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Running head: IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
1
Improving Eye Contact through Video Modeling and Role-Play
Sarah Naumann
Texas Christian University
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Abstract
Eye contact is an important social skill for students to develop in order to succeed in
academic and social settings. This skill does not always come naturally to students with
disabilities such as Autism. Difficulties arise as students are frequently required to
communicate with peers and teachers in the school setting. The current study investigates
the effect of a video modeling and role-play intervention on the amount of eye contact
with students with Autism and similar conditions that indicate social skill deficits. Whole
interval time samples were collected every five seconds for 5 minutes at a time. A single
subject multiple-probe design was used. A functional relationship was found in one out of
three of the students’ data. The combination of video modeling and role-playing was a
limited intervention in this setting and should be replicated in other settings in order to
confirm findings.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Improving Eye Contact through Video Modeling and Role-Play
Social skills help us achieve social, academic, and professional proficiency in
society. However natural or unnatural these skills may be for a person, they are important
to acquire. Social skills help us accomplish daily activities such as holding conversations,
making and maintaining friends, interpreting verbal and nonverbal messages, asking for
help, interviewing for jobs, and fulfilling job requirements. Thus, social skills are
required for activities all throughout life.
Piaget (1951) describes egocentrism as an early stage of human cognitive
development where the person cannot differentiate between self and others. In order to
make connections with other people in society, one must outgrow the egocentric mindset
he or she was born with and learn to see things from others’ perspective. This social skill
is called empathy. According to Goldstein and Winner (2012), “social cognitive skills
such as empathy (matching the emotional state of another)…are crucial for everyday
interactions, cooperation, and cultural learning” (p. 20). Non-verbal expressions were
claimed by Mehrabian and Ferris to account for, “approximately one and one-half times
as much variability in the judgment of a message of a message as does the vocal channel”
(Mehrabian & Ferris, 1967, as cited by Haase & Tepper, 1972).
For some, however, the concept of empathy is too abstract to understand and learn,
so researchers have identified observable indicators of this social skill. Some of these
indicators include making appropriate comments, nodding the head, smiling, and
maintaining eye contact (Ganz, Earles-Vollrath, & Cook, 2011).
Eye Contact as a Norm and a Deficit
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Dr. Temple Grandin explains the neuroscience behind eye contact in her book,
The Autistic Brain: Thinking Across the Spectrum (2013). She references The Journal of
Autism and Developmental Disorders to explain that the brains of high-functioning
people with Autism respond to eye contact in the opposite fashion of those with typically
developing brains. A neurotypical brain’s temporoparetal junction (TPJ) actively
responds to eye contact while an Autistic brain’s reaction is to avert eye contact (Pitskel
et al., 2011, as cited by Grandin & Panek).
According to Arnold, Semple, Beale, and Fletcher Flinn (2000), eye contact is
used to “infer another person’s thoughts, desires, or intentions.” Researchers believe
“there is a widespread belief that training appropriate eye gaze behaviours will enhance
the social skills of children with developmental disabilities” (Arnold et al., 2000). Upon
the conclusion of a study that questioned what normal social behavior is exactly, Arnold
et al. (2000) suggest that future interventionists strive to increase eye contact in an
interaction beyond 20% of the interaction time. They continue to state maintained eye
contact for 50% to 100% of interaction time would be an inappropriate amount of social
behavior.
Challenges with Social Skills and Eye Contact for People With Autism
Deficits in social cognitive skills such as empathy are often manifested in people
with Autism (Goldstein & Winner, 2012). Among the many types of social skills, eye
contact is one skill in which many people with Autism especially need explicit instruction.
While eye contact may be a fairly natural skill for some, it is not the case for all. Travis,
Sigman, and Ruskin (2001) characterize Autism “by deficits in social understanding and
social behavior” (p. 119). Tuononen, Laitila, & Kärnä (2014) state, “the difficulty in
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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seeking or maintaining eye contact seems as the most striking feature of ASD because it
violates our everyday understanding of the way social encounters are realized” (p. 2). The
academic and social success for individuals with Autism relies heavily on the
development of early social-communication skills (McDuffie et al. 2006; Sigman &
McGovern 2005, as cited in Wilson, 2012). It is important to ensure students with Autism
master social skills early in life in order to function appropriately in society.
Rationale and Benefits of the Study
The ability to operate in society with appropriate social skills is invaluable. “Since
many young children with autism spend the majority of their days in educational settings,
practical, efficient, and evidence-based classroom intervention tools are vital to
addressing the social-communication needs of these young students” (Bellini & Akullian
2007 as cited in Wilson, 2012, p. 1819). With the characteristics of Autism in mind,
“educational programs for children with ASD must be multi-faceted and address
communication and language development, social and affective development, life skills,
and academics” (Schmidt & Bonds-Raacke, 2013, p. 121).
Since non-verbal communication such as eye contact is so critical in determining the
“nature of communication” (Haase & Tepper, 1972), specific instruction is required.
Often, the best learning strategies for students with Autism require explicit, visual
demonstrations of targeted behaviors (Ganz et al., 2011). A prime example of this form
of demonstration is video modeling. The repetitive nature of video modeling leads to
retention of the targeted behavior. Studies have also found that video modeling fosters
motivation of students with Autism. (Corbett & Abdullah, 2005). The purpose of this
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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study is to investigate the effects of video modeling and role-playing on changes in the
amount of eye contact demonstrated by students with Autism.
Video Modeling, Acting, and Other Interventions for Students with Autism
Video modeling is an intervention with strong validity due to ample
documentation in the behavioral sciences (Corbett & Abdulla, 2005). The visual
instruction and repetition of the intervention is especially beneficial to people with
Autism. According to Ganz et al. (2011), video modeling “promotes independent
functioning, and can be used to address numerous learner objectives, including
behavioral, self-help, communication, and social objectives” (p. 8). Educators and
students alike can benefit from the time- and cost-efficiency of video modeling (Wilson,
2012). Video modeling reduces the amount of unrelated stimuli and allows the student to
focus on the desired skill (Tetreault & Lerman, 2010). Researchers have used video
modeling to address a range of target behaviors including first aid skills (Ergenekon,
2012), on-task behavior, transitions (Schmidt & Bondes-Raack, 2013), game-learning
skills (Odluyurt, 2013), and conversation skills (Tetreault & Lerman, 2010).
Nikopoulou-Smyrni (2008) highlights other studies that have explored successful
interventions in addition to video modeling. These additional interventions have all
contributed positively to the social deficits displayed by children with Autism. Examples
of such interventions include guided story telling and role-playing (Hess, 2006), social
stories and peer-mediated stories (Amin & Oweini 2013), and acting activities (Goldstein
& Winner, 2012). Significant room for further research exists in the field of arts-
interventions, specifically acting.
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In light of the statement that “much of human learning occurs by watching and
imitating others (Corbett, Gunther, Comins, Price, Ryans, Simon, Schupp, & Rios, 2010),
theatre arts are a natural solution to this claim as both audience and actors alike are
involved in observing others’ behaviors on a stage. “Theatre, like modeling, may help
individuals identify key social cues (e.g., recognizing facial expressions)” (McAfee, 2002,
as cited by Corbett et al.). Acting in particular is a unique activity that requires one to
pretend to be someone else without the intention of deceiving. This activity is
theoretically and empirically supported as a means of potentially increasing empathy
(Goldstein & Winner, 2012). Results of Goldstein & Winner’s study showed that an arts
intervention, specifically acting activities, might lead to improvement in social cognitive
skills of empathy. Future research in this field is necessary.
Methods
Participants
The school director recommended three students to participate in the study who
made atypicoal amounts of eye contact compared to their peers. Student 1 is a 14-year-
old Caucasian male. He has an Autism diagnosis and struggles with a variety of social
skills, particularly conversation skills. Student 2 is a 12-year-old Caucasian female in 8th
grade with an Autism diagnosis that makes more than an appropriate amount of eye
contact. Student 3 is a 14-year-old Caucasian female who demonstrates Autistic
tendencies, however, does not have a diagnosis. Student 3 also demonstrates hearing
problems. Student 3 lives with both parents and Students 1 and 2 live in single-parent
households. None of the participants had experience with video modeling or role-play
activities prior to this study. Student 1 did mention that he enjoys acting for fun.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Setting
The study took place in a non-profit, private school for students with disabilities
in North Texas. Before the study began, the researcher spoke with the school’s director to
designate pullout times that were least likely to disrupt classroom-learning time. The
students were escorted to the school’s library for approximately 10-15 minutes up to
three times weekly for intervention sessions. On some days the library was in use so the
sessions occurred in the school’s art room or auditorium.
Research Design
This study was a multiple-probe design. All students began on baseline for a
minimum of three sessions, which simply consisted of a conversation between the
participant and the researcher on a topic of the student’s choice. The design supported
internal validity through the use of the video camera (for a second observer’s scoring)
and the minimized conversation regarding the intervention outside of sessions. Social
validity was strengthened by the relevance of the intervention to other students with
Autism outside of this study. The intervention is also easy to replicate and requires
minimal materials.
The dependent variable was the student’s amount of eye contact. Eye contact was
operationally defined as looking the conversant in the eye while talking and listening
during any conversation and role-play activity for whole intervals of 5-seconds. If the
student looked away, even briefly, the interval was not counted. The independent variable
was the video modeling and role-play intervention, which involved the student viewing,
discussing, and re-enacting video clips with the researcher.
Materials and Procedures
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The materials used to collect data include a smart phone to keep time, a video
camera to record the student’s behavior, and a laptop to play the video clips. The
researcher selected a variety of video clips from the films Frozen, Up, and Shrek and
showed them on a laptop. The researcher selected video clips from each movie based on
the average amount of eye contact exemplified by the characters. Each video clip only
had two characters in the scene in order to make the role-playing activity easy to replicate
with the student and researcher. A new video clip was randomly presented for each
intervention session. No video clip was used more than once for any particular student.
The researcher selected two NIH-certified peers to serve as inter-observers. The
inter-observers cumulatively viewed 20% of the sessions’ video recordings and recorded
data using whole interval recording.
Training and Reliability
The researcher trained both observers by operationally defining eye contact,
including examples and non-examples. The researcher initially watched a sample video
with the observers to discuss exactly when to start the timer and how to record data using
the correct marks. The researcher scored data separately and then compared to the inter-
observers. The researcher assigned 20% of the data to the inter-observers to score and
then calculated inter-observer agreement (IOA). IOA was calculated by dividing
agreements by agreements plus disagreements and then multiplied by 100 to find the
point of agreement. An agreement only occurred with corresponding intervals. For
instance, if the researcher gave the second interval a plus but the inter-observer gave the
second interval a minus, then it would count a disagreement. The same number of plus’s
and minus’ between all data collection was not enough- the intervals all had to align.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Baseline
Each baseline session consisted of a 5-minute conversation between the
researcher and the student. The researcher said, “let’s begin” to initiate the conversation
with the student, which cued the observer to start recording data when later viewing the
video recording of the session. Data were recorded every 5 seconds. The researcher said,
“time” at the end of the 5 minutes to cue cut off for recording. The student was permitted
to complete a thought if he/she wanted to avoid feeling cut off, however, eye contact after
the stopping point was not recorded. After each session, the researcher reviewed the
video recording in order to record data.
Intervention
The intervention sessions began when the students’ graphed baseline data showed
a consistent trend in the amount of student’s eye contact. The intervention began with a
1-3 minute introduction to the video. The researcher said, “As we watch this video clip, I
want you to pay close attention to where the character’s (i.e., Elsa) eyes are looking. Are
they looking at the other character (i.e. Anna), at their shoes, or at the wall? After we
finish watching the clip we will talk about it.”
After the clip ended, the researcher asked the student what he/she noticed about
the character’s eyes. If the student did not recognize that the character’s eyes were
looking at his/her friend, then the researcher prompted the student to come to this
realization by asking, “Did you notice the character looking at the other character in the
eyes?”
Then, the researcher told the student they were going to pretend to be the two
characters from the clip they just watched. Once roles were assigned, the researcher
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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played the clip one more time so the student could pay close attention to his/her
character’s lines. If the student struggled getting into the scene, the researcher set the
example by reminding the student of the first few things the character said. Then the
researcher prompted the student to help her remember what happened next and act it out.
The researcher implemented two phase changes beginning on the 8th session.
Besides the initial conversation about the importance of making eye, the researcher felt
verbal prompting would benefit students as well. If the student did not look at the
researcher for a significant amount of time in the conversation, she would redirect by
saying, “Where are your eyes looking?” This verbal prompt was particularly necessary
for Student 3. The researcher also felt students were running out of things to say and
losing focus, so she adjusted the conversation time to 2.5 minutes.
Measures
The researcher used the whole interval method to score data. The conversations in
which data were collected were five minutes long for the first 8 sessions, then 2.5
minutes for the remaining sessions, with 5-second intervals. By watching the sessions’
video recordings, the researcher and interobservers could carefully track whether the
student maintained eye contact for the full 5-second interval. If he or she did, then a plus
sign was recorded for that interval. If he or she did not, then a minus sign was recorded.
Student 1 was the only student who attempted a 5-minute scene for his first two
interventions, and all others were 2.5 minutes. In order to maintain consistency in
graphing, the researcher converted all data using a ratio of 1:2 so that the number of
intervals was still 60 (representing a total of 5 minutes).
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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If the student maintained eye contact with the researcher for the entire 5 seconds,
a plus sign was marked for that interval. If the student did not maintain eye contact with
the researcher for the entire interval, then a minus sign was recorded. Reliability of the
study was strengthened because all sessions were video-recorded and scored at a later
time (with a percentage of recordings scored by a two inter-observers). Internal validity
was strengthened because the researcher was able to deliver the intervention without
having to record data simultaneously.
Data Analysis
The researcher recorded the data on three separate graphs, one per student, and
analyzed data measuring the amount of each student’s eye contact to determine if it was
improving. Once the first student had three stable data points (with either a decelerating
or zerocelerating trend) in baseline, the intervention was introduced to the second student.
This process continued for the third student as well. The researcher analyzed the change
in level between the last data point of baseline and the first data point of the intervention
to find absolute level change. If the difference was positive then an immediate change
due to intervention was evident.
The researcher calculated the relative level change to look for change within
condition. Relative level change is computed by finding the average value of the first
condition, then the average value of the second condition, and finally subtracting the
smallest value from the largest, noting any difference.
The researcher also calculated the percentage of non-overlapping data point
values (PND) for each student’s graph to determine any change across conditions. She
did this by first determining the range of data point values in each student’s baseline
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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condition. Then, she counted how many data point values from the intervention condition
fell within the previously determined range from baseline, and divided that number by the
total number of data point values in the intervention. Finally, she multiplied that value by
100 to reach a percentage. The ability to compute the PND between the baseline and
intervention conditions allowed the researcher to analyze the impact the intervention had
on the target behavior.
Results
Data representing students’ amount of eye contact across the baseline and
intervention conditions are presented in Figure 1. Students 1 and 2 indicated absolute
level changes of 2 and 6 intervals, respectively. Students 1 and 2 also demonstrated
increases in relative level change of 7 and 6, respectively. Student 3 did not show any
improvement in these areas.
The researcher’s calculations for PND indicated improvement for Student 1, as
85.7% of his data points during intervention fell outside of the range of data points during
baseline. This calculation indicates a strong student response to the intervention. Students
2 and 3’s data contained 0% non-overlapping data, which indicated that no data points
within the intervention phase fell beyond the range of data points collected during
baseline for these students. The accuracy of all data collection is confirmed by the inter-
observer agreement, which was 76.6%.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Figure 1. Students’ amount of eye contact measured in whole time intervals across
baseline and intervention conditions.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Baseline
Baseline data were stable for Students 1 and 3 based on visual analysis. Student 2
displayed variable amounts of eye contact with a slightly increasing trend. After working
with all students within the first three sessions, the researcher chose to implement
intervention with Student 1 first. Since baseline simply consisted of an individual
conversation between the student and the researcher, it was not necessary to meet with
every student every day. The researcher did not want to exasperate the students or pull
them away from excessive class time before the intervention began.
Intervention
Positive results followed the implementation of the video modeling and role-
playing intervention for Student 1. He responded very well during the initial instruction
and came to call the intervention “the glare.” The researcher consistently reminded the
student that the point of looking someone in the eyes during a conversation is simply to
let that person know you are listening, not to intimidate. Student 2 did show an
accelerating trend, however, the percentage of non-overlapping data was much lower
than Student 1. Student 3’s data indicate she did not make any progress, however,
qualitative notes reveal otherwise. During baseline, Student 3 angled her face down and
away from the researcher during conversation and often gave the answer, “I don’t know,”
to most questions. During the intervention, however, Student 3 angled her face towards
the researcher and had plenty to say. Although she never maintained eye contact for a
whole interval, she did glance at the researcher more often and kept her face lifted during
intervention sessions. She responded the most when she got to play her favorite character,
Olaf, from Frozen.
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Discussion
The results of this study demonstrate limited effectiveness of video modeling and
role-play in improving eye contact of students with Autism and similar conditions. This
information is relevant to the students, family members, and educators as the
development of social skills is an ongoing process. Since the intervention proved very
successful for one out of three participants, recommendations for continued use of this
intervention are as follows: Student 1 should begin working to generalize the target
behavior. Students 2 and 3 should continue interventions for social skills with some
modifications such as more prompting and more opportunities for practice.
Positive changes in the students’ behavior could possibly be attributed the
students’ increasing level of comfort with the researcher. Many students perform better
when they are working in a comfortable atmosphere and this situation is no different. Not
only did students respond better to the treatment, but the researcher as well towards the
end of the study.
The fact that Student 1 was the most outgoing and talkative student could explain
why he responded most successfully to the intervention. Student 2, although very
interested, struggled generating dialogue at times when the scene began, which could
explain why her improvement over time was not as significant. Student 3 was the least
talkative student in general, which could have been the cause for some inhibitions. After
talking with the school director, the researcher also discovered that Student 3’s
significant hearing problems could have also contributed to her lack of response at times.
Her head angling, which was originally perceived by the researcher to be bashfulness,
could have in fact been a result of the student’s hearing difficulty.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Relevance
The findings are relevant to a much broader range of relatives, therapists, and
teachers of students with disabilities. The intervention’s flexible nature makes replication
possible at home or in pullout sessions. If a family feels that the student could benefit
from practice on a number of other social skills (i.e., conversation skills, non-verbal cues,
etc.) they can find video models online or in carefully selected movies and follow up with
a similar role-playing activity. Replication can be as simple or advanced as the
implementer is able to make it.
Eye contact in particular is a necessary skill in countless settings, both in and
outside of school, which is why practicing in a variety of settings is beneficial as students
work towards generalizing the behavior. As students graduate from high school, many
desire jobs. As society becomes increasingly acceptable of people with disabilities, so
does the job market. Many people with Autism are fully capable of succeeding in the
workforce if they can successfully communicate with others. Good relationships with
coworkers, employers, and clients typically form on the basis of acceptable social skills.
Although these skills may not come naturally to people with Autism and similar
conditions, they can learn explicitly through intervention.
Limitations
The small sample size presents itself as this study’s greatest limitation. Only three
students, all from the same school and similar demographics, were selected as
participants for this seven-week study. The criteria had to be significantly adjusted due to
the limited amount of options for participants, resulting in the acceptance of Student 3,
who does not have an Autism diagnosis. A longer time period would have allotted the
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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researcher a greater opportunity to implement the intervention in other schools and
increase the sample size while using stricter criteria. Even within the group of students
that demonstrates a difficulty with eye contact, no student is exactly the same.
Another limitation existed in the researcher’s decision to accept participants in
middle and secondary school. At this point in the students’ lives, they have already
received various forms of therapy and interventions. Students brought in varying amounts
of prior experience that could have affected their conception of this intervention.
Student absences and school holidays also limited the researcher’s ability to
collect as much data as she would have preferred. Student 2 had frequent therapy sessions
that required her to leave school early, and Student 3 had frequent absences due to illness.
Unexpected ice days also caused school delays and cancelations.
The researcher was not scored on implementation and procedural fidelity. This
means that although the researcher was systematic in her implementation of the
intervention, data collection, and scoring, there is potential for human error that was not
fully accounted for.
In regards to social skills, eye contact does not capture some of the most
important skills. For example, in some situations body language can say more than eye
contact. In some scenes used in the intervention, the characters turned away from each
other to indicate disappointment. If the researcher were to adjust this study, she would
extend her explanation to the appropriateness of eye contact in relation to body language.
There are times in which a lack of eye contact is socially acceptable.
IMPROVING EYE CONTACT
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Finally, the limited amount of data weakened the internal validity of the study.
Due to the researcher’s quickly approaching deadline, the intervention condition lasted a
shorter amount of time than desired.
Future Research
The study’s results indicate a need for future investigation. The particularly
positive reaction from Student 1 to the intervention implies promising results for future
replications of this study. Under better conditions and with further practice, Students 2
and 3 may have done better. Future researchers should focus on using a video modeling
and role-playing intervention to address other social skills of students with Autism such
as verbal and non-verbal communication. The few studies that have explored the use of
role-playing or acting have yielded successful results. Unfortunately, these studies are
limited. Further replications would draw attention to this innovate approach to teaching
social skills in the fields of research, education, and art. The flexible nature of this
intervention presents parents, teachers, and researchers with the option to address a great
variety of target behaviors.
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