyc
erid
es
With
ina
trig
lyce
ride:
Bet
wee
n2
trig
lyce
rides
:
Star
t with
:
End
with
:
Che
mic
alan
dEn
zym
atic
Inte
rest
erifi
catio
ns•
Exc
hang
e of
fatty
acid
sm
ayoc
cura
t 25
0 °
C w
ithno
ca
taly
stor
at 0
° C
w
ithth
epr
oper
cata
lyst
.
The
chem
ical
cata
lyst
used
is u
sual
ly“s
odiu
mm
etho
xide
”
İniti
alR
eact
ion:
Enz
ymat
icIn
tere
ster
ifica
tions
•B
yut
ilizi
ngen
zym
esin
pla
ceof
che
mic
als,
th
eoi
lsar
esu
bjec
ted
toev
enle
ssse
vere
pr
oces
sing
cond
ition
s.
•E
nzym
ein
tere
ster
ifica
tions
are
mor
eec
onom
ical
, inc
reas
espr
oces
sing
flexi
bilit
y, fr
iend
lyfo
rthe
envi
ronm
ent,
and
also
prov
ides
num
erou
sde
sira
ble
func
tiona
lcha
ract
eris
tics
Des
igne
rFat
sfo
rBak
ery
•Fa
tspr
ovid
ea
num
bero
f fun
ctio
nsin
bak
edgo
ods.
One
of th
em
ostc
omm
onis
to“s
horte
n,”
orte
nder
ize,
text
ure
(“sh
orte
ning
”).
•In
addi
tion
toits
text
uriz
ing
effe
cts,
fata
lso
cont
ribut
es“m
oist
ness
” orl
ubric
ity, w
hich
can
help
exte
ndpr
oduc
tshe
lflif
e, a
ndin
fluen
ces
flavo
r, ei
ther
thro
ugh
itsow
nco
ntrib
utio
nor
bym
odify
ing
oren
hanc
ing
othe
ring
redi
ents
’ fla
vor.
Ital
som
odifi
essu
rface
appe
aran
ce; s
erve
sas
th
eba
sefo
rman
yba
kery
fillin
gs, c
oatin
gsan
dic
ings
; and
wor
ksas
the
heat
-tran
sfer
med
ium
in
fried
item
s, s
uch
as d
onut
san
dfri
edpi
es
TREN
D: “
fine-
tuni
nga
prod
uctt
ofit
to
a sp
ecifi
ccu
stom
er’s
line”
•
Coa
ting
fats
can
be p
rodu
ced
from
coco
nut,
palm
-ker
nela
ndpa
lmoi
ls, a
s w
ella
s co
coa
butte
r.
•S
pray
oils
can
be p
rodu
ced
from
coco
nuto
ilor
“trai
t-enh
ance
d” G
M
oils
, suc
has
hig
h-ol
eic
cano
la.
•Fr
ying
fats
can
be p
rodu
ced
from
tallo
w, p
alm
and
trait-
enha
nced
oils
.
•A
ll-pu
rpos
esh
orte
ning
sca
n be
pr
oduc
edfro
mpa
lmoi
l, or
inte
rest
erifi
edbl
ends
of fu
llyhy
drog
enat
edso
ybea
nor
cotto
nsee
doi
lsw
ithtra
it-en
hanc
edoi
ls. I
nad
ditio
n, e
mul
sifie
rpac
kage
sca
n be
ad
ded
toth
efo
rego
ing
topr
oduc
eca
kean
dic
ing
shor
teni
ngs.
Tal
low
and
lard
are
optio
nsas
wel
l.
Fat’s
func
tiona
lity:
Stru
ctur
edFa
ts•
Exam
ple:
Alp
ha-li
nole
nic
acid
falls
unde
rthe
omeg
a-3
fatty
acid
cate
gory
and
can
be fo
und
in fl
axse
edoi
l(51
% li
nole
nic
acid
), ca
nola
oil(
9%),
soy
oil(
7%) a
ndw
alnu
ts(7
%).
The
body
con
verts
it to
long
er-c
hain
(LC
) om
ega-
3 po
lyun
satu
rate
dfa
ttyac
ids
(PU
FAs)
ei
cosa
pent
aeno
icac
id(E
PA)
and
doco
sahe
xaen
oic
acid
(DH
A) fo
rus
e, a
lthou
ghth
ese
can
be c
onsu
med
dire
ctly
byus
ing
mar
ine
oils
, pa
rticu
larly
thos
efro
mco
ldw
ater
fish.
•Ea
ting
Long
Cha
in-P
UFA
sm
ayre
duce
the
inci
denc
eof
cor
onar
yhe
artd
isea
sean
dst
roke
, and
also
aid
brai
nan
dre
tina
deve
lopm
ent
and
func
tion.
Sev
eral
com
pani
esha
vede
velo
ped
proc
esse
sth
atca
n pr
oduc
eom
ega-
3 fa
ttyac
ids
from
flaxs
eeds
with
outa
“fis
hy”
tast
e. W
hile
prod
uctd
esig
ners
have
tow
atch
forp
oten
tialo
xida
tion
prob
lem
sfro
mth
ese
unsa
tura
ted
fats
, the
yca
n ac
tas
nutri
tiona
len
hanc
emen
tsin
bak
edgo
ods
whe
nad
ded
toth
efa
tpha
se(o
rdry
, be
adle
tfor
ms
also
can
be m
ixed
in th
eflo
ur).
Frac
tiona
tion
At a
mbi
ento
rlow
tem
pera
ture
, som
eoi
ls(o
rfat
s) a
rein
the
form
of a
mix
ture
of a
cry
stal
lised
high
mel
ting
poin
tfra
ctio
nan
dof
a li
quid
low
mel
ting
poin
tfra
ctio
n.•
The
purp
ose
of fr
actio
natio
npr
oces
sis
toph
ysic
ally
sepa
rate
the
liqui
dfr
actio
nca
lled
«ole
ins»
from
the
crys
talli
sed
frac
tion
calle
d«s
tear
ins»
.Fra
ctio
natio
nis
pra
ctis
edm
ainl
yon
pal
moi
l, pa
lmke
rnel
oil,
lard
, tal
low
, par
tially
hydr
ogen
ated
fish
orso
yabe
anoi
land
anhy
drou
sm
ilkfa
t.•
The
proc
ess
com
pris
esth
ree
step
s:1.
Con
ditio
ning
,whi
chco
nsis
tsin
hea
ting
and
hom
ogen
isin
gth
eoi
lin
mat
urat
ors.
2. F
orm
atio
nof
cry
stal
sth
roug
hse
lect
ive
crys
talli
satio
n. T
heop
erat
ion
is c
ondu
cted
in s
ever
alco
olin
gst
eps.
3. F
iltra
tion,
fort
hese
para
tion
of th
eol
eins
from
the
stea
rins.
Mai
nA
pplic
atio
nsof
Fra
ctio
natio
n:Sa
lad
dres
sing
and
fryi
ngoi
ls(o
lein
s),
mar
garin
es, s
hort
enin
gs,
conf
ectio
nery
(coc
oabu
tter)
, pa
stry
, bak
ery
prod
ucts
and
spec
ialit
yfa
ts
Coc
oaB
utte
rAlte
rnat
ives
( Equ
ival
ents
, Sub
stitu
tes
and
Rep
lace
rs)
•A
sol
vent
-bas
edfra
ctio
natio
nis
us
edfo
rpro
duci
ngfa
tsw
ithm
eltin
gpr
oper
ties
sim
ilart
oco
coa
butte
rand
com
patib
lew
ithit
(in 1
950’
s).
•P
alm
orpa
lmke
rnel
oili
s fra
ctio
nate
din
toth
ree
fract
ions
:*T
heto
p fra
ctio
nco
ntai
nson
lyth
etri
satu
rate
dtri
glyc
erid
es;
*The
botto
mfra
ctio
nco
ntai
nsdi
-an
dtri
-uns
atur
ated
trigl
ycer
ides
; *T
hem
id-fr
actio
nis
a s
teep
ly-
mel
ting
fatw
ithex
celle
ntm
outh
-feel
, lik
eco
coa
butte
r
OLE
STR
AO
lest
rais
a “
fats
ubst
itute
” th
atha
s th
epr
oper
ties
of a
fa
tin
flavo
rand
text
ure,
but
is in
dige
stib
leby
enzy
mes
whi
chhy
drol
yse
sucr
ose
orth
etr
igly
cerid
es. I
tdoe
sno
t add
any
calo
ries
as a
nor
mal
fatw
ould
.Ole
stra
is
part
fatty
acid
sfr
omco
ttons
eed
orso
ybea
noi
lsan
dpa
rtsu
cros
era
ther
than
glyc
erol
in tr
igly
cerid
es. T
hesi
xto
eigh
tfat
tyac
ids
are
bond
edto
the
hydr
oxyl
oral
coho
lgro
ups
on th
esu
cros
eus
ing
an e
ster
syn
thes
isre
actio
n. T
his
mak
esfo
ra ra
ther
larg
em
olec
ule
that
look
slik
ean
oct
opus
with
man
yar
ms.
Sin
ce th
een
zym
esca
n no
t bre
ak d
own
the
oles
tra,
it tr
avel
sth
roug
hth
ein
test
ines
undi
gest
edan
dun
abso
rbed
.In
1996
, the
FDA
app
rove
dth
eus
eof
ole
stra
in p
otat
och
ips,
cra
cker
san
dfr
ied
snac
ks, a
s it
is th
eon
lyhe
atst
able
fats
ubst
itute
forf
ried
food
s. T
here
have
been
som
ere
port
sof
adv
erse
reac
tions
in th
ein
test
ines
incl
udin
gdi
arrh
eaan
dcr
amps
, ind
icat
ing
that
it m
ayac
tas
a la
xativ
ein
som
epe
ople
.Si
nce
oles
tra
is s
uch
a la
rge
nonp
olar
mol
ecul
e, it
may
diss
olve
orco
mbi
new
ithso
me
of th
efa
tsol
uble
vita
min
ssu
chas
A, D
, E, a
ndK
, and
caro
teno
ids.
As
a re
sult,
the
FDA
now
thes
evi
tam
ins
mus
tbe
adde
dto
any
prod
ucts
cont
aini
ngol
estr
a.
FRY
ING
•M
ass
Tran
sfer
Wat
erin
a fr
ying
food
mig
rate
sfr
omth
ece
nter
toth
esu
rfac
e. A
s w
ater
is
rem
oved
at th
esu
rfac
edu
eto
heat
ing,
wat
eris
'pum
ped'
toth
esu
rfac
e. T
hera
te o
f wat
erlo
ssan
dits
ease
of m
igra
tion
thro
ugh
the
prod
ucta
reim
port
ant
toth
efin
al c
hara
cter
istic
sof
the
food
.
•H
eatT
rans
fer
Wat
erev
apor
atio
nfr
omth
esu
rfac
eof
a fr
ying
food
also
rem
oves
heat
from
the
surf
ace
and
inhi
bits
char
ring
orbu
rnin
gat
the
surf
ace.
The
heat
of v
apor
izat
ion
of w
ater
tost
eam
rem
oves
muc
hof
the
heat
at th
efo
od/o
ilsu
rfac
e.
Hea
tRem
oval
:As
long
as w
ater
is b
eing
rem
oved
at a
suf
ficie
ntra
te, t
hesu
rfac
eof
the
food
will
not c
har.
Subs
urfa
cew
ater
in th
efo
odw
illal
soco
nduc
the
ataw
ayfr
omth
esu
rfac
ean
dto
war
dsth
ece
nter
of th
epr
oduc
t.
Inte
riorC
ooki
ng:T
hetr
ansf
er o
f hea
tto
the
inte
rioro
f the
prod
uctb
yw
ater
will
resu
ltin
coo
king
of th
ein
terio
rof t
hefo
od. W
ew
ante
noug
hhe
atto
'coo
k' th
epr
oduc
t, bu
t not
eno
ugh
toca
use
dam
age
-exa
mpl
e-F
renc
hfr
y
FRY
ING
OIL
S
The
prop
erti
esof
oil
chan
gew
ith
fryi
ng. N
ew o
ilha
s a
high
heat
capa
city
that
dim
inis
hes
wit
hus
e. O
ther
fact
ors
such
as v
isco
sity
may
chan
gedr
amat
ical
lyw
ith
use.
•Fr
esh
Oil
Slig
htbr
owni
ngat
edg
esof
fry
; par
tial
lyco
oked
(gel
atin
izat
ion)
cen
ters
; cr
ispi
ngof
the
surf
ace;
slig
htly
mor
eoi
labs
orpt
ion.
•O
ptim
um O
ilG
olde
n br
own
colo
r; c
risp
, rig
idsu
rfac
e; d
elic
ious
pota
toan
doi
lodo
rs; f
ully
cook
edce
nter
s(r
igid
, rin
ging
gel)
; opt
imal
oil
abso
rpti
on.
•D
egra
ding
Oil
Dar
kene
dan
d/or
spot
tysu
rfac
es; e
xces
soi
lpic
kup;
pro
duct
mov
ing
tow
ards
limpn
ess;
cas
eha
rden
edsu
rfac
es
•R
unaw
ayO
ilD
ark,
cas
eha
rden
edsu
rfac
es; e
xces
sive
lyoi
lypr
oduc
t; s
urfa
ces
colla
psin
gin
war
d; c
ente
rsno
t fu
llyco
oked
; off
-odo
ran
dfl
avor
s(b
urne
d).
AN
IMA
L FA
TS1.
Milk
fat(b
utte
r): I
tis
obta
ined
first
by“c
hurn
ing”
pro
cess
, a m
echa
nica
lpr
oces
sin
volv
ing
heav
ym
ixin
gat
coo
ltem
pera
ture
san
dre
sults
in
sepa
ratio
nof
a y
ello
wis
hw
ater
yem
ulsi
onth
eco
ntin
uous
phas
eof
whi
chis
lipi
dic.
Thi
sem
ulsi
on, b
utte
r, c
onta
ins
~ 20
% w
ater
and
exhi
bits
plas
ticbe
havi
orat
room
tem
pera
ture
. B
utte
roil
is a
dai
rypr
oduc
twhi
chis
cre
ated
byre
mov
ing
the
moi
stur
ean
dth
eno
nfat
milk
solid
sco
ntai
ned
in b
utte
r. It
is o
btai
ned
bym
ildly
heat
ing
butte
rto
liqui
fyan
dal
low
ing
grav
ityse
para
tion(
orfr
actio
natio
n) o
f the
oil
phas
e. It
is m
uch
mor
est
able
than
the
butte
rem
ulsi
on.
2.B
ody
fats
of d
omes
ticfa
rm(la
nd)
anim
als(
cattl
eor
shee
p):
Ex: T
allo
wan
dla
rd: c
ompo
sitio
nis
affe
cted
with
anim
alty
pe, a
ge, a
ndfe
ed(g
rass
-fed
:har
dert
allo
w; g
rain
-fed:
softe
r). S
laug
hter
hous
ere
fuse
is
heat
-trea
ted
in c
ooke
rsan
dse
para
ted
bygr
avity
from
non-
fatp
arts
. Th
e“r
ende
ring”
pro
cess
”in
volv
esth
ecr
ushi
ngan
dhe
atin
gof
the
raw
mat
eria
lsup
plie
dfr
omsl
augh
terh
ouse
s, le
adin
gto
the
evap
orat
ion
of th
em
oist
ure
in th
em
ater
ial,
whi
chth
enen
able
sth
efa
t, kn
own
as 't
allo
w',
tobe
sep
arat
edfr
omth
ere
mai
ning
high
-pro
tein
sol
ids,
kno
wn
as 'g
reav
es‘*.
*The
grea
ves
are
furt
herp
roce
ssed
bypr
essi
ng, c
entr
ifugi
ngor
byso
lven
tex
trac
tion
in o
rder
tore
mov
em
ore
tallo
w. T
here
sulta
ntpr
otei
n-ric
hm
ater
iali
s th
engr
ound
into
mea
tand
bone
mea
l.
RE
ND
ER
ING
Fish
Oils
Fish
mea
land
fish
oila
repr
oduc
edby
a co
ntin
uous
and
care
fully
cont
rolle
dpr
oces
sw
hich
invo
lves
cook
ing,
pre
ssin
g, d
ryin
gan
dm
illin
gof
fres
h, ra
wfis
h.Yi
elds
of fi
shm
eala
ndfis
hoi
lcan
var
ybe
twee
nfis
hsp
ecie
san
dev
enfr
omse
ason
tose
ason
, but
typi
cally
arou
nd17
–22
% fi
shm
eala
nd5
–15%
fish
oilw
illbe
obta
ined
bypr
oces
sing
. Pr
oduc
tion
Proc
ess:
•
1.In
take
–R
awfis
his
sam
pled
and
anal
ysed
on in
take
toch
eck
forf
resh
ness
and
expe
cted
yiel
dof
mea
l and
oil.
2.C
ooki
ng-T
hera
wfis
his
con
veye
dth
roug
ha
stea
mhe
ated
cont
inuo
usco
oker
, whe
reit
is h
eate
dto
90°C
-95°
C.
This
ster
ilize
sth
efis
h, c
oagu
late
sth
epr
otei
nsan
ddi
srup
tsth
ece
llm
embr
anes
tofa
cilit
ate
the
sepa
ratio
nof
the
solu
bles
and
the
oilf
rom
the
dry
mat
ter.
•3.
Pres
s-T
heco
oked
raw
mat
eria
lis
fed
toa
scre
wpr
ess
whe
rem
uch
of th
eliq
uid
is s
quee
zed
outt
ofo
rm a
pre
ssca
kew
hich
is c
onve
yed
toth
edr
ier.
•4.
Sepa
rato
r–Th
epr
ess
liqui
dco
ntai
nsw
ater
and
mos
tof t
heoi
lfro
mth
efis
h,as
wel
las
diss
olve
dpr
otei
ns, s
alts
and
fine
part
icle
s. T
hese
part
icle
s,
som
etim
esca
lled
slud
ge, a
rere
mov
edin
a d
ecan
tera
ndtr
ansp
orte
dto
the
drie
rto
be m
ixed
in w
ithth
epr
essc
ake.
The
liqui
dfr
omth
ede
cant
eris
fed
tose
para
tors
whe
reth
eoi
lis
rem
oved
and
can
subs
eque
ntly
be s
tore
din
larg
eta
nks
fore
xpor
t.•
5.Ev
apor
ator
-The
wat
erph
ase
from
the
sepa
rato
rsis
fed
toth
eev
apor
ator
sw
here
it is
gen
tlyco
ncen
trat
edbe
fore
bein
gbl
ende
dw
ithth
epr
essc
ake
durin
gth
edr
ying
stag
e.•
6.D
rier-
The
wat
erin
the
pres
sca
ke, s
ludg
ean
dco
ncen
trat
eis
rem
oved
byra
pid
aird
ryin
gaf
terw
hich
the
fishm
eali
s co
oled
, mill
edan
dst
ored
fore
xpor
t.
Fish
Oil
Pro
duct
ion
Recommended