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FINAL EXAMREVIEW!!!
FINAL EXAM FACTS
Monday, January 26th – Odd
Tuesday, January 27th – Even
60 minutes – Final Exam schedule
100 multiple choice questions
5 extra credit questions
FINAL EXAM FACTS
Units 1 – 6
Modules: 1 – 7, 12 – 20, & 31 – 33.
15 questions on units 1, 2, 5, & 6.
20 questions on units 3 & 4.
40-50% from previous quizzes.
Rest are newly formed questions.
You may use a single 3” x 5” note card, front and back.
FINAL EXAM FACTS
Unit 1: History and Approaches
Unit 2: Research and Statistics
Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior
Unit 4: Sensation and Perception
Unit 5: States of Consciousness
Unit 6: Testing and Individual Differences
UNIT 1HISTORY AND APPROACHES
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Roots of Psychology: philosophy and biology (physiology)
Dualism: the philosophy that the mind and the body are two different things that interact.
Monism: the mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
John Locke: Believed our minds were a “tabula rasa”. (blank slate)
Wilhelm Wundt: Set up 1st psych lab in Germany in 1879.
G. Stanley Hall: Set up psych lab at Johns Hopkins Univ and helped found the APA (American Psychological Association).
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Williams James: “father” of functionalism. Interested in function or purpose of behavior.
Mary Calkins: Denied her Ph.D., became 1st woman president of APA.
Edward Titchener: “father” of structuralism (look inside ourselves to explore the human mind).
Margaret Washburn: 1st woman to complete Ph.D. in psychology under Titchener.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Francis Sumner: 1st African-Amer to receive Ph.D. in psychology.
Inez Prosser: 1st African-Amer woman to receive Ph.D. in psych.
Carlos Miranda: One of the first Latinos to earn Ph.D. in psych.
Martha Bernal: 1st Latina to earn Ph.D. in psych.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Charles Darwin: Law of natural selection. “Survival of the fittest” Only dominant genes are passed on to next generation.Seven Basic Approaches to Psych: 1. Neuroscience 4. Cognitive 2. Evolutionary 5. Behavioral 3. Social-Cultural 6. Psychodynamic
7. Behavior Genetics
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Neuroscience: (Biological) Examines how biological processes within nervous and endocrine system are related to behavior.
Evolutionary: Based on Darwin’s natural selection. Survival of the fittest.
Behavior Genetics: How genetics and environment determine who we are. Dominant genes are passed on to future generations.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Social-Cultural: Effects of social and cultural issues on behavior.Cognitive: Examine how thoughts in terms of how we interpret, process, and store memories effect behavior.Behavioral: Examine observable behaviors and how conditioning changes behavior.Psychodynamic: unconscious internal conflicts explain behavior.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Other significant approaches:
Humanistic: We choose our behaviors and these choices are guided by our needs. Humans are free to make choices.
Eclectic: a combination of approaches.
UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Types of psychologists:
Counseling: help people make lifestyle changes.
Clinical: evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
Psychiatrist: a MEDICAL DOCTOR that specializes in diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. Can prescribe drugs, others can’t.
UNIT 2RESEARCH AND STATISTICS
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Ethical principles:1. Get permission of participants.
2. Protect them from harm and discomfort.
3. Keep information confidential.
4. Explain the research afterwards.
Animal testing: treat them humanely, dispose of properly, and minimize their discomfort.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Little Albert Experiment: conditioned a baby to be afraid of any furry animal.
Milgram Experiment: tested to see how to what extent people would obey an authority figure, even if it went against their personal beliefs.
Genie: Feral Child: girl locked in a room for first 13 years of her life. Never acquired a language.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Hindsight Bias – the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Overconfidence – thinking we know more than we really do.
Skepticism – questioning things that are believed to be fact.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Scientific method – make observations, form theories, and then refine theories.
Scientific theory – an explanation using a set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis – testable prediction
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Operational definition – a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
Culture – shared ideas, attitudes, and traditions amongst a group of people which are passed on from one generation to the next.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
1954 – Brown vs. Board of Education ruled that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal”.
First case that a social psychologist participated.
Mamie and Kenneth Clark found that under segregation, Black children were internalizing anti-black prejudice.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Case Study – studying one individual in detail, thinking it will lead to information about all people.
Surveys – Ask people to report on their behavior/opinions.
Naturalistic Observations – watching and recording behavior in their natural environment.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Population – everyone you want to study and describe.Random sample – a sample that fairly represents the population.Correlation – When two things have a relationship and are dependent of each other. It allows one to predict the other.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Positive Correlation – Two things rise and fall together.
Negative Correlation – Inverse relationship. When one rises, the other falls.
Illusory Correlation – When we think two things are correlated, we look for things that confirm our belief even if they aren’t really correlated.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Placebo – a drug that has no medical value given to deceive a participant into thinking they are receiving an actual treatment. Used for control groups.
Double-blind procedure – when both the participant and the research staff are unaware of who received a placebo.
Placebo Effect – improvement of medical condition when given a placebo.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Experimental Condition – A group of people who receive an actual treatment.
Control Condition – A group of people who do not receive the treatment.
Independent Variable (IV) – The experimental factor that is being manipulated.
Dependent Variable (DV) – the variable that may change depending on the independent variable.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency – mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (appears most).
Range – The difference between the lowest and highest scores.
Skew – When unusually high or low scores distort the mean.
UNIT 3BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Neuron: a nerve cell.
Three major functions: receive information, process it, and transmit it to the rest of your body.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE NEURON
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin Sheath
Axon Terminal
Schwann’s Cells
Cell Body
Nucleus
Node of Ranvier
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that travel synaptic gap between neurons.
Endorphins: natural opiate, body’s painkiller.
Agonists: may mimic a neurotransmitter
Antagonists: block a receptor site inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
The two major subdivisions are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS): made up of the brain and spinal cord.
3 types of neurons: sensory (sends info TO brain), motor (send info FROM brain), interneurons (communicate between sensory and motor neurons).
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): made up the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Somatic Nervous System: Controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. (All automatic functions)
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
The Autonomic Nervous System is divided into two parts: Sympathetic Nervous System (helps deal with stressful events) and Parasympathetic Nervous System (calms your body)
Reflex: automatic response to stimuli.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Endocrine system: consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones in your blood.
Hormones are chemical messages that travel to target organs.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Ways to measure brain function:
EEG – Wave cap; studies brain waves
PET – Inject glucose, track where it goes. Shows brain activity.
MRI – Uses magnetic fields to produce an image of soft tissue.
fMRI – Track blood flow through brain.
CAT – 2D x-ray of slice of brain.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Brainstem: connect brain & spine.
Medulla: regulate heart, blood, etc.
Reticular formation: arousal (wake)
Thalamus: receives signals and relays to brain.
Cerebellum: maintains balance.
Hippocampus: memories
Amygdala: anger and fear
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
4 Lobes of the brain
Frontal: speaking and muscles
Temporal: hearing
Occipital: vision
Parietal: thinking and info processing
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Chromosomes – Structures made of DNA molecules that contain genes.
-We have 46 chromosomes, 23 from your mother and 23 from your father.
-Males are XY, Females are XX!
If the male contributes a Y chromosome, the baby is male.
Turner Syndrome - girls with only one X chromosome (XO).
Klinefelter’s syndrome - males with an XXY sex chromosomes. Has 47 chromosomes, an extra female X.
Down syndrome - individuals with three copies of chromosome #21.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…DNA – a molecule that contains genetic information.
Genes – a segment of DNA that contains units of heredity.
Heredity – passing of traits to offspring from parents or ancestors.
Genome – The complete instructions for making an organism.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…Identical twins (monozygotic twins) – developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two.
Fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) – developed from separate fertilized eggs.
Adopted children are more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents.
VARIATION ACROSS CULTURENorms - rules for accepted and expected behavior. They dictate what “proper” behavior looks like.
Individualist – Cultures that nurture a person’s identity.
Collectivist – Cultures that nurture a group identity.
GENDER ROLESGender roles – expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave.
Gender identity – how a person views himself or herself in terms of gender.
Occam’s Razor –The simplest answer is usually the correct one. (also called Ockham’s razor)
UNIT 4SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONSensation: how we receive information from our environment.
5 Senses: See, hear, touch, taste, & smell.
Perception: what our body does with the information we sense.
SENSATION & PERCEPTION
Absolute threshold: the weakest level you could detect a sound, light, etc. half the time.
Subliminal stimulation: receiving messages below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
Sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity because of constant stimulation.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONWavelength: the distance from one wave peak to the next. It determines the hue.
Amplitude: height of the wave.
Intensity: brightness
Selective attention: Focusing on one thing allows us to block out other things going on.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONCornea: where light enters the eye.
Pupil: regulates the amount of light.
Iris: colored ring of muscle, constricts or dilates depending on the amount of light.
Lens: focuses the light rays on the retina.
Acuity: The sharpness of vision.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONRetina: absorbs light, processes images. Contains rods and cones.
Rods: detects black & white & allows you to see in low light.
Cones: detects color & allows you to see in bright light. Most concentrated at the fovea.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONOptic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. Fovea: Central point in the retina where cones (no rods) cluster. Point where images focus.Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.
SENSATION & PERCEPTION
Nearsighted: nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects.
Farsighted: distant objects are seen more clearly than nearby objects.
LASIK – laser eye surgery in which a flap is cut into the cornea to access tissue behind it.
PRK – laser to reshape the surface of the cornea.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONYoung-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory: retina has 3 types of color receptors for red, blue, and green.
Opponent-Process Theory: opposing retinal processes enable color vision. Red & Green, Yellow & Blue, White & Black.
Afterimages: images continue to briefly appear even after the actual image is removed.
SENSATION & PERCEPTIONAudition: the sense or act of hearing.
Amplitude: The height of the sound wave the determines the loudness. Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time.
Pitch: the highness or lowness of a sound.
Decibels – measuring unit for sound energy.
Auditory Canal
Ear Drum
HammerAnvil
Stirrup Semicircular Canals
Cochlea
Auditory Nerves
(Goes to throat)
THE EAROuter Ear: auditory canal & eardrum
Middle Ear: hammer, anvil, & stirrup.
Inner Ear: cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
HEARING LOSSConduction hearing loss: eardrum is punctured or any of the tiny bones in middle ear lose their ability to vibrate.
Sensorineural hearing loss: damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory neurons.
TOUCH
Made up of four skin senses:•Pressure•Warmth•Cold•PainItching is gentle stimulation of pain receptors.Gate-Control Theory: pain messages can pass through a “gate” in the spinal cord on their way to the brain.
TASTEGustation: the chemical sense of taste with receptor cells in taste buds on the tongue, on the roof of the mouth, in the throat.
Five basic taste sensations are:
SweetSourSaltyBitterUmami (Meaty Taste)
SMELLOlfaction: the chemical sense of smell.
Pheromones – chemicals released by animals that triggers a social response by another animal.
PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONSVisual Capture – the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.
Gestalt – organizing pieces into a meaningful “whole”.
Figure – Object
Ground – Surroundings
GROUPINGProximity – Group nearby figures together.
Similarity – We group together figures that are similar to each other.
Continuity – We see smooth, continuous patterns.
Connectedness – We see objects as a single unit.
Closure – We fill in the gaps to create a complete, whole object.
PERCEPTIONDepth Perception – Seeing two dimensional objects as three dimensional.
Visual Cliff – test of depth perception in babies.
Binocular Cues – depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.
MONOCULAR CUESMonocular Cues – depth cues using 1 eye.
Relative Size – The closer of two same size objects looks bigger.
Interposition – one object partially blocks our view of another, we see it as closer.
Relative Clarity – closer objects appear sharper than more distant, hazy objects.
MONOCULAR CUESTexture Gradient – far away objects that appear more densely packed or smooth.
Relative Height – Images higher in the picture seem farther away.
Relative Motion (Motion Parallax) – As we move, objects appear to move.
MONOCULAR CUESLinear Perspective – Parallel lines seem to converge in the distance.
Light and Shadow (Relative Brightness) – Closer of two identical objects reflects more light to your eyes.
SHAPE AND SIZE CONSTANCIESShape Constancy – an object appears to maintain its normal shape regardless of the angle.
Size Constancy – an object appears to stay the same size despite changes in the size of the image.
Size-Distance Relationship – Farther objects seems larger.
LIGHTNESS CONSTANCYBrightness Constancy – an object maintains a particular level of brightness regardless of the amount of light reflected from it.
ESPESP (extrasensory perception): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input.
Parapsychology: the study of paranormal events that investigates claims of ESP.
ESPA. Telepathy: Communicating with our minds only.
B. Clairvoyance: Ability to see remote events, things that happen at another location. (Psychics, Long Island Medium, etc.)
C. Precognition: Ability to see the outcome of future events.
D. Psychokinesis: Ability to move objects with your mind.
UNIT 5STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESSConsciousness – our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Sigmund Freud – Father of Psychoanalysis. Studied subconscious.
Four types of biological rhythms:•Annual cycles•28 day cycles•24 hour cycles•90 minute cycles
SLEEP AND DREAMSCircadian Rhythm – cycles of change that recur approximately every 24 hours. “Biological Clock”
Alpha waves are brain waves between awake and sleep.
Beta waves are awake brain waves.
Hypnagogic Sleep - This is the very relaxed and drowsy state that you pass through before entering sleep.
SLEEP AND DREAMS – STAGES
Stage 1 Sleep – quick sleep stage with gradual loss of responsiveness to outside, drifting thoughts, and images.
Stage 2 Sleep – Can be awakened without difficulty.
Brain waves are characterized by sleep spindles.
SLEEP AND DREAMS – STAGES
Stage 3 Sleep – Beginning of deep sleep.
“Delta Sleep” begins (Stage 3 & 4)
Stage 4 Sleep – deepest sleep stage.
Bedwetting and sleepwalking occurs in this stage.
After stage 4, you return to stages 3 & 2, before entering stage 5, REM.
SLEEP AND DREAMS – REM STAGE
REM Stage – REM sleep (Stage 5)
REM – Rapid Eye Movement
Brain waves resemble beta waves of being awake.
Dreams and nightmares occur.
Also called “paradoxical sleep”.
SLEEP AND DREAMS – REM STAGEREM Rebound – An increased percentage of time spent in REM sleep when we are deprived of REM sleep during previous nights.
Sleep Debt – the amount of sleep owed to your body for lack of sleep in previous nights.
Sleep Deprivation – not having enough sleep.
SLEEP THEORIESWhy do we sleep?
1. Protection – kept our ancestors from venturing around at night.
2. Recuperate – Repairs and restores brain tissues.
3. Remembering – Builds and restores our memories.
4. Growth – During deep sleep, growth hormones are released.
SLEEP DISORDERSInsomnia: the inability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep.
Narcolepsy: sudden and uncontrollable lapse into sleep
Sleep apnea: temporary pauses of breathing
Night terrors: characterized by bloodcurdling screams and intense fear
Sleepwalking: usually in stage 4.
DREAMSLucid dreaming: awareness that we are dreaming
Manifest content: the remembered story line of a dream.
Latent content: the underlying meaning of a dream.
Hypnosis: state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.
DRUGSDependence: Compulsive use of a substance (addiction)Tolerance: More substance is required to obtain the original effectWithdrawal: Physical discomfort when the substance is stopped
Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood.
Stimulant (Uppers): Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system. (Increase energy)
Depressant (Downers): Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system. (Decrease energy)
DRUGS
Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates
Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Crack, Amphetamines, methamphetamine (Speed, Crystal Meth), and ecstasy (MDMA).
Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana (THC is active ingredient in marijuana)
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
UNIT 6TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
INTELLIGENCEIntelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
General Intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that is in every specific mental ability.
Savant Syndrome: a person with one exceptional ability, but limited mental ability in the others.
THEORIES ON INTELLIGENCE
Spearman – g (general intelligence).
Thurstone – Primary mental abilities (7 factors/clusters).
Gardner – 9 independent intelligences.
Sternberg – 3 areas that predict success.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEEmotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
•Perceive: recognize emotions in faces, music, and stories.
•Understand: to predict them & how they change and blend.
•Manage: to express them in situations.
•Use: to enable them.
INTELLIGENCECreativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Alfred Binet: invented the first intelligence test.
Lewis Terman: adapted Binet’s test for American school children. (Stanford-Binet test)
William Stern: German psychologist who created the IQ.
IQ = Mental age
Chronological agex 100
Mental age: the age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
INTELLIGENCE
ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTINGEugenics: encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce.
Aptitude: the capacity to learn.
Aptitude tests: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance.
Achievement tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
TEST CONSTRUCTIONPsychological tests must meet 3 criteria to be accepted: standardized, reliable, and valid.
Standardization: It defines what the score you get means!
Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Validity: what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
TEST CONSTRUCTION
Normal Curve: a bell shaped curve in which most scores fall near the average and fewer scores are at the extremes.
Mental retardation: low test score and difficulty living independently.
Head Start Program: Government funded preschool program.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCESFlynn Effect: worldwide rise in IQ scores since the 1920s due to better nutrition and increasing years of schooling.
Bias: Differences in performances caused by cultural experiences detected on tests.Stereotype Threat: A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
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