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H H H H H H H H | | | | | | | |H - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - H | | | | | | | H H H H H H H
H H H | | | H - C - C - C - C - H | | | H H H H - C - H | H - C - H | H
Here’s a structural diagram of a typical hydrocarbonIt has 14 C’s and 30 H’s so the formula isC14H30
since each C is surrounded by 4 bonds typically, for ease of drawing, the H’s are left out to form a carbon skeleton diagram
Find the longest continuous carbon chain. This structure is called the parent chain.
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | C - C- C - C |
C |
C
This parent chain has 9 C so it starts with non.If there are no doublebonds it ends with ane
Nonane is the name of the parent chain
To name the parent chain prefixes at the beginning of the word are used. These prefixes are determined by the number of C atoms in the parent chain.
Find the longest continuous carbon chain. This structure is called the parent chain.
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | C - C- C - C |
C |
C
If the carbon chain is 1 C starts with meth2 C starts with eth3 C starts with prop4 C starts with but5 C starts with pent6 C starts with hex7 C starts with hept8 C starts with oct9 C starts with non10 C starts with dec
This parent chain has 9 C so it starts with non.If there are no doublebonds it ends with ane
Nonane is the name of the parent chain
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | C - C- C - C |
C |
C
Next you must number the parent chainChains can be numbered from either direction so the rule to follow states:Number the chain so the lowest possible number is used when the 1st side chain is encountered
12345
6 7
8
9
98765
43
2
1
Using the red numbers the 1st side chain is encountered at the 5th C
Using the blue numbers the 1st side chain is encountered at the 3rd C
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | C - C- C - C |
C |
C
98765
43
2
1
Next, identify the side chains and where they are attached
3 C side chain is called propyl 2 C side
chain is called ethyl
Notice all side chains end in yl
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | C - C- C - C |
C |
C
98765
43
2
1
Now lets consider the names which have been determined
Parent chain is nonaneside chains are3-ethyl and5-propylthe complete name is
3-ethyl-5-propylnonaneSide chains appear 1st and are always alphabetized, (ethyl before propyl), parent chain appears last
Now draw the skeleton structure for 5-butyl-6-ethyl-2-methyl decane1st identify the parent chain
5-butyl-6-ethyl-2-methyldecane (decane means 10 C’s with no double bonds
C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - CSide chains are:2-methyl(1 C attached to the 2nd C)
|C
5-butyl4 C’s attached to the 5th C
6-ethyl2C’s attached to the 6th C
|C |C |C |C
|C |C
Now draw the skeleton structure for 3,3-diethyl-2,5,6-trimethylheptane1st identify the parent chain3,3-diethyl -2,5,6-trimethylheptane (heptane means 7C’s with no double bonds
C - C - C - C - C - C - C
Side chains are:3,3-diethyl(2C attached to each side of the 3rd C)
2,5,6-trimethyl1C’s attached to the 2nd, 5th and 6th C
|C |C
C |C |
|C
|C
|C
Name the following:
C C - C C | | |C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C | | | | C C C C
Parent Chain is octane
Side Chains are 2,2,3,4,7,7 hexamethyl6 - ethylFinal Answer is
6 - ethyl - 2,2,3,4,7,7 - hexamethyloctane
Naming Cyclic Hydrocarbons with Side Chains
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
What is this structure called?
cyclopentane
CH3
CH3
CH3
Number the carbons in the ring using the lowest possible numbers.
1
23
45
1,2,4-trimethyl
Draw 2,3-diethyl-1-methylcyclohexane
CH2
CH2 CH
CH
CHCH2
CH3
CH2CH3
CH2CH3
Aromatics with Side-Chains
CH2CH2CH3
CH2CH2CH3
Name?1,3-dipropylbenzene
Sometimes compounds are more easily named when the benzene ring is considered to be a side chain.
CH3
CH2
CH
CH
C
CH3
C
CHCH
CHCH
CH
CH3
CH3
CH3
Name?2,2,3-trimethyl-4-phenylhexane
Draw 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-diphenylpentane
CH3
CC
CH2CH3
C
CH CH
CH CH
CH
C
CHCH
CHCH
CH
CH3
CH3
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Alkyl Halides-Hydrocarbons containing F, Cl, Br, I
When a halogen is introduced into a hydrocarbon molecule naming proceeds as if the halogen were simply a branch. CH3CH2CHCH2CH3
| Clis named3-chloropentanesoCH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2Bris named1-bromohexane
Draw the complete structural diagram for4-bromo-2,5-dimethylheptane H H H H H H H | | | | | | |H-C-C -- C-C - C -- C-C-H | | | | | | | H CH3 H Br CH3 H H
(CH3)2CHCH2CHBrCH(CH3)2
named
CH
HCHH
HHCH HCH
CH
BrHCH HC H
H
CH H
CH
HCHH
HHCH HCH
CH
BrHCH HC H
H
CH H
The parent chain isHexanethe rest of it is3 - bromo2,5 - dimethyl, so the complete name is3-bromo-2,5-dimethylhexane
If double bonds are present, the hydrocarbon is still named as if the halogen were absent. F-CH=CH-CH2-CH3 is named 1-fluoro-1-buteneCH3-CH=CH-CH2I is1-iodo-2-buteneCH2-CH=CH-CH2
| |Br Br is named1,4-dibromo-2-butene
The condensed structural diagram for 1-chloro-6-iodo-2,4-hexadiene is
CH2-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2
| | I Cl
Cis and Trans Isomers
Molecules with double and triple bonds cannot rotate in opposite directions on each side of the double bond so when side chains, like Cl atoms for example, are attached on each side of the double bond 2 different structures are possible.
CH CH
Cl
Cl
CH CH
Cl Cl
cis-1,2-dichloroethene
trans-1,2-dichloroethene
CH3
CH2C
CCH3
Br
Br
Nametrans-2,3-dibromo-2-pentene
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH2 CH2
H Cl
CH3 CH2Cl
C CH
H
H
H
H Cl
C CH
H
H
H
H Cl
C CH
H
H
H
H Cl
C CH
H
H
H
H Cl
C CH
H
H
H
H Cl
C CH
H
H
HH Cl
C CH
H
H
HH Cl
C C
H
H
H
H
H Cl
C2H4 + HCl C2H5Cl
Addition ReactionHydrohalogenation of an Alkene to an alkyl halide
ethene chloroethane
C2H4 + HCl C2H5Cl
Addition ReactionHydrohalogenation of an Alkene to an alkyl halide
ethene chloroethane
Markovnikov’s RuleWhen non-identical atoms are added 2 products are theoretically possible. Experiments show only 1 main product is formed. The H atom will bond to the C atom which already has more H’s attached.
H-CH=CH-CH3 + HBrH2C – CH – CH3 or H2C – CH –CH3
H Br HBr2-bromopropaneMain product 1-bromopropane
The “rich” get “richer”
2H’s x
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
Predict the product for the reaction below
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
Br
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
H
HBr
CC
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
Br
The H atom will bond to the C atom with the most H atoms already attached.
C
C
C
C
BrH
H
H
H
H
H H
H
H
2-bromobutane
Draw structural diagrams showing the reaction of HF and 1-pentene
HF + C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H H
H
H
H H
H
H
C
C
C
C
CH
H
H
H
F
H
H
H
H H
H
H
2-fluoropentane
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2Cl Cl
CClH CH Cl22
C CH
H
H
H
Cl Cl
C CH
H
H
H
Cl Cl
C CH
H
H
H
Cl Cl
C CH
H
H
H
Cl Cl
C CH
H
H
HCl Cl
C CH
H
H
HCl Cl
C C
H
H
H
HCl Cl
C C
H
H
H
H
Cl Cl
C2H4 + Cl22 C2H4Cl2
Addition ReactionHalogenation of an Alkene to an alkyl halide
ethene 1,2-dichloroethane
CC
H
HH
H
HH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
HH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
HH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
HH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
HH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
H Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
Cl Cl
CC
H
HH
H
ClH
Cl Cl
H Cl
CC
H
HH
ClH Cl
H Cl
CC
H
HH
ClH Cl
C2H6 + 2Cl2 C2H4Cl2 +2HCl
Substitution ReactionChanging an Alkane to an alkyl halide
ethane 1,2 dichloroethane
Halogens have large electronegativities so their presence on a hydrocarbon chain creates a polar region which is localized. If they are present in a balanced symmetrical pattern, the polarity is nulified and the molecule is non-polar. (C2Cl6 for example).Alkyl halides have stronger intermolecular forces than their corresponding hydrocarbons due to this polarity, so they have higher MP and BP and are more soluble in polar solvents than hydrocarbons. The more halogenated the hydrocarbon, the greater the polarity and the higher the MP and BP.
are characterized by the presence of an OH group (hydroxyl). The alcohol whose parent hydrocarbon is propane can have two possible structures which are derived by replacing an H atom with an OH group.
H H H | | |H - C - C - C - H | | | H H H
OH
OH
OH OH OH
OH OH
OH
Notice the OH group is either attached to the 1st or the 2nd C so the 2 possible names are 1-propanol
Alcohols end in ______ol.2-propanolOH
H
Name this structureCH3(CH2)7OH1-octanol Name this structureCH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2CH2CH3
| CH2 CH2OHWhen a functional group like OH is present find the longest carbon chain which contains the functional group. The OH group is on the 1st carbon.3-propyl-1-heptanol.Name this structure CH3 CH2 CHCH3
| OH2-butanol not 3 butanol is the correct name
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH(OH) CH2 CH3
is named3-hexanolOnce the numbering system is determined by the location of the OH group, other branches, alkyl or halogen are named in the usual way CH3
|CH3 -CH2 - C - OH is named | CH3
2-methyl-2-butanol
CH3 CH2 CH3
| |CH3 C CH2 CH2 CCH3
| | CH3 CH CH3
| OHis named
Find the longest C chain which contains the OH group
2-heptanol3-ethyl-3,6,6-trimethyl-
If a carbon chain has more than one OH group attached it is called a polyhydroxy compound.
Draw a structural diagram of 1,2-ethanediol.CH2 OH |CH2 OH
the common name for this is ethylene glycol the principal component of antifreeze. CH2 OH |CH3CH2 - C-OH | CH2 OH
Its name is2-ethyl-1,2,3-propantriol
The insect repellent “6-12” (2-ethyl-1,3-hexanediol) has the structural formula: H H H H H H | | | | | |H - C - C --- C - C - C - C - H | | | | | | OH CH2 OH H H H | CH3
What is the name of the structure below: OH | CH / \ CH2 CH2
| | CH CH / \ / \ OH CH2 OH
1,3,5-cyclohexanetriol
CH3CH=CH-CH2-OH is named2-buten-1-ol CH2=CH-CH2OH is named
2-propen-1-olthe OH group takes precedence in numbering3-buten-2-ol has the formula: H H H H | | | /H - C - C - C = C | | \ H OH H
If there is a choice of chains, the most unsaturated is chosen as long as it still contains the OH groupExample - What is the name of:CH3 - CH = C - CH2 - OH | CH2CH2CH3
the parent chain is
2 - buten -1- ol
The complete name is
2 - propyl -
Remembering the compounds with triple bonds are called alkynes, the structural diagram for 2-propyn-1-ol is H | H - C - C C - H | OH
CH3-CH2-C-CH2-CH-CH3
| | CH3 CH2OH is2,4 - dimethyl-1-hexanol
The formula for2,2,5-trimethyl-3-hexene-1,5-diol is CH3 OH | | CH2-C-CH=CH-C-CH3
| | |OH CH3 CH3
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
CH2 CH2
OH H
C
C
OH
HH
H
H
H
ethanol
C CH
H H
H
O
H H
C CH
H H
HO
H H
C CH
H H
HO
H H
C CH
H H
HO
H H
C CH
H H
HOH H
C CH
H H
H
OHH
C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH
Addition ReactionHydration of an Alkene to an alcohol
ethene ethanol
The presence of the OH group makes them polar so they are soluble in water and other polar solvents and can form H bonds which is a stronger intermolecular force that dipole-dipole attractions found between polar molecules.As the non-polar hydrocarbon chain grows in the higher molecular weight alcohols the polarity decreases so the solubility diminishes but they can be used to dissolve both non-polar and polar substances.Larger molecular weight alcohols also have stronger intermolecular forces so BP increases.
Oxygen atoms can bond in the middle of a chain of carbon atoms. When this happens the compounds formed are called ethers.ExampleCH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
The longest chain is used as the parent chain.
This 4 carbon chain is called butanethe side chain is 2 C’s + the O
The side chain is called ethoxy ethoxybutane
Sketch 1,2-dimethoxycyclopentaneParent chain is cyclopentaneside chains are methoxy attached to consecutive carbons in the 5 Carbon ring
CH2
/ \ CH2 CH-O-CH3
| | CH2---CH-O-CH3
Name this structureCH2=CH-CH-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
| | CH3-CH2-O O-CH2-CH2-CH3
parent chain is1-hepteneside chains are3-ethoxy and 5-propoxycomplete name is3-ethoxy-5-propoxy-1-heptene
C
CCO
H
HH
H
HH
H
H
CC
CO
H H
HH
H
H
H
H
2-propanol
C
CCO
H
HH
H
HH
H
H
CC
CO
H H
HH
H
H
H
H
2-propanol
C
CCO
H
HH
H
HH
H
H
CC
CO
H H
HH
H
H
H
H
2-propanol
C
CCO
H
HH
H
HH
H
H
CC
CO
H H
HH
H
H
H
H
2-propanol
C
CC
H
HH
H
HH
H
CC
CO
H
HH
H
H
H
H
O
HH
CC
CO
CH H
HH
H
H
H
H
C CH
H H H
H
H
O
HH
2-methylethoxypropane
2C3H7OH C6H14O +H2O
Dehydration of Alcohols to Ethers
2-propanol 2- methylethoxy
propane
H2SO4
The difference in En of C and O, and the V shape of the C – O – C bond make ethers slightly polar. Their MP and BP lie in between those of corresponding alcohols and hydrocarbons. They mix readily with both polar and nonpolar substances so make excellent solvents for organic reactions. The C-O bond is quite stable making ethers generally unreactive, another property of a good solvent.
Both these families have C = O groups replacing a H atom on the carbon chains. Aldehydes have this C = O group at the end of a chain, Ketones have the C = O group in the middle portion of the chain. Here are some examples of aldehydes and ketones. Decide which is which.
A. CH3HC=O B. CH3CH2C = O | CH3
C. (CH3)2CHCCH(CH3)2
|| O
D. HCHO
aldehyde
aldehyde
ketone
ketone
E. CH3COCH3 F. HCOC2H5
aldehydeketone
Aldehydes end in _______________alKetones end in _______________oneethanal isCH3-C=O | Hpropanone is
CH3-C-CH3
|| O
Pentanone has 2 possible structures.They are
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
|| O andCH3CH2CCH2CH3
|| O
2 - pentanone
3 - pentanone
Name this structure CH3
|O=CCHCH2CH3
| CH3
the parent chain is
3-methyl-2-pentanone
2,3-hexanedione is
C - C - C - C - C - C || || O O
1,4-cyclohexanedione is CH2
/ \ CH2 C=O | |O=C CH2
\ / CH2
3-penten-2-one isThe functional group takes precedence over the double bondC - C - C = C - C || O
3-hydroxypentanal is
C - C - C - C - C || |O OH
5-chloro-3-heptenal is
C - C - C = C - C - C - C || |O Cl
Name thisCH3C=O | CH2CH-CH3
| I
4-iodo-2-pentanone
2,5-heptadien-4-one has the structural formula
CH3CH=CH-C-CH=CHCH3
|| O
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
1-propanol
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
1-propanol
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H H
CH
H H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
HH
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
HH
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HH
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
HH
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
dehydration reaction
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
2-propanol
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
2-propanol
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
2-propanol
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
2-propanol
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
2-propanol
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C
CCOH
H
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C
CCO
HH
HH
H
HH
H
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
H
HO
C
CCO
H
HH
H
HH
propanone
Notice when the OH group is not on the end a ketone is made
C3H7OH + O C3H6O + H2O2-propanol propanone
Oxidation of Alcohols to Aldehydes or Ketones
1-propanol propanal
The C = O bond is polar so aldehydes and ketones are soluble in water and their MP and BP lie between corresponding hydrocarbons and alcohols since the O – H bond is more polar. They also can mix with non-polar substances due to the presence of hydrocarbon chains. The longer the chains the more non-polar they are, the less soluble they are in polar solvents and the more soluble they are in non-polar solvents.Again as their molecular weights increase so do their MP and BP due to increased VdW forces.
Ethanoic Acid isCH3C=O | OHthe name of this isCH3CH2CH=CHCOOH2-pentenoic acid
4-hydroxy-3-iodo-2-heptenoic acid is
C - C - C - C - C = C - C = O | | | OH I OH
Name thisCH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
| COOH2-methylpentanoic acid
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C COH
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
C CO
H
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
`
C CO
H
H
CH
H
HHpropanal
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
`
C CO
H
H
CH
H
HHPropanoic acid
KMnO4 or Cr2O72- in H2SO4
O
`
C3H6O + O C2H5COOHpropanal propanoic acid
Oxidation of Aldehydes to Carboxylic Acids
Organic acids are polar and form H bonds so they are soluble in water. As molecular weights increase, intermolecular forces increase so BP and MP increase.As the hydrocarbon chain grows, the polarity decreases so the solubility in polar solvents decrease.
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H H
H
H
C C C
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
C C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
HO
H
C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
C C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
HO
H
C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
C C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
HO
H
C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C O
H
H
H
H
HO
H
H
C C
O
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C O
H
H
H
H
HO
H
H
ethylpropanoate
Making Esters from Alcohols and Acids
C2H5OH + C2H55COOH
C2H5COOC2H5 + H2O
O = C - C - C - C - C | OH
C - C - C - C - OH
Alcohol is called Acid is called
1-butanol Pentanoic acidWhen they combine H2O is removed (a dehydration synthesis)
O = C - C - C - C - C | OH
C - C - C - C - OH
C - C - C - C - OH
C - C - C - C - OH
O = C - C - C - C - C | O | C - C - C - C
O = C - C - C - C - C | O | C - C - C - C
When naming esters you name the alcohol 1st (remove the letters anol from the end and add the letters yl at the end.If the alcohol is 1-butanol then the name is 1-butyl.The acid name is second. If the acid is pentanoic drop the last 3 letters (oic) and add the letters oate. In this instance it becomes pentanoate. The complete name becomes
1-butyl pentanoate
O = C - C - C - C | O | C - C
This ester’s name is
Remember alcohol1st
Ethanol becomes ethyl
Acid 2nd Butanoic becomes butanoate
Ethyl butanoateRemember the double bonded oxygen atom is always joined to the acid
What is this ester’s name?
O = C - C | O | C - C - C - C - C
Remember alcohol1st
2-pentanol becomes 2-pentyl
Acid 2nd ethanoic becomes ethanoate
2-pentylethanoate
Draw the structural diagram for 2,3,3-trichloro-2-hexylmethanoate
Remember alcohol1st
Cl Cl | |C - C - C - C - C - C | | OH Cl
OH |O = C
Cl Cl | |C - C - C - C - C - C | | Cl O
|O = C
Esters lack the OH group from the parent acid and alcohol so they are less polar.This means they have lower MP and BP than their corresponding acids and alcohols are less soluble in water and are not acidic.Smaller molecular weight esters have relatively weak intermolecular forces so they have strong odours.
NH2 groups can be attached as side chains to carbon parent chains. These groups are called amines. Here is an example.1,2-diaminopropane isCH2-CH-CH3
| | NH2 NH2
What is the name of this structure?F-C=C-C-C-C-NH2
| NH2
3,5-diamino-1-fluoro-1-pentenenotice the double bond takes precedence over the side chains. When a functional group is present like alcohols (OH), aldehydes (C=O), ketones, or acids, they take precedence over the double or triple bonds.
The hydrogens on the amines can be replaced by methyls (CH3), ethyls (C2H5) , halides (F), etc. CH3-CH-CH3
| N / \
CH3 C2H5H H
When this happens the side chain is called N-ethyl-N-methyl-2-aminopropane
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
NH
HH
C C
H
H
H
H
H
NH H
Cl
H
C C
H
H
H
H
HN
H H
Cl
H
C C
H
H
H
H
HN
H H
Cl
H
C C
H
H
H
H
HN
H H
Cl
H
aminoethane
Making Amines From Alkyl Halides
CH3CH2Cl + NH3 C2H5NH2 + HCl
Amines are named as side chains.Name this compound
CH3C
CH
CH
CH3
NH2
NH2
Parent chain is 2-pentene4,4-diamino-2-pentene
Draw 2,2 diamino-6-methyl-3,5-octadiene
CH3C
CH
CH
CH
NH2
NH2
C
CH2
CH3
CH3
N – H and C – H bonds are both polar and N – H bonds exhibit H bonding properties so amines are quite soluble in water.Neither bond is as polar as O – H so they have lower MP and BP than their corresponding alcohols. As molecular weight increases so does BP and MP unless no H bonding occurs. Match these MP to the diagrams 8oC, -33oC, 6oC.
NH
HH N
H
CH3H N
CH3
CH3H
Remember the carboxylic acids
Ethanoic Acid isCH3C=O |
OH
If the OH group is replaced by an amine the resulting functional group is called an amide. Amides are named from the parent chain
NH2
Ethanamide
3-ethyl-2-pentenamide isCH3-CH2-CH=CH-C=O | | C2H5 N / \ H H
If the H’s on the NH2 are replaced by a methyl and an ethylCH3-CH2-CH=CH-C=O | | C2H5 N / \H HCH3 C2H5The name is
N-ethyl-N-methyl-3-ethyl-2-pentenamide
Sketch the followingN-ethylbutanamideCH3-CH2-CH2-C=O | N / \ C2H5 H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H H
CCC
O
OH
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
HCCC
O
H
H
H
H
HH
OH
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H CCC
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
OH
H
OH
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H CCC
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
OH
C C
H
H
H
N
H
H
H CCC
O
H
H
H
H
H
N-ethylpropanamide
Making Amides From Amines and Acids
C2H5NH2 + C2H5CO2H C2H5CONHC2H5
+ H2O
Amides are generally insoluble in water due to the relative cancellation of the 4 different polar regions (the two N – H s, the C = O and the C - N). The lower molecular weight amides are slightly soluble due to the presence of H bonding.Amides which have alkyl groups attached to the N atom have weaker intermolecular forces (due to lack of H bonding) so have lower MP and BP.The lone pair of electrons found on the N atom makes it attractive to H atoms so amines are weak bases.
NO2 groups can be attached as side chains to carbon parent chains. These nitro groups as named as side chains much like halogens (Cl), ethers (OCH3) and hydroxys (OH). Here is an example.3-nitro-1-hexene has the structureCH2=CH-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
| NO2
Sketch 1-methyl-2,3,4-trinitro-1,3,5-cyclohexatriene (TNT)
C C C C C C
CH3
NO2
NO2 H
NO2 H
This structure is also called trinitrotoluene (TNT). A benzene ring with a methyl group is called toluene. Benzene is also drawn like this
and when functional groups are attached at adjacent locations the prefix ortho(oo) is used. Here are examples of o-o-dichlorobenzene
Cl
ClCl
Cl
If functional groups are on carbons separated by one empty carbon the prefix used is meta (m) Here are examples of m --difluorobenzene.
F F
F
FIf functional groups are on carbons separated by two empty carbons the prefix used is para (p) Here are examples of p --dibromobenzene.
Br
Br
Br
Br
20 different amino acids are used to assemble protein. Like the name implies amino acids have amino and carboxylic acid groups on adjacent carbons.
R OH | | H-C-C=O | NH2
Each of the 20 different amino acids has a different R group.
If the R group is methyl the amino acid is called alanine. Its structure is
CH3 OH | | H-C-C=O | NH2
If the rules presented previously were used to name alanine it would be called2 - aminopropanoic acid
If serine is named 2-amino-3-hydroxypropanoic acid what is its structure?
H OH | |OH-CH2-C-C=O | NH2
2-amino-3-hydroxypropanoic acid
Most of the dry mass of living organisms is composed of proteins. Proteins are composed of long chains of the 20 different amino acids linked end to end. Here is an example of how amino acids are chemically bonded. The product produced from 2 amino acids is called a dipeptide. Here is how dipeptides form.
H OH | | H-C-C=O | NH2
CH3 OH | | H-C-C=O | N / \ H H
When 2 different aminoacids combine the amino group of one amino acid always reacts with the carboxyl group of the other amino acid.
Notice water is eliminated so this kind of reaction is called a dehydration synthesis. The product is called a dipeptide.
H OH | | H-C-C=O | NH2
CH3 OH | | H-C-C=O | N / \ H H
CH3 OH | | H-C-C=O | N \ H H |H-C-C=O | NH2
H2O +
Remember a peptide linkage occurs between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another. Water is always eliminated in this dehydration synthesis. Show how a peptide bond forms from 2 amino acids if one has an R group which is a hydroxy and the other’s R group is an ethyl.
OH OH | | H-C-C=O | H-N-H C2H5 OH
| | H-C-C=O | H-N-H
OH OH | | H-C-C=O | N-H C2H5
| H-C-C=O | H-N-H
+ H20
To watch a movie showing polypeptide formation click here
Making Aspartame - A dipeptide
PhenylalanineSystematic name?2-amino-3-phenyl-propanoic acid
O
NH2
OH
180x's sweeter than sugar
Making Aspartame - A dipeptide
Aspartic acidSystematic name?Aminobutandioic acid
O
ONH2
OH
OH
Making Aspartame
O
ONH2
OH
OH
O
N
OH
H H
Making Aspartame
O
ONH2
OH
OH
O
N
OH
H H
Making Aspartame
O
ONH2
OH
OH
O
N
OH
H H
Making Aspartame
O
HN
OH
O
ONH2
OH
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
OH
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
OH
methanol
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
OH
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
OH
methanol
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
OH
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
OH
methanol
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
O
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
O
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
10% of ingested aspartame is changed into methanol which is poisonousDoseage from 1 diet drink is minimalSucralose is probably better as an artificial sweetner.Show where this hydrolysis happens.
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
O
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
HO
H
Methyl ester of a Dipeptide
O
HN
OH
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
OH
Methanol is further oxidized into methanal, then methanoic acid. Draw these reactions.Methanoic acid can be toxic at high levels due to its inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase the last enzyme in the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. It transfers the electrons to oxygen. Complete inhibition is fatal.
sucralose
Sucrose -white sugar
Notice the similarites between sucralose and sucrose. Compare to aspartame
sucralose
Sucrose -white sugar
O
HN
O
O
ONH2
OH
CH3
Aspartame
Making Acetylsalicylic Acid (ASA) Aspirin
Salicylic acid Acetic anhydrideEthanoyl ethanoate
ASA
OH
OOH
O
O
O
CH3
CH3
O
OOH
O
CH3
CH3
O
OH+
+
Ethanoic acidAcetic acid5% is vinegar
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
CH3
O
OH
CH3
O
OH
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
CH3
O
OH
CH3
O
OH
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
When an anhydride is placed in water it will undergo the reverse reaction (hydrolysis). Water is added and it reforms the 2 original molecules, in this case the ethanoic acid.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
OH
H
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
When an anhydride is placed in water it will undergo the reverse reaction (hydrolysis). Water is added and it reforms the 2 original molecules, in this case the ethanoic acid.
O
CH3 OH
OHH
O
CH3
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
When an anhydride is placed in water it will undergo the reverse reaction (hydrolysis). Water is added and it reforms the 2 original molecules, in this case the ethanoic acid.
O
CH3 OH
OH
H
O
CH3
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
When an anhydride is placed in water it will undergo the reverse reaction (hydrolysis). Water is added and it reforms the 2 original molecules, in this case the ethanoic acid.
O
CH3 OH OH
H
O
CH3
Let's focus on the acetic anhydride.
O
OO
CH3 CH3
All anhydrides are created by the elimination of water. This anhydride is formed by the reaction of 2 acetic acid molecules with the elimination of water (dehydration)
O
OO
CH3 CH3
When an anhydride is placed in water it will undergo the reverse reaction (hydrolysis). Water is added and it reforms the 2 original molecules, in this case the ethanoic acid.
O
CH3 OH
O
CH3OH
Now the ethanoic acid can undergo an esterification with the alcohol group of the salicylic acid to form the ASA
OH
OOH
CH3
O
OH
Now the ethanoic acid can undergo an esterification with the alcohol group of the salicylic acid to form the ASA
OH
OOH
CH3
O
OH
Now the ethanoic acid can undergo an esterification with the alcohol group of the salicylic acid to form the ASA
OH
OOH
CH3
O
OH
Now the ethanoic acid can undergo an esterification with the alcohol group of the salicylic acid to form the ASA
O
OOH
CH3
O
ASA will sometimes smell like alcohol. This happens when the ester is hydrolyzed by water to reform the salicylic acid and ethanoic acid
O
OOH
CH3
O
ASA will sometimes smell like alcohol. This happens when the ester is hydrolyzed by water to reform the salicylic acid and ethanoic acid
O
OOH
CH3
O
OH
H
ASA will sometimes smell like alcohol. This happens when the ester is hydrolyzed by water to reform the salicylic acid and ethanoic acid
O
OOH
CH3
OOH
H
ASA will sometimes smell like alcohol. This happens when the ester is hydrolyzed by water to reform the salicylic acid and ethanoic acid
OOH
OH
CH3
O
OH
ASA will sometimes smell like alcohol. This happens when the ester is hydrolyzed by water to reform the salicylic acid and ethanoic acid
OOH
OH
CH3
O
OH
Nylon is composed of gigantic molecules made up of a repeating subunit called a monomer. These extremely large molecules made up of large numbers of monomers are called polymers. Dupont, in Kingston, makes a kind of nylon called nylon 6,6. It is made from a 6 carbon dicarboxylic acid and a 6 carbon diamino compound.
1,6-diaminohexane (hexamethylene diamine) is one of these compounds and hexandioic acid (adipic acid) is the other. These molecules are combined end to end by releasing water in a dehydration synthesis. Show how this is done.
O=C-(CH2)4-C=O | | OH OH
hexandioic acid
CH2-(CH2)4-CH2
| |H-N-H H-N-H
1,6-diaminohexane
O=C-(CH2)4-C-N-CH2-(CH2)4-CH2
| || | | OH O H H-N-H n
This n means this basic monomer is repeated over and overTo watch a movie click here.
Polymers made by the removal of water are called condensation polymers.Polyesters, like Dacron, are examples of this type of polymer.Esters are made by combining alcohols and acids. To watch a movie of polyester formation click here
Dacron is made from 1,2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol) and paradibenzoic acid (p-phthalic acid). Show how this polymer is made from these 2 monomers.
C
O
OHC
O
OH CH2 CH2OH OH C
O
OHC
O
OH CH2 CH2OH OH
C
O
O CH2 CH2 O CH
O
C
O
OHC
O
O CH2 CH2 OH
Addition Polymerization
Alkene monomers can be combined by breaking double bonds. For movie click here.
C C
H
H H
H
C C
H
H H
H
C C
H
H H
H
+ +
C C C C C CH
HH
H
H H
HH
HH
HH
H H
polyethylene
ethene
Addition polymerization has 3 stepsInitiation - a peroxide becomes a free radical( a compound with an unshared electron)When the free radical collides with a monomer it steals only 1e1- from the double bond leaving behind another free radical. This begins the 2nd stage called elongation. The chain continues to grow until 2 free radicals collide and form a stable polymer. This stage is called the termination of the polymerization.
Show how addition polymers can be made from Propene, chloroethene, and phenylethene (styrene).These polymers are called polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene.
CC
C H
HH
H
H
H
CC
C H
HH
H
H
H
CC
C H
HH
H
H
H
+ +
polypropylene
propene
CH3
CHCH2
CH
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3CH3
H H
C C
CH3Hn
chloroethene
CH CH2
Cl+
CH CH2
Cl+
CH CH2
Cl
CH2CH2
CHCH2
CHCH3
Cl Cl Cl
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
H H
C C
H Cl n
Phenylethene (styrene)CH CH2
+
CH CH2
+
CH CH2
| | | | | |-C – C – C – C – C – C – | | | | | |
polystyrene
H H
C C
H n
Addition polymerization occurs in 3 stages:Initiation, propagation and termination.An initiating molecule like peroxide falls apart and makes a free radical with a single electron. This highly reactive particle starts the polymerization process. To go to a web site and read more click here.
Plastics are polymers made from monomers of substituted ethene.Examples include: Teflon Plexiglass
C C
F
F F
F
CH2 CH
C O
OCH3
F F
C C
F F n
H H
C C
H COOCH3 n
Methyl-2-propenoate1-methoxy-2-propenaltetrafluoroethene
CH2C CH CH2
CH3
CH2C CH CH2
Cl
Monomers used to make synthetic rubber
isoprene neoprene
Name these monomers.
2-methyl-1,3-butadiene 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene
The presence of the more electronegative Cl makes it more polar and less miscible with other hydrocarbons.
monomer + monomer + monomer + monomerpolymer
O
OH
OH
OH OH
OH
+O
OH
OH
OH OH
OH
+O
OH
OH
OH OH
OH
+
Carbohydrate Polymers – starch, cellulose, glycogen
The orientation of these bonds and the degree of cross-linking determines what it is.
Typical Fats (Triglycerides)
glycerolC
O
C
C
C
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
Linoleic acid, (omega 6)
C
O
C
C
C CC
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
H
H
Linolenic acid,
(omega 3)
CO
C
C
OH
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
Oleic acid (monounsaturate)
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
OH
Typical Fats (Triglycerides)
glycerolC
O
C
C
C
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
Linoleic acid, (omega 6)
C
O
C
C
C CC
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
H
H
Linolenic acid,
(omega 3)
CO
C
C
OH
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
Oleic acid (monounsaturate)
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
OH
Soap Making Saponification
C
O
C
C
C
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
C
O
C
C
C CC
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
H
H
CO
C
C
OH
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
OH
+ NaOH
+ NaOH
+ NaOH
Soap Making Saponification
C
O
C
C
C
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
C
O
C
C
C CC
C
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
H
H
H
H
CO
C
C
OH
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
H
H
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
OH
Na
Na
Na
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
OH
soap glycerolNa
Na
Na
Most soaps are made from palmitin and stearin from palm oil and olive oil.
CO OH
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH3
CO
OH
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH3
Stearic acid
Palmitic acid
Show, using structural diagrams, how sodium stearate is made. See pg. 134
There are 2 classes of fats which are essential in the human diet because they cannot be biosynthesized by the human body. These fats are called essential fatty acids (EFA) and as the name implies they contain the carboxyl functional group (COOH). They fall into 2 categories omega 3 and omega 6. All of these essential fatty acids are unsaturates.Essential omega 3 fatty acids include:
α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), anddocosahexaenoic acid (DHA). alpha-linolenic acid (18:3, ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, DHA). These three polyunsaturates have either 3, 5 or 6 double bonds in a carbon chain of 18, 20 or 22 carbon atoms, respectively. All double bonds are in the cis-configuration, i.e. the 2 H atoms are on the same side of the double bond.
ALA – alpha-linolenic acid (18:3) (18 carbons, 3 double bonds at positions 3,6,9 from the terminal methyl end; found in (flax seed oil)EPA – Eicosahexaenoic acid (20:5) 3,6,9,12,15DHA - Docosohexanoic acid (22:6) 3,6,9,12,15,18 ?All three found in seaweed, cold water fish
Shortening is a semisolid fat used in food preparation, especially baked goods, and is so called because it inhibits the formation of long gluten strands in wheat-based doughs, giving them a "short" texture (as in shortbread). Shortening can be made from animal fat (lard), but is more commonly a hydrogenated vegetable oil that is solid at room temperature.
Shortening has a higher smoke point than butter and margarine, and it has 100% fat content, compared to 80% for butter and margarine. Crisco, a popular brand, was first produced in 1911.
Despite its worldwide usage and availability, vegetable shortening is believed to be damaging to human health since it generally contains trans fats.
Denmark banned it from foods in 2003.
Lard - rendered and clarified pork fat, the quality of which depends on the area the fat came from and the method of rendering. The very best is leaf lard, which comes from the fat around the animal's kidneys. The Nutritional Value for: lard
QuantityCarbs
(grams)Protein(grams)
Cholesterol(milligrams
)
Weight(grams)
Fat(grams)
Saturated Fat
(grams)1 cup 0 0 195 205 205 80.4
1 tbsp 0 0 12 13 13 5.1
Toward the late 20th century lard began to be regarded as less healthy than vegetable oils such as olive and sunflower due to its high saturated fatty acid and cholesterol content.
Tallow is a solid fat extracted from the tissues and fatty deposits of animals, especially from suet (the fat of cattle and sheep). Pure tallow is white, odorless and tasteless; it consists chiefly of triglycerides of stearic (CH3(CH2)16COOH ), palmitic
(CH3(CH2)14COOH ), and oleic acids (18 carbon,
monounsaturated, omega 9 fatty acid). Draw the carbon skeleton.
A triglyceride is made by an esterification involving 1,2,3-propantriol and 3 fatty acids. Show how a triglyceride is made from oleic, stearic and palmitic acids.
Tallow is usually obtained commercially by heating suet (the hard fatty tissues around the kidneys of cattle and sheep) under pressure in closed vessels. Tallow is used to make soap and candles. It was formerly in common use as a lubricant.
The Nutritional Value for: butter
Description QuantityCholesterol(milligrams
)
Weight(grams)
Fat(grams)
Saturated Fat
(grams)salted 1 PAT 11 5 4 2.5
salted 1 tbsp 31 14 11 7.1
salted 1/2 cup 247 113 92 57.1
unsalted 1 PAT 11 5 4 2.5
unsalted 1 tbsp 31 14 11 7.1
unsalted 1/2 cup 247 113 92 57.1
but·ter (bŭt'ər)n.
1.A soft yellowish or whitish emulsion of butterfat, water, air, and sometimes salt, churned from milk or cream and processed for use in cooking and as a food.
canola oil (kə′nōl·ə ′öil) (food engineering) An edible vegetable oil derived from rapeseed that is low in saturated fatty acids (less than 7%), high in monosaturated fatty acids (60%), and high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (30%).Here's a comparison of some to the more common fats and oils.
The lower the saturated fat, the better
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